{"kind":"task","effective_mode":"full","benchmark":{"kind":"benchmark","effective_mode":"full","slug":"longbench-v2","formal_name":"LongBench v2","introduction":"LongBench v2 evaluates deep understanding and reasoning over long contexts through multiple-choice questions. Its official description lists 503 questions spanning tasks such as single-document and multi-document QA and code-repository understanding.","introduction_ja":"","introduction_en":"","category":"Category not supplied","task_count":null,"acquisition_status":"Acquisition status not supplied","official_url":"https://huggingface.co/datasets/zai-org/LongBench-v2","indexing_mode":"noindex","profile":{"resources":[],"task_format":"","scoring":"","metric":"","size":"","answer_access":"","license":"","citation":"","maintainer":"","released":"","why_hard":"","related":[]}},"task_id":"da49106c-7dcd-53ce-8ec6-45d3ac126848","task_key":"train--66fa0d88bb02136c067c5a8a","task_revision_id":"3","upstream_id":"66fa0d88bb02136c067c5a8a","short_description":"A developing African nation, rich in fossil fuel resources and dependent on…","config":"","split":"train","body":"{\"choice_A\":\"Leverage fossil fuel revenues to build renewable energy infrastructure rapidly while using CCS to decarbonise fossil fuel power plants and heavy industries. Simultaneously, impose stringent emissions standards and tariffs on imported fossil-fuel-powered vehicles to accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs). Redirect fossil fuel profits into public transportation electrification and infrastructure development in urban areas.\",\"choice_B\":\"Use international climate finance to fund the broad implementation of CCS across the energy and transportation sectors, with priority on capturing emissions from road and rail transport. Simultaneously, implement a gradual phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies and allocate those savings to workforce retraining programs that transition workers from fossil fuel industries into the renewable energy sector and EV infrastructure projects.\",\"choice_C\":\"Invest heavily in CCS for the energy and industrial sectors to capture emissions from fossil fuel production and power generation, while delaying the full electrification of the transport sector until renewable energy capacity and grid stability are improved. In parallel, use fossil fuel revenues to establish a sovereign wealth fund dedicated to future investments in green technologies, such as domestic EV production.\",\"choice_D\":\"Establish a comprehensive green bond initiative, leveraging international capital markets to fund both large-scale CCS and public transport electrification projects. Focus on developing CCS primarily for the industrial sector (cement, steel, and chemicals) while incentivising private sector investment in electric vehicle infrastructure. Maintain current levels of fossil fuel exports, using revenues for sovereign wealth investment in future green energy transitions.\",\"context\":\"Design and layout by Irene Ogendo\\nPrinted by Oriak Books, Nairobi, Kenya.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nv\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nTABLE OF CONTENTS\\nLIST OF CASE STUDIES.......................................................................................................................................................vii\\nLIST OF TABLES\\t������...............................................................................................................................................................vii\\nLIST OF FIGURES\\t���..............................................................................................................................................................viii\\nFOREWORD\\t������������................................................................................................................................................................ix\\nABOUT THE STUDY................................................................................................................................................................x\\nABOUT THE NETWORK OF AFRICAN SCIENCE ACADEMIES.\\n.........................................................................xiii\\nABOUT THE INTERACADEMY PARTNERSHIP.\\n.........................................................................................................xiii\\nEXECUTIVE SUMMARY.\\n.....................................................................................................................................................xiv\\nCOMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................................xxiii\\nGLOSSARY OF TERMS.....................................................................................................................................................xxiv\\nCHAPTER ONE:\\nDECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE\\n\\t\\n1.1\\t\\nIntroduction.............................................................................................................................................................1\\n\\t\\n1.2\\t\\nCurrent Status of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa.\\n..............................................................................6\\n\\t\\n1.3\\t\\nStrategies for Decarbonising Road Transport..................................................................................................8\\n\\t\\n1.4\\t\\nThe Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience Approach to Decarbonisation of Transport.\\n......................9\\n\\t\\n1.5\\t\\nBenefits of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa.\\n......................................................................................12\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.5.1\\t\\nEnvironmental Benefits.\\n....................................................................................................................12\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.5.2\\t\\nEconomic Benefits.\\n............................................................................................................................12\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.5.3\\t\\nSocial Benefits....................................................................................................................................13\\n\\t\\n1.6\\t\\nChallenges in the Transition to Decarbonised Transportation.\\n..................................................................14\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.6.1\\t\\nSystemic Barriers.\\n...............................................................................................................................14\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.6.2\\t\\nElectricity Supply and Infrastructure.\\n..............................................................................................14\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.6.3\\t\\nHigh Cost and Accessibility of Electric Vehicles..........................................................................15\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.6.4\\t\\nInsufficient Policy Frameworks and Incentives.............................................................................15\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.6.5\\t\\nWorkforce and Industry....................................................................................................................15\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.6.6\\t\\nUnderinvestment in Public and Active Transport........................................................................15\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n1.6.7\\t\\nPoor Coordination and Non-inclusivity.........................................................................................16\\nCHAPTER TWO:\\nACCELERATING DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN AFRICA\\n\\t\\n2.1\\t\\nPolicies and Regulations....................................................................................................................................17\\n\\t\\n2.2\\t\\nPolicy Instruments...............................................................................................................................................20\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.2.1\\t\\nMarket-Based Instruments...............................................................................................................20\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.2.2\\t\\nRegulatory Instruments.\\n....................................................................................................................20\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.2.3\\t\\nDirect Provision.\\n..................................................................................................................................21\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nvi\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.2.4\\t\\nInformation Provision........................................................................................................................21\\n\\t\\n2.3\\t\\nBusiness Models and Solutions.\\n.......................................................................................................................22\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.1\\t\\nLocal Assembly and Manufacturing.\\n..............................................................................................22\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.2\\t\\nAuto Parts Manufacturing.\\n................................................................................................................25\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.3\\t\\nBattery Swapping Stations...............................................................................................................26\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.4\\t\\nLocalised Battery Storage.\\n................................................................................................................27\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.5\\t\\nPay-As-You-Go Charging.\\n.................................................................................................................28\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.6\\t\\nSolar Charging Stations....................................................................................................................28\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.7\\t\\nVehicle-to-Grid...................................................................................................................................29\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.8\\t\\nBattery Recycling.\\n...............................................................................................................................30\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n2.3.9\\t\\nConversion of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles to Electric.\\n.............................................31\\n\\t\\n2.4\\t\\nData-Driven Decision Making.\\n..........................................................................................................................34\\n\\t\\n2.5\\t\\nFindings and Recommendations.\\n....................................................................................................................36\\nCHAPTER THREE:\\nSAFEGUARDING VULNERABLE ELECTRICITY GRIDS: ACCESSIBILITY, GENERATION,\\nTRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION\\n\\t\\n3.1\\t\\nCurrent State and Challenges of Electricity in Africa.\\n...................................................................................38\\n\\t\\n3.2\\t\\nState of the Electrical Grid and Potential Burden from Electric Vehicles.\\n.................................................39\\n\\t\\n3.3\\t\\nImpact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity Distribution System..........................................41\\n\\t\\n3.4\\t\\nImpact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity Transmission System........................................41\\n\\t\\n3.5\\t\\nImpact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity Generation................................................................42\\n\\t\\n3.6\\t\\nImpact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity Accessibility.\\n..............................................................42\\n\\t\\n3.7\\t\\nFindings and Recommendations.\\n....................................................................................................................43\\nCHAPTER FOUR:\\nDECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION\\nIN AFRICA\\n\\t\\n4.1\\t\\nDefining Sustainable Transportation...............................................................................................................44\\n\\t\\n4.2\\t\\nDecarbonisation of Transport and Sustainable Development Goals in Africa.......................................45\\n\\t\\n4.3\\t\\nSustainable Urban Transport Development..................................................................................................47\\n\\t\\n4.4\\t\\nSmart Cities and Intelligent Transport Systems.............................................................................................47\\n\\t\\n4.5\\t\\nCompact Land Use and Transit-Oriented Development............................................................................49\\n\\t\\n4.6\\t\\nMass Rapid Transit.\\n..............................................................................................................................................49\\n\\t\\n4.7\\t\\nIntegrated Urban Planning and Policy Making.\\n.............................................................................................57\\n\\t\\n4.8\\t\\nRural-Urban Connectivity.\\n..................................................................................................................................58\\n\\t\\n4.9\\t\\nFinding and Recommendation........................................................................................................................61\\nCHAPTER FIVE:\\nPOLICY OPTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS\\n\\t\\n5.1\\t\\nDisrupting Dominant Regimes in the Transport Sector.\\n..............................................................................62\\n\\t\\n5.2\\t\\nPromotion of Electric Vehicles..........................................................................................................................64\\n\\t\\n5.3\\t\\nCost-Benefit analysis of Electric Vehicles Compared to Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles.........64\\n\\t\\n5.4\\t\\nMinimising Tax Revenue Losses.......................................................................................................................68\\n\\t\\n5.5\\t\\nTransport Sector Governance, Institutional Framework and Policy Ownership.....................................69\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nvii\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n\\t\\n5.6\\t\\nInvestments in Public Transport.\\n.......................................................................................................................70\\n\\t\\n5.7\\t\\nInvestments in Renewable Energy.\\n..................................................................................................................71\\n\\t\\n5.8\\t\\nPromote Non-Motorised Transport.................................................................................................................72\\n\\t\\n5.9\\t\\nTechnology, and Innovations for Sustainable Mobility................................................................................75\\n\\t\\n5.10\\t Transition Principles............................................................................................................................................77\\n\\t\\n5.11\\t Sustainable Electric Vehicle Supply and Value Chains................................................................................79\\n\\t\\n5.12\\t Environmental and Social Impacts of Electric Vehicles...............................................................................80\\n\\t\\n5.13\\t Financing Decarbonisation of Road Transport in Africa.\\n.............................................................................81\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n5.13.1\\t Concessional Climate Finance.\\n.......................................................................................................81\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n5.13.2\\t Grants and Subsidies........................................................................................................................83\\n\\t\\n\\t\\n5.13.3\\t Carbon Markets.\\n.................................................................................................................................83\\n\\t\\n5.14\\t Findings and Recommendations.\\n....................................................................................................................84\\nCHAPTER SIX:\\nCONCLUSION\\t\\n���������..............................................................................................................................................................86\\nREFERENCES\\t����������..............................................................................................................................................................88\\nAppendices\\nAppendix A:\\n\\t\\nNational aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicles in select African countries by 2030........................101\\nAppendix B:\\n\\t\\nGuest Practitioners at Working Group workshop in Nairobi, Kenya and list of presentations.......................102\\nLIST OF CASE STUDIES\\nCase Study 1: BasiGo —pioneering electric public transportation in Nairobi, Kenya..............................................23\\nCase Study 2: Electrifying paratransit vehicles in Stellenbosch, South Africa...........................................................32\\nCase Study 3: Implementing net zero transport in Kigali, Rwanda.............................................................................50\\nCase Study 4: Light rail train in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.\\n.................................................................................................52\\nCase Study 5: Electric mass rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal.\\n.........................................................................................55\\nCase Study 6: Enhancing the walking environment in Kisumu, Kenya.\\n......................................................................60\\nCase Study 7: Roam, electrifying motorcycles in Africa.\\n................................................................................................76\\nLIST OF TABLES\\nTable 1: Transport-sector emissions reduction targets of select African countries:.\\n....................................................7\\nTable 2: The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience framework and its application to sustainable transport\\n\\t\\nin Africa\\t������������������...............................................................................................................................................................10\\nTable 3: Simulation of electric vehicle energy consumption.........................................................................................36\\nTable 4: Projected electric vehicle power system impacts in African countries.\\n........................................................40\\nTable 5: Contribution of decarbonised transport towards select sustainable development goals......................46\\nTable 6: Comparing cost elements for electric and internal combustion engine vehicles in Thailand................65\\nTable 7: National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicle adoption in select African countries by 2030.\\n.....66\\nTable 8: Comparing cost elements for electric vs fossil fueled motorbike.................................................................67\\nLIST OF Boxes \\nBOX 1: Questions that framed the study on decarbonisation in Africa.\\n........................................................................xi\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nviii\\nLIST OF FIGURES \\nFigure 1: Global transport emissions by region (1990–2020)..........................................................................................2\\nFigure 2: Transport sector emissions in select African countries.....................................................................................3\\nFigure 3: Mode of transport in selected African cities (2013)..........................................................................................3\\nFigure 4: Popular paratransit vehicles in Africa and their names.....................................................................................4\\nFigure 5: Motorcycles in the streets of Kigali, Rwanda......................................................................................................5\\nFigure 6: Transport sector GHG emissions mitigation and adaptation actions............................................................6\\nFigure 7: Mitigation actions by enable-avoid-shift-improve approach.......................................................................11\\nFigure 8: BasiGo bus in Nairobi, Kenya.............................................................................................................................23\\nFigure 9: Local manufacturing of electric buses in Nairobi, Kenya..............................................................................24\\nFigure 10: Two- and three-wheelers in Mombasa, Kenya.\\n.............................................................................................24\\nFigure 11: Key components of an electric vehicle..........................................................................................................25\\nFigure 12: Ampersand’s electric vehicle battery swapping station in Kigali, Rwanda.............................................26\\nFigure 13: Trailer-based battery swapping model for long-distance transport........................................................27\\nFigure 14: Example of a battery bank used to charge electric vehicles in Berlin.\\n.....................................................27\\nFigure 15: Electric vehicle roaming.\\n...................................................................................................................................28\\nFigure 16: Solar powered charging station for electric vehicles in Kigali, Rwanda..................................................29\\nFigure 17: Electric vehicle with solar charging components........................................................................................29\\nFigure 18: Illustration of the vehicle to grid concept......................................................................................................30\\nFigure 19: The electric retrofitted minibus taxi (original model from 2009)..............................................................32\\nFigure 20: Vehicle with combustion-related components removed.\\n..........................................................................33\\nFigure 21: Comparison of per-vehicle power profiles from passenger-based tracking.........................................34\\nFigure 22: Comparing energy efficiency models in paratransit vehicles...................................................................35\\nFigure 23: Access to electricity in Africa as a share of population in 2020.\\n................................................................39\\nFigure 24: Linking transport to sustainable development goals.\\n.................................................................................45\\nFigure 25: Integrated intelligent transport system in smart cities................................................................................48\\nFigure 26: Car free day exercise in Kigali, Rwanda.........................................................................................................50\\nFigure 27: Impact of limiting vehicular traffic on air pollution in Kigali, Rwanda......................................................50\\nFigure 28: Light rail system in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia....................................................................................................52\\nFigure 29: Dar rapid transit system, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.......................................................................................53\\nFigure 30: Electric-powered bus rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal.................................................................................55\\nFigure 31: Dedicated bus rapid transit lane in Dakar, Senegal....................................................................................56\\nFigure 32: Motorcycles navigating diverse rural terrain in Africa.\\n................................................................................59\\nFigure 33: Artist’s impression of a pedestrian friendly transportation terminus in Kisumu, Kenya.......................60\\nFigure 34: Example of a microcar.\\n......................................................................................................................................61\\nFigure 35: The multi-level perspective framework for complex sustainability transitions.\\n......................................63\\nFigure 36: Modes of transport used in Nairobi, Kenya..................................................................................................72\\nFigure 37: Pedestrian footpath in Nairobi, Kenya.\\n...........................................................................................................73\\nFigure 38: Non-motorised policies in African countries................................................................................................74\\nFigure 39: A motorcycle rider charging his own battery at a Roam hub....................................................................76\\nFigure 40: Cost of implementing Nationally Determined Contributions in Africa (2020–2030), USD billions.......82\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nix\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nGlobally, transportation contributes about a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions. \\nWhile major carbon-emitting economies receive much attention, Africa offers a unique \\nopportunity to explore reduction strategies. Despite low motorisation rates, the continent \\ncould emerge as a leader in decarbonising transport. Shifting away from fossil fuels \\noffers economic, environmental, health, and infrastructural advantages. Africa’s abundant \\nrenewable energy and youthful workforce make electrifying transport promising. Though \\nsome governments have taken steps to reduce fossil fuel use, coordinated efforts are \\nneeded to secure the continent’s energy future. This entails policies and transport plans that \\npromote sustainable mobility, including by promoting affordable electric vehicles, reliable \\nelectricity, and supportive infrastructure in urban and rural areas. This report aligns with the \\nAfrican Union’s Agenda 2063, which envisions an energy system powered predominantly \\nby renewable sources, bolstered by a robust local manufacturing sector. It also supports \\nSustainable Development Goal 7 of the United Nations’ Agenda 2030, which seeks to \\nguarantee universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy.\\nThis report focuses on the role of road transportation in reducing GHG emissions in Africa. It \\nexamines the broad spectrum of challenges and opportunities, covering policy, institutional \\ncapacity, strategic and technological considerations, financial and social factors, and legal \\nand regulatory frameworks. Most importantly, the report provides a perspective on how \\npolicymakers and key stakeholders can effectively navigate and manage the complex \\ntransition towards a net zero-carbon transport system in Africa. The genesis of this report \\nwas a collaborative effort involving the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) \\nand the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP). It builds upon previous work by the European \\nAcademies Science Advisory Council (EASAC), published in 2019 and a 2021 workshop co-\\norganised by NASAC and IAP\\n.  The study aimed to leverage current research to harmonise \\ntransport decarbonisation policies across Africa, identify knowledge gaps, and suggest \\npractical policy measures at local, national, and regional levels. Through rigorous analysis \\nof the continent’s potential, real, and exigent demand for transport, the report postulates \\nfindings and recommendations that acknowledge the diverse and complex landscape \\nof the continent. It underscores the necessity for customised strategies in decarbonising \\ntransport, which may vary significantly by country, based on national circumstances.\\nWe extend our deepest gratitude to all contributors, especially the dedicated working group \\nmembers whose innovative approaches helped achieve the report’s goals. We also thank \\nthe peer reviewers for their invaluable feedback, which ensured the recommendations \\nwere merit-based and scientifically sound. Special thanks to the staff of the NASAC and \\nIAP secretariats, whose dedication made this report possible, and to the ClimateWorks \\nFoundation and the African Climate Foundation for their financial support. Thank you very \\nmuch!\\n\\t\\nProf. Mahouton Norbert\\t\\nDr. Margaret Hamburg\\t\\nProf. Masresha Fetene\\n\\t\\nHounkonnou\\t\\nCo-President, IAP\\t\\nCo-President, IAP\\n\\t\\nPresident, NASAC\\nFOREWORD\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nx\\nThis study aims to assess the challenges and opportunities for the decarbonisation \\nof transport in Africa by addressing cross-cutting issues of policies, institutional and \\ntechnical capacity, strategies, technologies, financing, and social considerations as well \\nas legal and regulatory frameworks. It was carried out collaboratively by the Network of \\nAfrican Scientific Academies (NASAC) and the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) with the \\nsponsorship of the Climate Works Foundation and the African Climate Foundation. The \\nstudy emerged out of a November 2021 workshop organised jointly by IAP and NASAC \\nand builds on other studies focused on issues related to decarbonisation of transport in \\nAfrica.\\nThe questions that frame this report are shown in Box 1. Except for question (7), which \\nrelates to transportation during the COVID-19 pandemic and had become irrelevant by \\nthe time of the writing of this report, these framing questions are addressed in Chapters \\n2 to 5 of this report.\\nBOX  1: Questions that framed the study on decarbonisation of transport in Africa\\n1. How can governments in Africa harness the economic, environmental, and social \\nbenefits of decarbonisation of transport?\\n2.\\nWhat would it take to accelerate electric vehicle adoption consistent with \\nnational climate goals? Will other forms of low carbon fuels and fuel efficiency \\nplay a significant role?\\n3. How can planning and urban design help drive transformation of the transport \\nsector?\\n4. What are the best solutions for rural areas, and for maintaining rural-urban \\nconnectivity in an environmentally sustainable manner?\\n5. What lessons can be learnt and adopted/scaled-up from regional and global \\nbest practices?\\n6. How can non-motorised transport be further utilised?\\n7. Which transport reforms could COVID-19 help accelerate?\\n8. How can informal bus networks and local rideshare apps be incentivised to use \\nelectric vehicles? How can digitisation help support this transformation?\\n9. How can legal and regulatory mechanisms promote investment in low-carbon \\ntransport?\\n10. How can opportunities for local vehicle manufacturing support a long-term \\nvision for sustainable transportation?\\nThe study builds on the success of a similar project by IAP’s European Academy Network \\n \\n(EASAC, 2019) and is therefore the second of IAP’s regional reports on the topic. Funding \\npermitting, regional reports would be produced in a similar manner for the Americas and \\nABOUT THE STUDY \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxi\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nAsia by IAP’s constituent regional networks for those regions, namely, the InterAmerican \\nNetwork of Academies of Science (IANAS) and Association of Academies and Societies \\nof Science in Asia (AASSA). If funds are available, the project will culminate in an over-\\narching global report and a final workshop to review the similarities and differences \\namong the four regions.\\nWorking Group Members and Project Secretariat Profiles\\n1.\\t Prof. Kouzou Abdallah, (Working Group Chair) is full professor at Djelfa University, \\nAlgeria, head of the research team on Power Electronics and Power Quality, \\ncollaborator researcher and member of the Smart Grid Center at Texas A&M in Doha, \\nQatar (SGC-Q).\\n2.\\t Prof. Thinus Booysen is professor and the Chair of the Internet of Things at the Faculty \\nof Engineering at Stellenbosch University, South Africa. He is the Director of the MTN \\nMobile Intelligence Lab and a partner in the Stellenbosch Smart Mobility Lab.\\n3.\\t Dr. Samuel Bwalya is a green economy consultant for the government of Zambia and \\nthe immediate past Managing Director of the Development Bank of Zambia (DBZ). \\nBwalya is a past UNDP Country Director and Resident Representative for Nigeria and \\nEthiopia.\\n4.\\t Prof. Chux Daniels is associate professor at the Graduate School of Technology \\nManagement (GSTM), University of Pretoria (South Africa) and a Research Fellow \\nin Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) Policy at Science Policy Research Unit \\n(SPRU), University of Sussex Business School (UK). \\n5.\\t Dr. Mafini Dosso (PhD, PMP®) is an economist of innovation and industry, former project \\nleader at the European Commission Joint Research Centre (Spain), senior expert in \\ninclusive territorial development, intellectual property and sustainable innovation \\npolicies, co-founder & head of research at Organisation Internationale de l’Innovation \\npour des Territoires et Industries Durables (OIITID) in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. \\n6.\\t Mr. Daniel Essel is the deputy director with the policy, planning, monitoring and \\nevaluation Directorate of the Ministry of Transport, Ghana. \\n7.\\t Prof. Akii Ibhadode is distinguished professor of Manufacturing Engineering and a \\nformer Shell professor of Lightweight Automobile Engine Development (2016–2020). \\nHe is the former vice-chancellor of the Federal University of Petroleum Resources, \\nEffurun, Nigeria, from 2015–2020.\\n8.\\t Ms. Irene Iradukunda is a sustainable Development & Climate Change scientist who \\nworks at UNDP\\n. She previously contributed to the development of climate impact \\ncalculation tools of different transportation modes at Vuba Corp. She is former \\nBusiness Development Manager at Yego Innovision, a Rwandan startup in the public \\ntransportation industry. \\n9.\\t Ms Irene Karani is currently a Ph.D researcher in climate change. She was formerly the \\nAfrica Climate Director at the Children’s Investment Fund Foundation and the NIRAS \\nAfrica Regional Director. She has contributed to climate policy and programme \\nimplementation at regional and national levels.  \\n10.\\tDr. Ahmed Osama is the director of the Centre of Mobility Research in Egypt. He \\nreceived his PhD in transportation engineering from the University of British Columbia, \\nwhere he had been a research assistant at the Bureau of Intelligent Transportation \\nSystems and Freight Security. \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxii\\nRigorous peer-review is a hallmark of both NASAC and IAP studies. We are grateful to the \\nfollowing reviewers for their constructive comments: \\n• \\nProf. Abubakar Sani Sambo, former Director-General, Energy Commission of Nigeria.\\n• \\nMr. Chris Kost, Africa Director, Institute for Transportation and Development Policy.\\n• \\nProf. Kefa Otiso, Department of Geography, Bowling Green State University, USA.\\n• \\nProf. Wim van Saarloos, President, European Academies Science Advisory Council \\n(EASAC) (2023–2025). \\n• \\nProf. Winnie V. Mitullah, Institute of Development Studies, University of Nairobi, \\nKenya.\\n• \\nProf. Zarina Patel, Associate Professor of Human Geography, Department of \\nEnvironmental and Geographical Science, University of Cape Town, who coordinated \\nthe review process.\\nProject Secretariat\\nDr. Evans Avedi\\nStudy Co-Director\\nNetwork of African Science Academies\\nKenya\\nMr. Moses Ogutu\\nStudy Co-Director, \\nInterAcademy Partnership\\nUnited States\\nDr. Jackie Kado\\nExecutive Director \\nNetwork of African Science Academies\\nKenya\\nDr. Ourania Kosti\\nExecutive Director \\nInterAcademy Partnership\\nUnited States\\nMr. Jack Omondi\\nProject Officer \\nNetwork of African Science Academies\\nKenya\\nMs. Sophia Nordt\\nResearch Associate\\nInterAcademy Partnership\\nUnited States\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxiii\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nABOUT THE NETWORK OF\\nAFRICAN SCIENCE ACADEMIES\\nThe Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) is a network of 30 merit-based \\nnational academies in Africa. NASAC’s main objective is to unite science academies and \\nfacilitate discussions on the scientific aspects of challenges of common concern, make \\njoint statements, and provide science-informed advice to policy and decision-makers \\nin Africa. Additionally, NASAC creates awareness of the value of science academies to \\nsocio-economic development and works with scientists to establish science academies in \\ncountries where none exist. NASAC’s networking capacity serves as an effective resource \\nfor communicating appropriate thematic information and coordinating efforts among \\ndifferent sectors and stakeholders in academia, policy, and society. Specifically, through its \\nmembership, NASAC continues to provide advice to regional bodies and organisations \\non science-related issues of importance to Africa’s development. It has also enhanced the \\ncapacity of academies in Africa to improve their roles as independent science advisors \\nto governments and to strengthen their national, regional, and international functions. \\nNASAC is the affiliate network for the InterAcademy Partnership in Africa. The secretariat \\nof NASAC is based in Nairobi, Kenya. More information is available at www.nasaconline.\\norg. \\nABOUT THE\\nINTERACADEMY PARTNERSHIP\\nThe InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) is a global network of 150 academies of science, \\nengineering, and medicine. With its four regional networks—in Africa (NASAC), \\nthe Americas (the InterAmerican Network of Academies of Sciences, IANAS), \\nAsia/Oceania (the Association of Academies and Societies of Sciences in Asia, \\nAASSA) and Europe (the European Academies Science Advisory Council, EASAC), \\nIAP provides a platform for mobilising regional and national expertise on wide-\\nranging issues of global importance, and for facilitating cooperation with other \\nkey stakeholders and potential partners. IAP’s secretariat offices are hosted by The \\nWorld Academy of Sciences in Trieste, Italy, and the National Academy of Sciences \\nin Washington, DC, USA. More information is available at www.interacademies.org. \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxiv\\nEXECUTIVE SUMMARY\\nThe transportation sector is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, \\naccounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also a critical \\nenabler of Africa’s economic transformation and is featured prominently in Africa’s \\nAgenda 2063. As climate change concerns continue to grow it is critical to decarbonise \\ntransportation in Africa, where future carbon emissions are expected to grow rapidly. \\nThis study, undertaken collaboratively by the InterAcademy Partnership and the Network \\nof African Science Academies, assesses the challenges and opportunities for the \\ndecarbonisation of transport in Africa. It also reviews policies, institutional and technical \\ncapacities, strategies, technologies, financing, and social factors, as well as requisite legal \\nand regulatory frameworks that need to be implemented to achieve decarbonisation of \\ntransport. The report reaffirms the dual response of decarbonisation to the escalating \\nthreats of climate change and the development of sustainable transportation in Africa.\\nCurrently, Africa contributes 4% of global transport emissions, however, emissions are \\nprojected to increase rapidly over the next two decades spurred by rapid urbanisation, \\neconomic growth, and rising motorisation rates in Africa. Therefore, the continent \\nneeds to adopt and proactively implement decarbonisation strategies to generate \\nsignificant environmental, economic, and social benefits. Environmentally, the shift from \\nfossil fuel-dependent vehicles to cleaner alternatives, such as electric vehicles (EVs) \\npowered by renewable energy sources like hydropower, solar, or wind, will significantly \\nreduce air pollution, diminish reliance on imported fossil fuels, and enhance Africa’s \\nenergy independence. A transition to decarbonised transportation will contribute to \\nthe preservation of Africa’s rich biodiversity and natural landscapes, that are currently \\nunder threat because of rising pollution and their unsustainable utilisation. Economically, \\ndecarbonised and sustainable transport solutions can spur economic development, \\nalleviate poverty, and improve transport accessibility, while reducing carbon emissions \\nto safeguard the environment. Socially, sustainable transportation improves access to \\ntransport for all communities, promotes public health, and creates new job opportunities. \\nIt also presents an essential strategy for countries to meet their Nationally Determined \\nContributions (NDC) targets.\\nWith improvements in the availability and access to clean energy sources (electricity), \\nwidespread adoption of electric mobility presents a viable alternative to traditional fossil-\\nfuel-based transport and has the greatest potential to reduce carbon emissions. In this \\nvein, Africa’s developing transport infrastructure and rich renewable energy resources \\noffer the opportunity to adopt cutting-edge, low-emission technologies such as EVs \\nwithout the significant overhaul required in more entrenched transport systems. In terms \\nof economic growth and opportunities, Africa could become an exemplar in developing \\nefficient new mass transportation systems with low carbon emission.\\nThis report highlights the critical role of enhancing public transportation systems through \\nthe development of mass rapid transit (MRT) systems, including bus rapid transit (BRT) and \\nlight rail trains (LRT), recognised as a bedrock of sustainable urban mobility. Furthermore, \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxv\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nit underscores the need to promote non-motorised transportation methods, such as \\ncycling and walking, as indispensable elements of a sustainable, inclusive, and efficient \\ntransport system in Africa.\\nDecarbonising road transport inherently disrupts the established and often entrenched \\nregimes within the transport sector. These include the fossil fuel industry, transport sector \\noperators, and institutions and institutional frameworks that govern transport systems \\nin Africa. Therefore, a collaborative approach among governments, industry, public, \\nand civil society actors is essential to achieving a holistic, inclusive, and transformative \\ntransition. Research and innovation, alongside enabling policies and regulations, are vital \\ninputs in the transition to low-carbon transport systems.\\nThe goal of a decarbonised transport sector in Africa requires comprehensive policy and \\nregulatory reforms, increased investment in green technologies and innovations, and \\nincentives. It also requires a change in mindset, culture, and a shift in consumer behaviour \\nto foster sustainable transport practices as well as institutional, infrastructural, and cultural \\nbarriers head-on. The report provides strategic insights and innovative solutions for \\novercoming these challenges and for fostering partnerships for sustainable transport.\\nIn addition to a focus on passenger vehicles and urban transportation — owing to their \\nimmediate potential for impactful decarbonisation — the report recognises the broader \\nspectrum of transportation modes, including heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), rail transport, \\nand the disparities between urban and rural transportation infrastructure. HDVs are \\ninstrumental for Africa’s logistics and freight systems, and present their own unique \\nchallenges and opportunities for decarbonisation. While rail transport currently faces \\nsignificant barriers such as underinvestment, inadequate infrastructure, and regulatory \\nhurdles, it holds immense potential when it comes to development of sustainable \\ntransport. Improving existing rail transport systems can significantly reduce road \\ncongestion, lower emissions, and foster regional connectivity.\\nGiven the long-term nature of systemic changes required for transitions such as \\ndecarbonisation, and mindful of the varied contexts across African countries, this \\nreport intentionally avoids specifying implementation timelines. Each country’s journey \\ntowards sustainable transport will be unique, influenced by its specific socio-economic, \\ngeographical, and political landscapes. The absence of rigid timelines provides a flexible \\napproach that allows for tailored national strategies and approaches to decarbonisation, \\nbased on the insights and recommendations of the report. \\nFINDINGS\\n1.\\t Decarbonisation of transport is already taking place across Africa. There are \\nnumerous ongoing projects aimed at decarbonising transport in different cities and \\nin the sub-regions of Africa. These projects, such as the growing adoption of electric \\nmobility solutions, bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, and light rail transport (LRT). \\nThere is also an emphasis on non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling \\ndemonstrate local successes in decarbonisation, with significant economic, social, \\nand environmental benefits. \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxvi\\n 2.\\t The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) approach is an appropriate \\nstrategy for the decarbonisation of transport across Africa. The EASIR approach’s \\nholistic nature, combining enabling policies, mechanisms to reduce travel demand, \\nthe promotion of sustainable transportation modes, improvements in vehicle and fuel \\nefficiency, and enhancing the resilience of transportation systems directly addresses \\nthe multi-dimensional challenges of transport decarbonisation on the continent. The \\nEASIR framework aligns with Africa’s specific needs and global sustainability goals, \\nunderscoring its suitability. This finding is supported by analysis of successful case \\nstudies within the continent where elements of the EASIR approach have already \\nbeen implemented, demonstrating tangible benefits in reducing carbon emissions \\nand enhancing sustainable mobility. Case studies described in this report include the \\nadoption of enabling policies such as EV incentives in Morocco and Kenya, the shift \\ntowards sustainable modes such as Rwanda’s investments in cycling infrastructure, \\nand South Africa’s push for biofuel usage to improve fuel efficiency. \\n3.\\t Policy and regulatory instruments can facilitate the decarbonisation of transport. \\nAfrican governments are employing a diverse range of policy instruments to accelerate \\nthe decarbonisation of transport at continental and local levels. These are categorised \\ninto four main types: (1) market-based instruments (such as taxes, subsidies, fees, \\nquotas, import duties, and penalties) (2) regulatory instruments (licenses, limits, \\nprohibitions, laws); (3) direct provisions (governments directly providing goods or \\nservices to its citizens); and (4) information provisions (dissemination of relevant, \\naccurate, and timely information to the public). Market-based tools, like subsidies for \\nelectric vehicle purchases in Morocco and carbon taxes in South Africa, incentivise \\ncleaner transport options. Regulatory measures, including emissions standards \\nand vehicle import restrictions, have been implemented in Egypt and Kenya to \\ncurb pollution and encourage the adoption of cleaner vehicles. Direct provisions \\nare evident in Ethiopia’s investment in the Addis Ababa light rail system, directly \\nenhancing public transport infrastructure. Information provisions play a crucial role \\nin raising awareness and changing public behaviour towards sustainable transport \\noptions, as seen in Nigeria’s campaigns promoting electric motorcycles. These varied \\npolicy tools, backed by strategic planning and investments, are critical to boosting \\nthe effectiveness of decarbonisation efforts across the continent.\\n4.\\t Decarbonisation of transport has the potential to drive industrial growth and \\ncreate green job opportunities across Africa. There is growing local assembly and \\nmanufacturing of EVs in Africa, as well as initiatives to convert gasoline-powered \\nvehicles, including Africa’s paratransit vehicles, to electric propulsion in African \\ncountries including Kenya, South Africa, and Nigeria. The conversion of ICE vehicles \\nto EVs particularly presents enormous potential considering the vast amount \\nof used vehicles in Africa. Meanwhile, with the necessary infrastructure already \\npresent, existing ICE vehicle manufacturers could pivot to EV production if properly \\nincentivised. These examples demonstrate that the continent’s abundance of skilled \\nmechanics, combined with ingenuity and resourcefulness that African innovators \\ndemonstrate, provide the groundwork for a sustainable, scalable model of EV \\ndevelopment tailored to the unique needs and opportunities of the rapidly emerging \\nAfrican EV market, while contributing to the global advancement of electric mobility. \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxvii\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nOpportunities extend into EV auto parts and battery manufacturing, leveraging \\nAfrica’s critical mineral resources, alongside innovative business models like pay-\\nas-you-go charging and solar charging stations, taking advantage of the continent’s \\nabundant sunlight. While strategic policies to support local vehicle manufacturing are \\nemerging in various African countries, the realisation of broad industrial ambitions \\nrequires a commitment to building the necessary human capital by skilling, up-\\nskilling, and re-skilling, especially among the youth, women, and unemployed.\\n5.\\t Transport electrification in Africa will increase the demand for electricity, and the \\ncurrent fragility of the electric grid poses a critical concern for the viability and \\nsustainability of electric mobility. Adopting EVs will have significant impact on the \\nelectricity system in terms of generation, transmission, distribution, and accessibility. \\nWhile EVs could also play a role in stabilising the grid, for example, through a vehicle-\\nto-grid (V2G) approach, understanding the current state of power systems in Africa \\nis crucial in evaluating the impact of EV deployment across African countries, as \\nelectricity is a central pillar of Africa’s energy infrastructure. The capacity, reliability, \\nand reach of these systems play a key role in determining how effectively EVs can \\nbe integrated and supported. Increased demand from EVs necessitates robust and \\ndiverse generation facilities and power sources. Transmission networks will need to \\nbe upgraded to handle the increased load, especially during peak charging times, \\nrequiring a resilient infrastructure. On the other hand, the distribution system will \\nface changes in load patterns, particularly in residential areas with home charging, \\ndemanding smarter and more responsive grid solutions. In the meantime, despite \\nthe strong case for the electrification of transport in Africa, the lack of adequate \\ninvestment in the power sector and insufficient research on the impacts of this \\nelectrification hinders the development of innovative solutions, the exploration of \\ntechnology applications, and the conceptualisation, design, and implementation of \\neffective strategies.\\n6.\\t Prioritising electrification of transport for the less costly, higher mileage, and \\nextensively used vehicle segments in Africa could streamline the adoption of EVs, \\nmaximising environmental benefits and economic efficiency. Analysis indicates \\nthat two- and three-wheelers, along with passenger buses on high-use routes, are \\nattractive candidates for the first stages of transport electrification efforts. Similarly, \\nfour-wheelers, taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and other commercial fleets are identified \\nas more suitable for early electrification compared to less intensively used private \\nfamily cars. \\n7.\\t An integrated sustainable transport strategy that includes mass rapid transport \\nand non-motorised transport can enhance decarbonisation of transport. A holistic \\napproach to sustainable transport can not only reduce carbon emissions but also \\nhas the potential to alleviate negative traffic externalities, thereby contributing to a \\nhealthier environment and improved quality of life. In Africa, where urbanisation is \\nrapidly increasing, the need for efficient and sustainable transportation systems is \\nmore pronounced than ever. The implementation of mass rapid transit systems, such \\nas the bus rapid transit (BRT) systems in Lagos, Nigeria, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, \\nexemplifies proactive steps towards sustainable urban mobility. Additionally, the \\ndevelopment of light rail projects, like the Addis Ababa Light Rail in Ethiopia, serves not \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxviii\\nonly to decrease reliance on individual car usage but also to spearhead the transition \\ntowards electrification of public transport networks. Similarly, the development and \\nadoption of non-motorised transport (NMT) infrastructure plays a crucial role in \\nshaping sustainable urban mobility landscapes. In Africa, several examples highlight \\nthe progress and commitment towards enhancing NMT facilities. For instance, Nairobi \\nin Kenya, and Cape Town in South Africa have taken significant strides in developing \\nbicycle paths and pedestrian walkways, inspired by the success of Rwanda’s Kigali \\nCar-Free Days, which promote active transport and raise environmental awareness.\\n8.\\t Inadequate financial frameworks hinder decarbonisation efforts in Africa, limiting \\nthe continent’s ability to leverage transport decarbonisation as a catalyst for \\nindustrial growth and innovation. The establishment of a robust EV ecosystem, \\nalready stimulated by the emergence of local assembly and manufacturing of EVs, \\nambitious innovations such as the conversion of gasoline-powered vehicles to electric \\npropulsion, battery swapping, and investments in renewable energy systems, as well \\nas in inclusive non-motorised transport infrastructure, are constrained by inadequate \\nfinancial frameworks. The success of these transport sectors, which are crucial for \\ncreating a new economic paradigm, generating green jobs, fostering technological \\ninnovation, and establishing new markets within the automotive industry, depends \\nheavily on the availability of funding and investment. The scarcity of robust financial \\nstructures and investment may stem from multiple factors, including African countries’ \\nchallenges in developing comprehensive financial policies and frameworks such \\nincentives for EV buyers, and the hesitation of investors, who may not fully recognise \\nthe opportunities within the continent’s evolving EV market. Therefore, addressing \\nthese financial barriers and enhancing investor confidence is crucial for unlocking \\nthe transformative power of decarbonisation through electrification in Africa.\\n9.\\t Decarbonisation efforts compete with existing transport and oil industry regimes \\nthat benefit from the manufacture, sale, maintenance, and deployment of fossil fuel-\\nbased vehicles. Entrenched regimes often have established powerful interests that are \\nresistant to change due to financial, political, or ideological reasons. Decarbonisation \\ninvolves reducing dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, which are the primary \\nenergy sources for conventional ICE vehicles. For transport sector operators such as \\nthe companies and organisations involved in manufacturing, operating, or maintaining \\ntransportation systems, decarbonisation will require adoption of new technologies, \\nchange of business models, and compliance with appropriate regulations. Similarly, \\npolicies, regulations, and incentives that encourage the adoption of cleaner \\ntransportation modes will disrupt institutional frameworks such as subsidies that \\nhave historically supported the fossil-fuel industry and transport systems or the \\nassociated fuel tax revenues for governments. Crucially, decarbonisation policies \\ninherently challenge the status quo and can lead to significant economic, social, and \\ninstitutional changes and tensions. To navigate competing interests, it is essential to \\nactively engage stakeholders from traditional transport and fuel industries in crafting \\na shared vision for the future of transportation on the continent, while highlighting \\nthe economic, environmental, and social benefits. Such collaborations might include \\nengagement with fuel industry representatives to explore the development of electric \\ncharging infrastructure as a new business venture, and shifting the perspective \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxix\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nfrom competition to complementary roles in the evolving transport ecosystem. \\nEngaging stakeholders not as adversaries but as partners in progress can facilitate \\nthe development of integrated solutions that address economic, environmental, and \\nsocial goals.\\n10.\\tProgress towards decarbonised and sustainable transportation can be achieved \\nand accelerated by adopting a common position on sustainable transport across \\nAfrica. While the African Union’s Climate Change and Resilient Development \\nStrategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 already provides a comprehensive \\nframework for climate action, including in transport, a distinct strategy or position \\ndedicated to sustainable transport does not currently exist. Such a strategy would \\nalign with overarching continental and global objectives for climate change priorities \\nand enable Africa to capitalise on economies of scale and enhance its collective \\nbargaining power on issues related to decarbonisation and overall improvement of \\nthe transport sector. Adopting a common position on sustainable transport across \\nAfrica does not imply a one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, a common framework should \\nbe based on shared principles that recognises the diversity of national circumstances \\nand allows for flexibility in implementation.\\nRECOMMENDATIONS\\n1.\\t City and regional authorities in Africa should promote local decarbonisation efforts. \\nCity and urban authorities should actively share insights and best practices on local \\ndecarbonisation efforts within Africa to accelerate their adoption continent-wide. \\nThis includes creating platforms for knowledge exchange, setting up pilot projects, \\nand establishing benchmarks for success. Regional authorities should spearhead \\nthe establishment of agencies to enhance governance and collaboration within \\nAfrica’s transport sector. The formation of such bodies, exemplified by the African \\nAssociation of Urban Transport Authorities (AAUTA), demonstrates a commitment \\nto improving urban mobility across several countries. The AAUTA is a collaboration \\nbetween the Greater Abidjan Urban Mobility Authority and the Africa Transport \\nPolicy Programme, incorporating over 40 urban transport leaders from 13 African \\ncountries. It aims to facilitate the exchange of best practices and lessons learned \\nin urban transport system management, promote public-private partnerships, and \\nstrengthen cooperation with development partners.\\n2.\\t Governments in Africa should implement the Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-\\nResilience (EASIR) approach for sustainable transport. This approach combines \\nenabling policies, mechanisms to reduce travel demand, promotion of sustainable \\ntransportation modes, and enhancements in vehicle and fuel efficiency. It aligns with \\nglobal best practices and supports Africa’s strategic sustainable development goals. \\n3.\\t Governments in Africa should provide incentives to industries to promote and \\nsupport local manufacturing. This includes local manufacturing of electric batteries \\nand production and assembly of EVs, including two- and three-wheelers (motorcycles \\nand tuk-tuks, respectively) as well as buses. This can be done through the provision \\nof both policy and regulatory incentives such as tax breaks, subsidies, and facilitating \\npartnerships between local industries and international companies. Such incentives \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxx\\nwill not only help achieve decarbonisation of transport goals but also drive inclusive \\neconomic growth in line with Africa’s Agenda 2063 and the United Nations SDGs. \\n4.\\t Governments in Africa, industry, and academia should establish research \\npartnerships to investigate energy demands and expected impact of EVs on the \\ngrid. These research collaborations can also assess the potential for charging EVs \\nwith renewable energy sources as well as on increasing local contents on EVs. In \\ndoing so, policy decisions on EV adoption and charging infrastructure will be context-\\nspecific, evidence-informed, and based on actual data. \\n5.\\t Governments in Africa should develop comprehensive financing and policy \\ninstruments to support the upgrade of power grid systems, the construction of EV \\ncharging networks, and overall improve the public transport infrastructure. Innovative \\nclimate financing instruments can include infrastructure funding, blended finance, \\nand green bonds, alongside taxes. This type of financing and policy instruments will \\nencourage the acquisition of EVs, foreign investment, and inclusive business models \\nthat foster participation of SMEs and start-ups in the EV business ecosystem. In \\naddition, governments can expand policy support to foster international cooperation, \\nresource mobilisation, and the development of sustainable business models for \\nelectric mobility, leveraging existing approaches such as the Green Climate Fund \\naimed to use flexible financing solutions and climate investment expertise. \\n6.\\t Governments in Africa should prioritise the electrification of vehicle segments that \\nprovide the most immediate and highest decarbonisation benefits. Decarbonisation \\nefforts should focus on electrifying two- and three-wheelers, as well as passenger \\nbuses operating on high-use routes, due to their lower costs, high mileage, and \\nextensive use. These segments present a significant opportunity for immediate \\nimpact. Additionally, four-wheelers such as taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and other \\ncommercial fleets should be targeted in early decarbonisation efforts, given their \\nfrequent use and greater potential for reducing emissions. However, it is also critical \\nto consider the role of private family cars. While these vehicles may not have the same \\nhigh usage as commercial fleets on a per-vehicle basis, their cumulative impact due \\nto sheer volume can be substantial. Tailored strategies based on vehicle use patterns \\nand ownership costs are needed for this vehicle segment, as part of a comprehensive \\napproach to electrifying four-wheelers.\\n7.\\t Governments in Africa should implement stricter policies and regulations that \\nsupport emission reduction during the transition to decarbonising the transport \\nsector. While the transition towards EVs presents a significant opportunity for \\nemission reduction, the potential of regulatory measures to curb emissions from \\nexisting ICE vehicles also needs to be a priority. Stricter emission standards for \\nvehicles, as well as the introduction of policies that discourage the importation of \\nolder, more polluting cars, could significantly support emission reduction goals. \\nPolicies banning or restricting old and high-emitting vehicles from metropolitan \\ncentres have been shown to reduce urban pollution and encourage the adoption \\nof cleaner transportation alternatives while also improving air quality, and enhancing \\npublic health and the quality of life in urban areas. \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxxi\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n8.\\t Governments in Africa and other stakeholders should implement just transition \\nprinciples to foster a holistic and socially inclusive decarbonisation of transport. \\nJust Transition Principles advocate for a shift towards a sustainable economy that \\nprioritises equity and access for all, including vulnerable groups and marginalised \\ncommunities such as women, persons with disabilities and older persons, indigenous \\ncommunities, low-income populations, and residents of rural areas. Just transition \\nprinciples also safeguard against exacerbating existing inequalities by adopting \\ngender and socially inclusive approaches when formulating transportation policies, \\nfor example by addressing safety issues that prevent women from engaging in active \\ntransportation, such as walking, and by addressing equity between women and men \\nin the transport workforce. Developing accessible infrastructure such as sidewalks, \\nramps, and elevators in bus parks and on vehicles caters towards the needs of \\npersons with disabilities and older persons. Finally, just transition principles promote \\ninvesting in infrastructure that supports both urban and rural transportation needs \\nand rural urban connectivity, ensuring that decarbonisation benefits are equitably \\ndistributed across all regions. \\n9.\\t Governments in Africa should improve existing transportation systems and adopt \\nsustainable land-use development. Improving existing transport systems and \\nadopting sustainable land-use developments such as compact and mixed-use \\ndevelopment and transit-oriented development, are essential strategies for African \\ngovernments to promote economic prosperity, social inclusion, environmental \\nsustainability, and resilience. By prioritising these measures, African countries can \\ncreate more liveable, equitable, and sustainable cities and communities for current \\nand future generations. For instance, by investing in more efficient and accessible \\npublic transit options, including mass rapid transit options such as BRT and light \\nrail transit systems, cities can significantly lower their carbon footprint. In addition, \\ncreating safer and more appealing conditions for active transportation, like walking \\nand cycling, through dedicated bike lanes and pedestrian zones not only promotes a \\nhealthier lifestyle, but also reduces emissions. \\n10.\\tGovernments in Africa should actively foster strategic collaborations, robust \\nadvocacy, and innovation to advance sustainable transport across the continent. \\nPartnering with industry, academia, and global civil society can enable governments \\nto harness the power of advocacy and strategic collaborations in amplifying the call \\nfor the adoption of low-carbon transport technologies and practices. In this case, \\ngovernments can utilise targeted policies, regulation, and financial incentives to \\nchallenge and disrupt the dominance of fossil fuels and support businesses in their \\ntransition to environmentally friendly operations. \\n11.\\tGovernments in Africa should establish a unified framework for decarbonised \\nand sustainable transport aligned with continental aspirations and global climate \\nchange targets. This framework can build on existing blueprints, including the \\nAfrican Union’s visionary policies, and agreements such as the Climate Change and \\nResilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032, the 2023 \\nNairobi Declaration, Agenda 2063, Programme for Infrastructure Development \\nin Africa (PIDA), the African Renewable Energy Initiative, the Paris Agreement, and \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxxii\\nits Nationally Determined Contributions and national long-term climate strategies \\nof various African countries. A common position on sustainable transport not \\nonly aligns with overarching continental and global objectives but also leverages \\ncollective bargaining power in negotiations to secure technology transfers, financial \\ninvestments, and international support essential for the transition. Moreover, a pan-\\nAfrican consensus on sustainable transport can pave the way for the establishment of \\nharmonised policies and interoperable infrastructure tailored to the continent’s unique \\nchallenges and opportunities. A common approach with time-bound objectives will \\nserve as milestones, guiding the phased implementation of sustainable transport \\ninitiatives across Africa, ensuring that progress is both measurable and aligned with \\nthe overarching goal of fostering environmental sustainability and overall sustainable \\ndevelopment, in line with Africa’s Agenda 2063.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxxiii\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nCOMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS \\nAASSA Association of Academies and Societies of Sciences in Asia\\nEASIR Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience\\nAU African Union\\nBRT Bus Rapid Transit\\nCO2 Carbon Dioxide\\nEASAC European Academies Science Advisory Council\\nEU European Union\\nEV Electric Vehicle \\nGHG Greenhouse Gas\\nIANAS InterAmerican Network of Academies of Sciences\\nIAP InterAcademy Partnership\\nICE Internal Combustion Engine\\nIEA International Energy Agency\\nMRT Mass Rapid Transit\\nNASAC Network of African Science Academies\\nNDC Nationally Determined Contributions\\nNMT Non-Motorised Transport\\nPIDA Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa\\nR&D Research and Development\\nSDG Sustainable Development Goals\\nSSATP Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program\\nUN United Nations\\nUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxxiv\\nGLOSSARY OF TERMS \\nAvoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) framework: is a sustainability approach that emphasises \\nthree key strategies for reducing environmental impacts and promoting sustainable \\ndevelopment. The avoid strategy focuses on avoiding or minimising activities that have \\nnegative environmental or social consequences. The shift strategy involves shifting from \\nunsustainable practices or behaviours to more sustainable alternatives. The improve \\nstrategy focuses on continuously improving existing processes, products, and systems to \\nenhance their sustainability performance.\\nEnable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) framework: An expanded approach \\nto the traditional Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) that incorporates two additional strategies \\n– enable and resilience - to promote a holistic approach aimed at enhancing transport \\ndecarbonisation and adaptation. The enable strategy establishes the foundational \\ngovernance, laws, institutions, and financial arrangements necessary for effective \\ndecarbonisation policies. Lastly, the resilience strategy aims to enhance the resilience and \\nadaptive capacity of transport infrastructure to withstand environmental, technological, \\nand socio-economic changes.\\nBattery swapping: is a technology and service used primarily in electric vehicles (EVs) \\nwhere the depleted battery of an electric vehicle is quickly replaced with a fully charged \\none. This process is typically performed at specialised battery swapping stations rather \\nthan recharging the battery through conventional charging methods.\\nBus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems: are high-capacity public transportation systems that \\naim to provide fast, efficient, and reliable bus services with features typically associated \\nwith rail transit but at a lower cost. BRT systems generally include dedicated lanes or \\ncorridors, stations with off-board fare collection, level boarding, priority at intersections, \\nand frequent service.\\nCarbon markets: are mechanisms designed to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions \\nby putting a price on carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases. The concept \\nbehind carbon markets is to create financial incentives for industries and businesses to \\nreduce their emissions by allowing them to buy and sell emissions allowances.\\nCarbon credits: are a tradable permit or certificate representing the right to emit one ton \\nof carbon dioxide (CO2) or its equivalent. They are a key component of carbon markets \\nand emissions trading systems, allowing businesses and governments to buy and sell the \\nright to emit greenhouse gases within a regulated framework.\\nConcessional climate finance: refers to financial support provided by governments, \\ninternational organisations, or other entities at below-market interest rates or with other \\nfavourable terms to help countries, particularly developing nations, address climate \\nchange challenges and transition to low-carbon, climate-resilient development pathways. \\nElectric vehicles (EVs): are vehicles that are powered, either partially or entirely, by \\nelectricity stored in rechargeable batteries or other energy storage devices. Unlike \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nxxv\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\ntraditional internal combustion engine vehicles that rely on fossil fuels such as gasoline \\nor diesel, electric vehicles use electricity as their primary source of energy for propulsion.\\nElectric vehicle (EV) roaming: refers to the ability for EV drivers to use charging stations \\noperated by different charging networks or providers with a single access or payment \\nmethod. Just as mobile phone users can roam onto different cellular networks while \\ntraveling, EV roaming enables drivers to access charging infrastructure across various \\ncharging networks without needing multiple memberships or payment accounts.\\nGreenhouse gas emissions: refer to the release of gases into the atmosphere that trap \\nheat, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming and climate \\nchange. \\nGreen bonds: are a type of fixed-income financial instrument specifically earmarked to \\nfund projects with environmental benefits. They are essentially debt securities issued \\nby governments, municipalities, corporations, or financial institutions to raise capital \\nfor projects or activities aimed at addressing climate change, promoting renewable \\nenergy, enhancing energy efficiency, supporting sustainable land use, improving waste \\nmanagement, or other environmentally beneficial initiatives.\\nGreen technologies: also known as clean or sustainable technologies, refer to innovations \\nand practices that are designed to reduce environmental impact, promote resource \\nefficiency, and contribute to sustainable development. These technologies aim to address \\nenvironmental challenges such as climate change, pollution, resource depletion, and \\nbiodiversity loss by minimising emissions of greenhouse gases, pollutants, and waste \\nwhile maximising the use of renewable resources.\\nHeavy-duty vehicles (HDVs): are vehicles designed to transport goods or passengers \\nwith a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) exceeding 8,500 pounds (3,855 kilograms). \\nThese vehicles are typically larger and more powerful than light-duty vehicles and are \\nused for various purposes, including freight transportation, public transit, construction, \\nand agriculture. Heavy-duty vehicles play a critical role in the global economy by \\nfacilitating the movement of goods and people over long distances and in diverse \\noperating conditions.\\nLight rail transit (LRT): is a form of urban rail transit characterised by its flexibility, capacity, \\nand integration into urban environments. LRT systems typically operate on a combination \\nof dedicated rights-of-way, semi-exclusive lanes, and mixed traffic, allowing them to \\nprovide efficient and reliable service in urban and suburban areas.\\nLow carbon cities: also known as sustainable cities or eco-cities, are urban areas that \\nprioritise environmental sustainability, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote \\nresilience to climate change impacts. These cities adopt integrated approaches to \\nurban planning, transportation, energy, waste management, and other aspects of urban \\ndevelopment to minimise their carbon footprint and enhance quality of life for residents.\\nMass Rapid Transit (MRT): refers to a high-capacity urban public transportation system \\ndesigned to efficiently move large numbers of passengers within a metropolitan area. \\nMRT systems typically consist of electrified trains that run on dedicated tracks, providing \\nfast, reliable, and frequent service to commuters.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nxxvi\\nNationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): are the pledges and commitments made \\nby individual countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the \\nimpacts of climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate \\nChange (UNFCCC). Each country submits its NDC as part of the international effort to \\naddress climate change, particularly in the context of the Paris Agreement.\\nNet zero-carbon: refers to achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse \\ngases emitted into the atmosphere and the amount removed from the atmosphere. In \\nother words, it means that the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse \\ngases are equal to the amount that is either offset or sequestered, resulting in no net \\naddition to the atmosphere’s greenhouse gas concentration.\\nNon-motorised transport (NMT): refers to any form of transportation that does not rely \\non motorised vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, or buses, to move people or goods. \\nInstead, NMT relies on human power or animal power for propulsion. Common examples \\nof non-motorised transport include walking, cycling, skating, and the use of non-\\nmotorised carts or wagons. NMT is often considered more sustainable, environmentally \\nfriendly, and healthier compared to motorised transport options, as it produces fewer \\nemissions and promotes physical activity.\\nOff-grid energy solutions: refers to systems that provide electricity independently \\nof traditional utility grids. These solutions are designed to meet the energy needs of \\nindividuals, communities, or facilities that are not connected to centralised power grids. \\nThese systems typically utilise renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, \\nor biomass to generate electricity. Off-grid energy solutions often incorporate energy \\nstorage technologies such as batteries or pumped hydro storage to store excess energy \\nfor use during periods of low renewable energy generation or high demand.\\nParatransit system: refers to a type of public passenger transportation that is characterised \\nby its flexibility and operates by demand without having fixed schedules and is operated \\nby private entities with minimal oversight and investment from government.\\nRenewable energy: refers to energy derived from naturally replenished sources that \\nare not depleted when used. Unlike fossil fuels, which are finite and contribute to \\nenvironmental pollution and climate change, renewable energy sources are abundant, \\nclean, and sustainable. They offer significant potential for reducing greenhouse gas \\nemissions, enhancing energy security, and promoting economic development.\\nVehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technologies: are technologies that enables electric vehicles (EVs) \\nto interact with the electricity grid, allowing them to not only consume electricity but also \\nto provide electricity back to the grid when needed. V2G systems essentially turn EV \\nbatteries into energy storage units that can be tapped into during peak demand periods \\nor to help stabilise the grid.\\n\\n\\n1\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nCHAPTER ONE \\nDECARBONISATION of TRANSPORT and\\nADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE\\nThe Paris Agreement set an ambitious global goal of limiting global warming to 1.5° \\nCelsius above pre-industrial levels. To achieve this, global greenhouse gas emissions \\nmust peak by 2025, decrease by 43% by 2030, and reach net zero by 2050, as outlined by \\nthe United Nations. Under the Paris Agreement, parties are required to submit Nationally \\nDetermined Contributions (NDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on \\nClimate Change (UNFCCC). Transitioning to transportation systems with lower carbon \\nemissions enables countries to significantly advance towards fulfilling their Paris \\nAgreement commitments. Beyond the environmental, economic, and social advantages, \\nthe decarbonisation of transport is a crucial strategy for countries to meet their NDC \\ntargets. This chapter provides the necessary background, outlines the study’s objectives, \\nand delves into the benefits, challenges, and strategies of decarbonising transport \\nand adapting to climate change. It underscores the critical need for transitioning to \\nsustainable transport systems and adapting to the rapidly changing climate realities.\\n1.1\\t Introduction\\nThe transport sector accounts for nearly a quarter of global energy-related greenhouse gas \\n(GHG) emissions (IPCC, 2022). In 2022, worldwide carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from \\ntransportation were estimated at eight gigatonne, a 3% increase from 2021, according to \\nthe International Energy Agency (IEA). From 1990 to 2022, emissions from transportation \\ngrew at an average rate of 1.7% annually, faster than any other sector, except for industrial \\nemissions which rose at the same rate (IEA, 2023). Transportation emissions are driven by \\nthe sector’s reliance on fossil fuels, which account for 90% of transport energy needs. \\nRoad transportation accounts for 75% of all transport sector emissions, with passenger \\nvehicles, including cars and buses being the primary contributors (Tiseo, 2023). The \\nhealth and financial impacts associated with current greenhouse gas emissions from \\ntransportation are enormous. It is estimated that, globally, pollution from the transport \\nsector is responsible for the loss of about 7.8 million lives annually, an economic cost \\nof USD 1 trillion in health damages (Anenberg, et al., 2019). In 2013, the estimated cost \\nof premature deaths due to air pollution in Africa was approximately USD 450 billion \\n(Ayetor, et al., 2021).\\nAfrica is a small contributor (4%) to global transport emissions due to its small market and \\nlow levels of vehicle ownership (UNFCCC, 2023). As Figure 1 shows, Africa’s contribution \\nto global transport GHG emissions has historically been minimal. While all regions \\nhave seen an increase in emissions over time, Sub-Saharan Africa’s emissions growth is \\nrelatively gradual and remains significantly lower compared to North America, East Asia \\nand Pacific, and Europe and Central Asia. The average CO2 emissions per person per \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n2\\nyear in Africa are only 0.8 tonnes. This is significantly lower than the global average of 4.8 \\ntonnes. However, emissions from Africa’s transportation are increasing at an estimated \\nrate of approximately 7% annually, in stark contrast to the lower growth rates observed \\nin other regions (SLOCAT, 2021). For example, in the United States the annual increase \\nof transportation emission was less than 1% between 1990 and 2017, and in the United \\nKingdom 0.12% in the same period (Ayetor, et al., 2021). With the current economic and \\nsocial growth occurring, Africa is expected to experience exponential growth in transport \\nmotorisation along with the concomitant increase in transport-related greenhouse gas \\nemissions and adverse health effects in the coming decade.\\nEgypt, South Africa, Nigeria, Libya, Morocco, Kenya, and Ghana have the highest \\nmotorisation rates in Africa and are responsible for more than 70% of Africa’s emissions \\nfrom the transport sector (Figure 2) (Ayetor, et al., 2021). The rapid rate of motorisation \\nof African cities has led to chronic traffic congestion and high levels of pollution. The lack \\nof fuel quality standards and the dumping of old and inefficient vehicles in the continent \\nfurther exacerbates the negative impacts of increasing motorisation on air quality. \\nIt is estimated that 85% of vehicles in Africa are used vehicles imported from Europe, \\nthe United States, and Japan (Ayetor, et al., 2021). Many of these vehicles would fail \\nroadworthiness tests and emission inspections in exporting countries but are dumped in \\nAfrican countries which often have weaker or no vehicle emission regulations. \\nGeographical and socio-economic factors shape transportation choices in Africa. Despite \\na rapid motorisation rate, on average, 80% of the continent’s urban population lacks \\naccess to personal vehicles and a large proportion does not have access to motorised \\npublic transit services. Non-motorised modes of transport such as walking and cycling \\ncomprise the majority of urban trips (Sietchiping, et al., 2012). In some African cities, most \\njourneys are made on foot while most motorised trips are made using informal motorcycle \\ntaxis or minibuses (Deeb, et al., 2022). According to Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2020), in \\n2013, the average mode of transport across 14 African cities showed that walking was \\nthe most prevalent at 34%, followed by private cars at 22%, matatus/minibuses at 18%, \\nmotorcycles at 11%, buses at 9%, and other modes at 6% (Figure 3). Given the rise in \\nFigure 1:  Global transport emissions by region (1990–2020)\\n1990\\nNorth American Region\\nEast Asia and Pacific\\nEurope and Central Asia\\nMiddle East and North Africa\\nLatin America and Caribbean\\nSub-Saharan Africa\\n2.2 Gt\\nCO2o\\n1.7 Gt\\n1.1 Gt\\n500 Mt\\n1993\\n1996\\n1999\\n2002\\n2005\\n2008\\n2011\\n2014\\n2017\\n2020\\nCLIMATEWATCH\\nHistorical GHC emissions\\n \\nData source: Climate Watch; Location: East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia,\\nLatin America and Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America Region,\\nSub-Saharan Africa; Sectors/Subsectors: Transportation; Gases: All GHG; Calculation: Total;\\nShow data by Regions.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n3\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nDar es\\nSalaam,\\nTanzania\\nAddis\\nAbaba,\\nEthiopia\\nAccra,\\nGhana\\nAbidjan,\\nCôte\\nd’Ivoire\\nAverage\\nof 14\\nAfrican\\ncountries\\nNairobi,\\nKenya\\n(2007)\\n44%\\n2%\\n15%\\n29%\\n9%\\nWalking\\nKEY\\nMode of Transport in Selected African Countries\\nMotorcycle\\nPrivate car\\nMinibus\\nBus\\nOther\\n34%\\n11%\\n18%\\n27%\\n6%\\n22%\\n47%\\n19%\\n11%\\n12%\\n22%\\n52%\\n10%\\n30%\\n12%\\n20%\\n26%\\n10%\\n0%\\n20%\\n30%\\n40%\\n50%\\n60%\\n70%\\n80%\\n90%\\n100%\\nMode of share\\n11%\\n61%\\n35%\\nincomes since then, it is probable that the use of private cars has increased, as higher \\nearnings typically encourage a shift towards more private forms of transportation.\\nPublic, or semi-public transport plays a significant role in most African cities. The most \\nwidely used public transportation system in many urban and semi-urban areas is the \\nparatransit system. Paratransit refers to a type of public passenger transportation that is \\ncharacterised by its flexibility and operates by demand without having fixed schedules \\nand is operated by private entities with minimal oversight and investment from \\ngovernment (SLOCAT, 2021).\\n215\\n445\\n776\\n987\\n1614\\n1985\\n2205\\n2561\\n2761\\n3847\\n6918\\n7287\\n17254\\n18200\\n35239\\n53034\\n65000\\nCape Verde\\nSouth Sudan\\nBurkina Faso\\nMauritius\\nTogo\\nBotswana\\nBenin\\nUganda\\nNamibia\\nEthiopia\\nGhana\\nKenya\\nMorocco\\nLibya\\nNigeria\\nSouth Africa\\nEgypt\\n10000\\n0\\n20000\\n30000\\nCarbon Dioxide Emissions (Giga Gramme)\\n40000\\n50000\\n60000\\n70000\\nFigure 2: Transport sector emissions in select African countries.\\nSource: Adapted from Ayetor, et al. (2021) \\nFigure 3: Mode of transport in selected African cities (2013)\\nSource: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2020)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n4\\nThe local names for paratransit vehicles vary across countries; medium-sized minivans \\nor buses that accommodate 9 to 25 passengers are called matatus in Kenya, minibus \\ntaxis in South Africa (see Figure 4), and dala dala in Tanzania. Paratransit vehicles also \\ninclude tricycle (three-wheelers) taxis in Ghana and motorcycle (two-wheelers) taxis \\nin several eastern and western regions of Africa. Approximately 98% of commuters in \\nDar es Salaam (Tanzania), 91% in Kampala (Uganda), 90% in Lagos (Nigeria), 65% in \\nYaoundé (Cameroon), 82% in Algiers (Algeria), and 70% in Johannesburg (South Africa) \\nrely on paratransit transportation (Giliomee, et al., 2023).\\nFigure 4: Popular paratransit vehicles in Africa and their names\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n5\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nThe popularity of paratransit vehicles makes them critical for consideration in transport \\ndecarbonisation. Despite their ubiquitous nature in Africa, paratransit vehicles are \\ngenerally old, and electrifying them could reduce their tailpipe emissions while reducing \\noperating and maintenance costs for operators (see Case Study 2 in Chapter 2).\\nIn many African countries, where road quality is often poor and urban areas are congested, \\nmotorcycles (two-wheelers) — locally known as boda boda in East Africa, okada in \\nNigeria, and moto in Rwanda (see Figure 5) — are the preferred mode of transport. Their \\nagility allows them to efficiently navigate through varied terrains and gridlocked traffic, \\noutperforming four-wheelers and other vehicles. \\nFigure 5. Motorcycles in the streets of Kigali, Rwanda\\nPhoto credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff\\nTwo- and three-wheelers (also known as tricycles or tuk-tuks for three-wheelers) \\nhave become increasingly popular in Africa and other emerging markets due to \\ntheir availability, affordability, and adaptability. These vehicle segments which are \\npredominantly purchased new in Africa, are projected to become a dominant force in \\nSub-Saharan Africa’s sustainable mobility transformative agenda (Powering Renewable \\nEnergy Opportunities, 2023). They are particularly advantageous for low-income \\ncountries and cost-effective to produce and are generally cheaper to electrify than buses \\nand heavy-duty vehicles, as discussed in the cost benefit analysis of EVs in Section 5.3 in \\nChapter 5. Their smaller batteries can be charged via mini grids, making them suitable \\nfor areas with limited access to reliable electricity grid infrastructure (see Case Study \\n7 in Section 5.9). Additionally, they can benefit from a battery-swap model, wherein a \\ndepleted battery is exchanged for a fully charged one at a designated swap station (see \\nSections 2.3.3 and 5.9).\\nAfrican countries could leverage the growing preference for two- and three-wheelers \\nto decarbonise this sector. For African EV manufacturers, prioritising the development \\nand production of two- and three-wheelers presents a strategic short-term approach, \\nalongside the production of four-wheelers and other vehicle segments (Cash, 2022). \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n6\\nHowever, EV manufacturers need to design electric motorcycles suited to the needs \\nand landscape of the continent as most of the electric motorcycles in the continent \\nimported from China and India are not well-suited for African conditions, they are costly, \\nface unreliable electric and charging infrastructure, especially in rural areas (Powering \\nRenewable Energy Opportunities, 2023).\\n1.2\\t Current Status of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa\\nThe Paris Agreement sets an ambitious global goal of limiting global warming to 1.5° \\nCelsius above pre-industrial levels. Achieving this goal requires that global greenhouse \\ngas emissions peak by 2025, decline by 43% by 2030, and fall to net zero by 2050 \\n(The United Nations, n.d.). The Paris Agreement mandates parties to submit Nationally \\nDetermined Contributions (NDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on \\nClimate Change (UNFCCC). Although implementation is voluntary, the NDCs aim to \\nreach specific targets and objectives and require periodic updates. The first generation \\nof NDCs, submitted by 191 countries, covered over 90% of global energy-related and \\nindustrial process CO2 emissions, with certain targets conditional on international support \\nfor technology, finance, and means towards implementation (SLOCAT, 2022). NDCs are \\nupdated by each country every five years to demonstrate progression from the previous \\nNDC, reflecting the country’s “highest possible ambition”.\\nAfrican countries have set ambitious goals to reduce transport sector emissions in line \\nwith the Paris Agreement. For example, Burkina Faso, the Gambia, Guinea, Ethiopia, \\nLiberia, Nigeria and South Sudan have demonstrated commitment to decarbonise the \\ntransport sector by setting targets in their NDCs. Moreover, Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, \\nSierra Leone, South Sudan, and Togo have defined the adoption and promotion of \\nelectric mobility (e-mobility) as one measure to transform their transport sector. Table 1 \\nindicates transport-sector emission reduction targets of select countries in Africa.\\nFigure 6: Transport sector GHG emissions mitigation and adaptation actions.\\nSource: SLOCAT (2022)\\nLow carbon fuels\\n& energy vectors\\n29%\\nInnovation\\n& upscaling\\n2%\\nElectrification\\n15%\\nTransport system\\nimprovements\\n22%\\nMode shift demand\\nmanagement\\n32%\\nInformational\\n& educational\\n16%\\nInstitutional\\n& regulatory\\n31%\\nStructural \\ntechnical\\n53%\\nT\\nr\\na\\nn\\ns\\np\\no\\nrt\\n \\nm\\nit\\ni\\ng\\na\\nti\\no\\nn\\n \\na\\nc\\nti\\no\\nn\\ns \\nb\\ny\\n c\\na\\nt\\ne\\ng\\no\\nr\\ny\\nT\\nr\\na\\nn\\ns\\np\\no\\nrt\\n \\na\\nd\\na\\np\\nt\\na\\nti\\no\\nn\\n \\na\\nc\\nti\\no\\nn\\ns \\nb\\ny\\n c\\na\\nt\\ne\\ng\\no\\nr\\ny\\n(a) Transport adaptation\\n(b) Transport mitigation\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n7\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nAs shown in Figure 6 (b), transport mitigation actions included in second-generation \\nNDCs focus on mode shift and demand management (32% of all actions), followed by \\nfuel and energy efficiency (29%), transport system improvements (22%) and electrification \\n(15%) (SLOCAT, 2022). Countries like Cape Verde, Congo, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Seychelles, \\nSierra Leone, and South Sudan included in their NDCs’ actions to electrify public buses \\nas an entry point for long term efforts towards more comprehensive electrification of \\nTable 1: Transport-sector emissions reduction targets of select African countries\\nCountry\\nTransport GHG emission targets in the NDC\\nAlgeria\\nCommitted to reduce greenhouse emissions by 22% by 2030 \\nrelative to business as usual.\\nEgypt \\nAims to reduce emissions by 7% below the business as usual.\\nEswatini\\nAims to reduce emissions from transport by introducing commercial \\nuse of 10% ethanol blend in petrol and conducting studies to assess \\nthe adoption of electric mobility options. \\nGambia \\nIntends to reduce emissions by 22% below the business as usual\\nGuinea\\nIntends to unconditionally reduce emissions by 10% below the \\nbusiness as usual.\\nLiberia\\nIntends to lower emissions by 15% below the business as usual. \\nMauritania\\nIntends to lower emissions by 1%, of which 5.21% of the target is \\nunconditional, below the business as usual.\\nNamibia \\nIntends to reduce emissions by 7% below the business as usual.\\nMauritius \\nIntends to reduce emissions by 8%, below the business as usual.\\nRwanda \\nIntends to reduce emissions by 9% through adoption of EVs and \\n10% through improved vehicle standards below the business as \\nusual.\\nSeychelles\\nIntends to reduce emissions by 30% by focusing on gasoline \\nvehicles.\\nSierra Leone\\nCommits to implementing low GHG fuels and incentives for vehicle \\ndemand reduction.\\nSomali\\nIntends to lower emissions by 56%, below the business as usual.\\nSouth Sudan\\nIntends to reduce emissions by 44% below the business as usual.\\nSudan \\nIntends to reduce emissions by 1% below the business as usual.\\nUganda \\nIntends to reduce emissions by 29% below the business as usual.\\nZimbabwe \\nIntends to reduce emissions by 1% through transport economy fuel \\npolicies and fuel efficiency improvements; and 1% by shifting from \\nprivate to public transport. \\nSource: UNFCCC NDC registry. https://unfccc.int/NDCREG \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n8\\ntransport (SLOCAT, 2022). Figure 6 (a) shows transport adaptation actions which relate \\nto road infrastructure resilience, majorly incorporated into design and planning of the \\ntransport systems and infrastructure. \\nSupporting transport electrification with renewable energy is crucial for reducing \\nemissions in the transport sector. Despite the mitigation benefits of using renewable \\nenergy to electrify the transport sector, few countries have linked transport electrification \\nwith using renewable energy for manufacturing and operating the vehicles. Only 10% of \\ntransport mitigation actions in Africa pertain to alternative fuels, and less than 3% mention \\nthe use of renewable energy. Among the submitted NDCs, Burkina Faso, Morocco, \\nNamibia, South Sudan, and Tanzania stand out for linking transport to renewable energy. \\nMeanwhile, Cape Verde has set a target to electrify at least 25% of its land-borne transport \\nfleet (new road vehicles) by 2030, supported by renewable energy sources (SLOCAT, \\n2022). To enhance transport resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change \\nimpacts, countries are expected to communicate their adaptation strategies in their \\nNDCs. Thus, many African countries have featured transport adaptation actions in NDCs \\nsubmitted, with 25 NDCs incorporating such measures. Notably, over half of these actions \\nare geared towards enhancing the resilience of road infrastructure. Additionally, close \\nto one-third of all transport adaptation actions revolve around integrating adaptation \\nstrategies into the design and planning of transport systems and infrastructure (SLOCAT, \\n2022).\\n1.3\\t Strategies for Decarbonising Road Transport\\nReplacing technologies that use fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) for \\nelectrification with those based on renewable energy sources (like solar, wind, and \\nhydro), can play an important role in the decarbonisation of transport. Electric vehicles are \\ngenerally more environmentally friendly than their petrol or diesel counterparts, producing \\nfewer greenhouse gases, pollutants and noise. While EVs have higher emissions during \\nthe production stage, this is offset by lower emissions over their lifespan. Currently, \\nelectric vehicles emit 17-30% less GHG than traditional cars (European Environment \\nAgency, 2018). With advancements in manufacturing efficiency and cleaner electricity \\nproduction, the life-cycle emissions of electric vehicles could be reduced by at least 73% \\nby 2050 (European Environment Agency, 2018). Except for the initial capital cost, currently \\nbetween 30–40% higher than an equivalent ICE vehicle (Gallizzi, 2022), EVs also have \\nlower operational and maintenance costs, making them cheaper overall (see Section 5.3).\\nApproximately 14% of all new vehicles sold in 2022 globally were EVs, a rise of 9% \\ncompared to 2021 (IEA, 2023). China, the European Union, and the United States, three \\nmajor global automotive markets, have the highest rates of adoption of passenger EVs. \\nChina accounted for 47% of EV sales in 2021, followed by the EU (37%) and the United \\nStates (12%) (Kendall, et al., 2023). China, the EU, and the United States are expected \\nto only sell EVs by 2035, and by 2050, 80% of the world’s vehicle sales are expected \\nto be electric (Mckinsey, 2022). As global vehicle manufacturers move towards phasing \\nout internal combustion engines within the next few decades, it becomes increasingly \\nimportant for developing countries, including those in Africa, to follow the trend of \\ntransition to electric mobility. This shift is crucial to prevent these nations from becoming \\nrepositories for high-emission vehicles phased out in advanced economies, and to \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n9\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nensure alignment with global trends towards more sustainable transportation.\\nDemand for EVs in Africa is rising, but data are limited. In 2021, Africa’s EV market had an \\nestimated value of USD 11.94 billion and is projected to reach USD 21.39 billion by 2027 \\n(MordorIntelligence, 2023). South Africa, for example, is expected to have high demand \\nfor EVs, including from the paratransit transport sector (see Case Study 2 in Chapter 2). A \\nrecent study demonstrated significant interest among South African paratransit owners \\nand drivers to adopt EVs in the future but emphasised the need to address concerns \\nrelated to EV vehicle performance, safety, reliability, environmental impact, and operating \\ncosts (Hull, et al., 2023).\\nWhile adoption of electric vehicles can help address pollution, it does not necessarily \\nresolve other transport sector challenges in Africa such as congestion and road safety, or \\nthe large amount of land that transport infrastructure may require. Consequently, while \\nimperative, electrification of transport needs to be considered as an integral component \\nof a broader, more comprehensive strategy for developing sustainable transport systems \\nin Africa, such as the EASIR approach. Implementing a holistic approach that includes \\neffective urban planning, the adoption of mass rapid transit (MRT), bus rapid transit (BRT) \\nand non-motorised transport (NMT), along with the transition to EVs, is crucial not only \\nfor mitigating climate change, but also for assisting countries in achieving their Nationally \\nDetermined Contributions (NDC) targets. Overall, transitioning to a decarbonised \\ntransport sector offers an opportunity for broader environmental consciousness and the \\nadoption of sustainable practices across various sectors.\\n \\n1.4.\\t The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience Approach \\nto Decarbonisation of Transport \\nDecarbonisation of the transport sector requires robust political frameworks and policies \\nthat aim to reduce emissions from transport, such as deployment of EVs, along with a \\nconsistent plan to eliminate ICE vehicles while establishing safer, reliable, and accessible \\nnon-motorised transport infrastructure in the continent. The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-\\nResilience (EASIR) approach provides a framework for the strategies for decarbonisation \\nof transport in Africa.\\nInitially developed in the early 1990s as the ASI approach, the framework sought to (1) \\nimprove access to jobs, goods and services while enabling users to avoid motorised trips \\nby smarter land use and logistics planning; (2) shift the transport of goods and persons to \\nthe most efficient mode; and (3) improve the efficiency and environmental performance \\nof transport systems through improved vehicle, fuel, and network operations and \\nmanagement technologies. The successful development and implementation of any \\npolicy depends on the existence of effective institutional or governance frameworks. \\nThe Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP), an international partnership \\nadministered by the World Bank, proposed a fourth action pillar—Enable—to complement \\nthe ASI approach based on the specificities of the African context. Since enable actions \\nare the prerequisites that make other actions in ASI possible, SSATP has proposed \\nputting enable first, thereby converting ASI into the EASI policy framework, guiding \\ndecarbonisation of transport and transport accessibility reforms in Africa. \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n10\\n \\n                      \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n   \\n     \\n     \\n     \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n     \\n     \\n     \\n     \\n \\n \\n     \\n \\n     \\n     \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n     \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n     \\n     \\n \\n     \\n     \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n     \\n     \\n     \\n \\n     \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n11\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nThe 2022 World Bank report Pathways to Electric Mobility in the Sahel: Two- and Three-\\nWheelers in Bamako and Ouagadougou, proposed the addition of another pillar—\\nresilience. The report, which assessed the potential for electrification of two-wheelers and \\nthree-wheelers due to their dominance in the African market highlighted the resiliency \\nof these modes of transport despite the challenges they face. Like most parts of Africa, \\nin Bamako, Mali, two-wheelers are used for private travel, commercial passenger travel, \\nfreight transport, and in motor taxis, while in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, they are used \\nprimarily as private vehicles. In both cities, three-wheelers are used predominantly for \\nfreight transport. The inclusion of a Resilience pillar thus recognises the necessity of \\ncreating or enhancing the resilience and adaptive capacity of transport systems and \\ninfrastructure to withstand various stresses and shocks, including those exacerbated by \\nclimate change, environmental degradation, and social changes as exemplified by two- \\nand three-wheelers in Africa (World Bank, 2022).\\nThe EASIR approach can be adopted by individual transport users, companies, and \\npolicymakers as shown in Table 2. For individual consumers of transport services such as \\npassengers, there is a need for awareness of the impact of the transport sector in climate \\nchange as well as a mindset shift, and the adoption of sustainable modes of transport. \\nFor companies, adopting the approach requires a transformational shift in the way they \\noperate — how they source, use, consume, and think about energy, and how they engage \\nwith multiple stakeholders. For governments and investors, there is a need for significant \\npolicy and financial commitments. \\nClimate adaptation and mitigation actions adopted by African countries in their NDCs \\n(see Section 1.2 of this Chapter) align with elements of the EASIR approach. Applications \\nof EASIR actions through integrated, intermodal, and balanced approaches are vital to \\nachieving sustainable low carbon transport. Relative to NDCs globally, EASIR actions in \\nAfrica are slightly more balanced, with 30% representing shift actions compared to 25% \\nat the global level. Improve actions such as vehicle improvements make up 53% of all \\nactions in the region, which is the lowest among all regions and slightly below the global \\nlevel (58%) (SLOCAT, 2022), as outlined in Figure 7. \\nFigure 7: Mitigation actions by enable-avoid-shift-improve approach.\\nSource: Adapted from GIZ (2022)\\nAvoid\\n4%\\n4%\\n33%\\n52%\\n53%\\n30%\\nFirst-generation NDCs\\nSecond-generation NDCs\\nShift\\nImprove\\nMitigation actions by Avoid–Shift–Improve\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n12\\n1.5 Benefits of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa\\nThe benefits of decarbonising transport in Africa can be broadly categorised into \\nenvironmental, economic, and social. These are discussed in some detail in the following \\nsections.\\n1.5.1\\t Environmental Benefits\\nTransitioning from fossil fuel-dependent vehicles to cleaner alternatives such as EVs \\nsupported by renewable energy sources like hydropower, solar and wind power will not \\nonly decrease air pollution, but also lessen reliance on imported fossil fuels, promoting \\nenergy independence. The environmental benefits also extend beyond immediate \\nemission reductions. Embracing green transportation technologies can contribute to \\nthe preservation of Africa’s rich biodiversity and natural landscapes, often threatened \\nby pollution and unsustainable development practices. The abundant sunshine and \\nvast landscapes offer an ideal setting for harnessing solar energy, a potentially pivotal \\nsource for powering EVs and the necessary charging infrastructure. Another positive \\nimpact includes a decrease in noise pollution as EVs are significantly quieter than ICE \\nvehicles. Moreover, as discussed in Chapter 4, decarbonising transport also offers an \\nopportunity for sustainable transport and urban development, in line with the United \\nNations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).\\n \\n1.5.2\\t Economic Benefits\\nSustainable transport solutions can promote economic development, reduce poverty, \\nand improve access to transport while also reducing carbon emissions and protecting the \\nenvironment (see Chapter 4). Unlike developed regions facing the difficult challenge of \\ntransitioning from an “old economy,” Africa has an advantage in that it can directly invest \\nin a green economy, bypassing traditional, emission-heavy models of development. \\nWithin the transportation sector, current low motorisation rates mean that the continent \\ncan more easily focus on adoption of clean transportation models, for both personal cars \\nand mass transit systems. Moreover, the continent is endowed with vast natural resources \\nand a wealth of untapped renewable energy potential. These assets, if leveraged \\neffectively, have the potential to not only contribute to reducing emissions but also to \\ncreate substantial job opportunities, drive technological advancements, and stimulate \\nsustainable economic growth.\\n \\nOne area with significant economic potential is the automotive sector. In developed \\nmarkets, established auto manufacturers hold a dominant position, making it challenging \\nfor new vehicle manufacturers to enter the market, unless they showcase significant \\ninnovations in product development. Conversely, the African market remains untapped \\nand offers promising opportunities for new entrants. The relative simplicity of EV \\nproduction and the significant localisation of several key components (excluding batteries) \\noffer opportunities for domestic production in many low-and middle-income countries. \\nInnovative start-ups in Kenya (for example, BasiGo, Roam, Kiri, and Kuza Automotive), \\nUganda (for example, Kiira Motors Corporation), Rwanda (for example, Ampersand), and \\nSouth Africa indicate the viability of diversifying the vehicle manufacturing industry in \\nAfrica (see Chapter 2).\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n13\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nThe emerging EV component supply and value chain thus offers significant economic \\nadvantages. As the demand for traditional ICE vehicle components wanes, a new market \\nfor EV-specific components, particularly batteries and electric drives, is rapidly expanding. \\nWith its rich reserves of essential minerals like cobalt and lithium, crucial for battery \\nproduction, Africa is already recognised as a vital source of raw materials. Investing in \\nlocal manufacturing of EVs and EV components could further provide opportunities for \\nthe development of automotive exports, which would stimulate economic growth and \\ninnovation in the automotive and related supply and value chains.\\nTransition to electric transportation also offers an opportunity to reduce the import bill \\nand foreign exchange outflows associated with imports of fuel and used vehicles, since \\ncountries may save up to 50% in refuelling costs by transitioning to EV fleets (Scott, et \\nal., 2023). Meanwhile, export of automotive products will result in associated foreign \\nexchange earnings, potentially bolstering foreign reserves and further strengthening \\neconomic resilience and reducing macroeconomic vulnerabilities to energy-induced \\nexternal shocks. Conversely, these positive macroeconomic effects will not be the same \\nfor all African countries. Fuel-importing countries stand to reap significant economic \\nbenefits from substituting hydrocarbon imports with domestically generated renewable \\nenergy forms. For petroleum-exporting African countries, fuel exports are a significant \\nsource of public revenue that drives economic growth and prosperity. As a result, they \\nwill have to invest in alternative revenue sources by diversifying hydrocarbon value \\nchains to sustain the positive effects of the petroleum sector on public finances and on \\nthe domestic economy. In many countries, petroleum taxation is a dependable source \\nof public revenue, although the level of dependence and flexibility to shift to other \\nsustainable tax revenue sources vary widely across Africa. For example, tax revenues on \\npetroleum products accounts for as much as 60% of total tax revenues in Nigeria, Gabon, \\nEquatorial Guinea, and Angola, and less than a third in oil-importing countries such as \\nKenya and Botswana. Regardless, all countries will need to make fiscal adjustments to \\naccommodate these changes and to proactively transition their public revenues systems \\naway from hydrocarbons to new and more sustainable alternatives.\\n \\n1.5.3\\t Social Benefits \\nThe social benefits of sustainable transportation include improved accessibility of transport \\nfor all people and benefits related to public health and job creation. Sustainable mobility \\nsolutions promote accessible and affordable transportation options for all members of \\nsociety, including those with limited mobility or financial resources, compared to transport \\nsystems focused on serving private vehicles. Public transportation, cycling infrastructure, \\nand walking paths are examples of inclusive transportation modes that can be utilised \\nby people of different socio-economic backgrounds. For urban residents, the use of low-\\nemission vehicles such as EVs and alternative modes like walking and cycling can reduce \\nair pollution, leading to improvements in the quality of life for all. Meanwhile, the transition \\nto decarbonised transport could result in increased social equity across socioeconomic \\ngroups in towns and cities across Africa. Designing or adopting new buses presents \\nan opportunity to consider the needs of persons with disabilities in the design of the \\nbus itself as well as in bus-parking infrastructure, following the Just Transition Principles \\n(discussed in Chapter 5). Moreover, since transport decarbonisation will impact urban \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n14\\ndesign, it presents an opportunity to consider the needs of low-income communities \\nand vulnerable groups in urban development and transport planning. Furthermore, EVs \\noperate more smoothly and quietly than ICE cars since electric motors generate less \\nnoise and vibration, which may lead to a safer, more pleasurable and relaxing driving \\nexperience.\\n \\n1.6\\t Challenges in the Transition to Decarbonised \\nTransportation\\nThe transition to decarbonised transport in Africa faces several challenges, which can be \\ncategorised into issues related to electric vehicles (EVs), public and active transport, and \\nbroader systemic challenges.\\n1.6.1\\t Systemic Barriers\\nThe entrenched nature of fossil fuel energy systems, traditional transportation operators, \\nand existing governance systems creates significant systemic barriers to decarbonisation. \\nThese entities often have established, powerful interests that are resistant to change \\ndue to financial, political, or ideological reasons. Overcoming these barriers requires \\nnot only technological innovation but also changes in policy, consumer behaviour, \\nand investment patterns. The challenge is to dismantle these entrenched systems in \\na way that is economically and socially sustainable, while rapidly advancing towards \\ngreener alternatives. The multi-level perspective framework for understanding complex \\nsustainability transitions involving multiple regimes and stakeholders (discussed in \\nChapter 5, Section 5.1) offers insights into how to disrupt these regimes and the complex \\ntransition to decarbonisation.\\n \\n1.6.2\\t Electricity Supply and Infrastructure\\nA stable and ample supply of electricity is a prerequisite for EVs. However, many countries \\nin Africa struggle with inconsistent power supplies which could potentially limit the \\neffectiveness of a transition to electric vehicles (see discussion in Chapter 3). The lack of \\ninfrastructure and irregular power supply results in high electricity costs. \\nAlthough not unique to Africa, the sparsity of charging stations results in range anxiety \\n(the fear of running out of power while driving with no place to recharge). Range anxiety \\nis one of the main reasons cited as limiting large uptake of e-mobility by many private \\nvehicle owners. Solutions such as battery swapping can address range anxiety, especially \\nfor long-distance travel and in rural areas of Africa where electricity supply may be \\nintermittent. Battery swapping is the process of removing depleted batteries from an \\nEV and replacing it with a charged one (see discussion of business models in Chapter \\n2). Battery swapping ensures that the ‘recharge’ is almost instant, ensuring the user can \\ncontinue their journey, minus the minimal time taken to replace the battery. Meanwhile, \\nsome countries, like Egypt and Rwanda, are mitigating high electricity costs through \\nspecial tariffs for charging stations. Egypt offers set prices for EV charging (operators are \\nprovided with official licenses) and Rwanda has capped tariffs for charging stations with \\ncharge point operators at USD 10 cents/kWh (instead of 20 cents/kWh) and reducing \\ntariffs for charges during off-peak hours.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n15\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n1.6.3\\t High Cost and Accessibility of Electric Vehicles\\nThe initial high cost of EVs makes them less accessible in a continent with significant \\neconomic constraints. Financial institutions view the EV market as risky, offering high-\\ninterest rates for EV financing, discouraging uptake. As a result, many EVs on the market \\nremain more expensive than ICE vehicles. For example, in South Africa, an electric car is, \\non average, twice as expensive as a new ICE vehicle (Valero & Wink, 2022). \\nIn addition, there is a dependency on imported technology and expertise in the EV sector, \\nhindering local industry development and innovation. Local EV industry development, \\ninnovation, design, and production can help counteract this dependency challenge. Two \\nsuch examples are the electrification of public buses in Kenya (see Case Study 1, Section \\n2.3.1), and the conversion of paratransit vehicles from ICE to EVs in South Africa (see \\nCase Study 2, Section 2.3.9).\\n1.6.4\\t Insufficient Policy Frameworks and Incentives\\nRobust policy frameworks and incentives are essential to support the widespread \\nadoption of clean transportation. These measures should include VAT and custom duty \\nexceptions, alongside initiatives to encourage financial institutions to develop accessible \\nvehicle-financing packages for EV buyers. While such policy frameworks and incentives \\nare in development, as discussed in Chapters 2 and 5 of this report, they remain \\ninsufficient or entirely lacking in many countries. Chapter 5 specifically outlines how \\nthese frameworks, including financial institution engagement strategies, can effectively \\npromote the uptake of clean transportation models.\\n1.6.5\\t Workforce and Industry\\nThe shift from traditional automotive manufacturing and maintenance to greener \\ntechnologies is a complex transition for the workforce and industry. The transition \\nrequires retraining workers, adapting existing manufacturing facilities, and developing \\nnew skill sets aligned with green technologies such as EV production and maintenance, \\nor management of renewable energy systems. Moreover, the transition must be \\nmanaged in a way that minimises job losses in traditional industries and creates new \\nemployment opportunities in the green sector. This requires significant commitment \\nfrom all stakeholders.\\n1.6.6\\t Underinvestment in Public and Active Transport\\nThe lack of sufficient investment in public and active transport infrastructure severely \\nrestricts the development of sustainable transport options. This underinvestment \\nleads to inadequate, unreliable, or non-existent public transit systems and discourages \\nactive transport modes like cycling and walking due to safety concerns and lack of \\nsupporting infrastructure. Expanding and maintaining efficient public transit systems, as \\nwell as developing infrastructure for non-motorised transport, are crucial for reducing \\ndependency on personal vehicles and lowering emissions (see discussion in Chapter 4). \\nThis requires not only financial investment but also strategic urban planning to integrate \\ndifferent modes of transport effectively.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n16\\n1.6.7\\t Poor Coordination and Non-inclusivity\\nMany African countries struggle with poor transport planning, coordination, and \\nimplementation, leading to fragmented and inefficient systems. This issue is compounded \\nby non-inclusive infrastructural development, which often fails to consider the diverse \\nneeds of all population segments, including women, the elderly, and persons with \\ndisabilities. There is a critical need for integrated transport planning that considers the \\nunique needs of different groups, thereby ensuring equitable access to transport services. \\nThis includes designing safe, accessible, and user-friendly transportation systems that \\ncater to the needs of vulnerable populations and promote inclusive mobility.\\nThese challenges highlight the critical need for coordinated efforts among governments, \\nindustry stakeholders, and international partners to successfully navigate the shift towards \\na decarbonised transport sector. A holistic approach that addresses technical, economic, \\nsocial, and political dimensions is essential to overcome these obstacles and achieve \\nsustainable transport solutions. \\n\\n\\n17\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nACCELERATING DECARBONISATION OF\\nTRANSPORT IN AFRICA\\nAfrican countries are already engaged in efforts to decarbonise road transport. This \\nchapter explores some of these efforts and how to accelerate them. It highlights business \\nmodels and solutions that are necessary in addressing issues that hinder uptake of \\nelectric vehicles such as lack of affordability and unreliable charging infrastructure. \\nThese include local manufacturing of EVs, innovative charging models, and financing \\nmechanisms. This chapter also underscores the importance of adopting data-driven and \\nevidence-based approaches in policy planning and decision-making to hasten the shift \\ntowards decarbonised transport across the continent.\\n2.1\\t Policies and Regulations\\nPolicies and regulations to decarbonise transport in Africa have been adopted across \\nvarious levels—continental, regional, and national. At the continental level, the African \\nUnion’s Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) aims to facilitate \\nregional integration by improving physical infrastructure in Africa by developing road \\nnetworks, railways, ports, and airports to enhance connectivity between countries. PIDA \\nalso looks to expand the electric grid network across Africa, focusing on both renewable \\nand non-renewable energy sources to ensure a sustainable and reliable power supply \\n(AfDB, n.d.). The programme is crucial for addressing Africa’s infrastructure deficit, which \\nis a major barrier to trade, economic growth, and development.\\n \\nSimilarly, Agenda 2063, Africa’s blueprint for developing inclusive and sustainable \\nsocio-economic development, includes a commitment to promote sustainable and \\nefficient transportation systems across the continent (African Union, 2015). Agenda 2063 \\nunderscores the development of sustainable transportation infrastructure, the use of \\nalternative fuels, and the adoption of clean energy technologies (African Union, 2015). \\nEqually, the African Renewable Energy Initiative aims to achieve universal access to \\nrenewable energy in Africa by 2025 (AREI, 2016). This initiative promotes the adoption \\nof renewable energy technologies such as solar charging of EVs (discussed in Chapters \\n3 and 5) in the transport sector. Building on these foundational efforts, the AU has \\nstrengthened its commitment to climate action by adopting the Climate Change and \\nResilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 (African Union, \\n2022). CCRDSAP serves as a comprehensive framework for joint climate action at the \\ncontinental level, enabling African countries to collectively address climate change and \\nresilience. It encourages partnership development and supports the decarbonisation \\nof critical sectors, including transport and energy. This strategy aligns with the African \\ncountries’ commitments under the Paris Agreement, drawing guidance from national \\nclimate efforts as outlined in the Nationally Determined Contributions and national long-\\nCHAPTER TWO\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n18\\nterm strategies for resilient development and decarbonisation. Additionally, the AU’s \\nNairobi Declaration that was adopted at the inaugural Africa Climate Summit emphasises \\nthe urgent need for decarbonising the global economy, advocating for equality and \\nshared prosperity (African Union, 2023). The Declaration urges African countries to \\naccelerate decarbonisation in transport, electricity, and industrial sectors by adopting \\nsmart, digital, and efficient technologies, such as battery storage, synthetic fuels, and \\nrenewable energy sources (African Union, 2023).\\n \\nAs noted previously, 85% of vehicles imported in Africa are used vehicles (Ayetor et al., \\n2021). Until recently, there were no uniform vehicle standards across Africa (Kithome, \\n2019). To align with the trade policy requirements as outlined in the African Continental \\nFree Trade Agreement (AfCFTA), the African Organisation for Standardisation \\n(ARSO) and the African Export-Import Bank (Afreximbank) collaborated to harmonise \\nstandards and conformity assessment in the automotive sector to stimulate and boost \\ntrade among vehicle and parts manufacturers. The partnership led to the alignment \\nof 13 standards, encompassing roadworthiness, automotive fuels, transportation of \\nhazardous goods by road, classifications of motor vehicles and trailers, cross-border \\nroad transport management, vehicle homologation, and suggestions to embrace global \\nstandards (Kithome, 2021). This harmonisation was also in line with recommendations \\nof a 2020 UNEP report on the climate effects of the vehicle-import industry. The report \\nrecommended the development of coordinated regulations at the global or regional \\nlevels to regulate trade-in used vehicles to end the trade of unsafe, obsolete, dirty, and \\nfaulty used vehicles (United Nations, 2020).\\n \\nRegulations play a crucial role in driving the decarbonisation of transport in Africa \\nand can have either positive or negative impacts on the process. At the national level, \\nseveral countries have developed policies and regulations to promote and facilitate the \\ndecarbonisation of transport. Kenya’s National Climate Change Action Plan includes a \\nfocus on promoting electric vehicles, investment in non-motorised transport and public \\ntransport, and reducing emissions from the transport sector (Ministry of Environment and \\nForestry, 2021). In addition, Kenya’s National Automotive Policy aims to develop national \\ncapacities for competitive automotive products manufacturing anchored on training, \\ninnovation, research, and development. The strategy aims to increase the exports of \\nautomotive products to the East African region from 5% in 2018 to 15% by 2022 (Kenya \\nNational Assembly, 2022). To achieve this target, the government introduced incentive \\nplans on locally assembled vehicles with the aim of replacing imported vehicles with locally \\nassembled ones. However, due to increased competition from used vehicle markets and \\nweak domestic vehicle production facilities, this target was not met (ReportLinker, 2023).\\n \\nSouth Africa’s Automotive Production and Development Programme (APDP) aims to \\nstimulate the expansion of the automotive production sector by providing incentives \\nfor both domestic and foreign manufacturers. While the primary goal is to boost local \\nproduction, promoting the local automotive industry can facilitate the introduction and \\nadoption of cleaner and more fuel-efficient vehicle technologies. South Africa also \\nprovides EV incentives, which, if integrated with local production strategies, can foster \\ncleaner transportation. In addition, the South African Automotive Masterplan (SAAM, \\n2021–2035) aims to support the production of 1% of global vehicles, or 1.4 million \\nvehicles (both electric and non-electric) per annum in South Africa by 2035, which will \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n19\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nenhance the country’s status in the global vehicle production ranking (International \\nTrade Administration, 2024).\\n \\nIn Rwanda, a 2010 Ministerial Order mandated that exhaust fumes of motor vehicles be \\nincluded in the annual roadworthiness test and traffic police have acquired emissions \\ninspection equipment, including those that can perform on-the-spot emissions checks \\n(see Figure 8). In March 2022, Rwanda National Police (RNP), the body mandated with \\nimplementing motor vehicle emissions standards, together with other environmental \\ninstitutions, launched the “Healthy Vehicle, Cleaner Skies,” a campaign to reduce air \\npollution in Kigali (Rwanda National Police, 2022). The campaign targeted operators \\nof fossil-fuel powered vehicles and machinery, encouraging them to ensure that these \\nvehicles and machines are kept in optimal working conditions, thereby minimising \\nemissions.\\n \\nMeanwhile, Rwanda’s strategic plan on electric mobility adaptation aims to have 20% of \\nbuses, 30% of motorcycles, and 8% of cars electrified by 2030 and provides substantial \\nsavings on fuel imports (Republic of Rwanda, 2021). Rwanda’s government also \\ninvested USD 900 million and USD 190 million for EVs and vehicle emissions standards, \\nrespectively (UNEP\\n, 2022). Rwanda has also launched a pilot project in partnership with \\nVolkswagen to manufacture EVs locally (Volkswagen, 2019). \\n \\nIn Nigeria, the National Automotive Industry Development Plan (NAIDP) 2023–2033 aims \\nto revive the automobile industry by providing incentives for local vehicle production and \\nassembly through tax breaks and import restrictions on second-hand vehicles (NADDC, \\n2023). It imposes a 40% local content requirement and aims to ensure 30% local \\nproduction of EVs by 2033 (NADDC, 2023). This decreases reliance on older, imported \\nvehicles, which are often less fuel-efficient and more polluting. This shift becomes \\nparticularly impactful as local producers begin to transition towards the production of \\nelectric vehicles.\\n \\nIn Morocco, the National Energy Strategy targets a significant reduction in the transport \\nsector’s reliance on fossil fuels, aiming for a 24.5% decrease in energy consumption \\nby 2030 (Rim et al., 2021). The National Logistics Strategy seeks to enhance the \\nsustainability of the government fleet by increasing the share of green cars (defined \\nas hybrid or electric) by 30% (Benabdelaziz, n.d.); for example, the Post Office \\ncommitted to electrifying a fleet of about 225 of its vehicles. Through the Programme \\nfor the Improvement of Urban Public Transport, Morocco aims to renew taxi fleets and \\nextend tramway lines in Casablanca and Rabat to reduce public transport emissions \\n(Benabdelaziz, n.d.). Tax incentives, infrastructure development, and training initiatives \\nhave also positioned Morocco as an attractive location for automotive investment, \\nespecially for manufacturing of EVs and hybrid vehicles.\\n \\nGhana’s Automotive Development Policy (GADP) aims to position the country as a \\nfully integrated and competitive industrial hub for the automotive industry in the West \\nAfrica region. This includes attracting major global vehicle manufacturers to establish \\nassembly plants in the country. By promoting local assembly and reducing the reliance \\non imported used vehicles, Ghana can influence the type and efficiency of vehicles on its \\nroads, potentially favouring cleaner, low-emission options (Ministry of Trade and Industry, \\n2019).\\n \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n20\\nThe policies highlighted above offer a strategic blueprint for promoting sustainable \\ntransport solutions across Africa. They underscore the critical role of well-crafted policy \\ninstruments as accelerators in the continent’s transport sector decarbonisation, a \\ntheme that is further elaborated in Section 2.2 which categorises various types of policy \\ninstruments.\\n2.2\\t Policy Instruments\\nPolicy instruments play a critical role in advancing decarbonisation efforts in Africa. \\nThere are generally four types of policy instruments that are utilised or can be utilised \\nby African governments: (1) market-based instruments (such as taxes, subsidies, fees, \\nquotas, and penalties); (2) regulatory instruments (licenses, limits, prohibitions, laws); (3) \\ndirect provisions; and (4) information provisions. These policy instruments can be used \\nto spur or stifle transport decarbonisation and are discussed below.\\n2.2.1\\t Market-Based Instruments\\nMarket-based instruments seek to alter incentives of economic agents to promote \\ndesirable behaviour and action to foster economic efficiency and promote social equity \\nand environmental sustainability. Market-based instruments normally take the form \\nof taxes and public subsidies incentivising private investment. For EVs, they include \\nincentives that promote local manufacturing, distribution, purchase, and assembly of EV \\ncharging infrastructure and services needed to encourage electric mobility. As noted in \\nSection 1.6, a challenge with accelerating EV adoption is slow market development of \\ncharging services; often only established when adoption rates reach the level required \\nto support a commercial charging service model. Conversely, consumers are unlikely to \\nadopt EVs in the absence of reliable and affordable EV charging services. For NMT, they \\ninclude incentives that enhance the development of accompanying infrastructure such \\nas bike lanes, pedestrian walkways, and bike-sharing programmes to make the more \\naccessible and appealing to the public. Local governments should encourage the use of \\nNMT, and public transportation, for example, through subsidies for the poor instead of \\nbuilding infrastructure for private vehicles as seen in many African cities (UN-Habitat, 2022). \\nFor MRT, governments can implement land use policies that encourage development \\naround MRT stations, such as higher density zoning or improved permitting processes \\nfor transit-oriented developments. This can create vibrant, mixed-use communities that \\nare easily accessible by MRT, driving ridership and increasing property values.\\n2.2.2\\t Regulatory Instruments\\nRegulatory instruments include a wide range of command-and-control instruments \\nimplemented in the form of rules and regulations, standards and limits, restrictions \\nplaced on access, extraction and production, trade, and consumption of certain goods \\nand services in the economy. Regulatory instruments that have been deployed in the \\ntransport and allied sectors need to be assessed for consistency with supporting efforts \\nto transition to carbon neutral transportation to achieve the net-zero targets as outlined in \\nthe 2015 Paris Agreement. Such an assessment can identify regulations that run contrary \\nto these efforts and possible reformation. It is critical to ensure that the regulatory \\ninstruments are holistic and foster policy coherence while also being cost-effective.\\n \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n21\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nSeveral countries, including Algeria, Chad, Kenya, Mauritius, and Seychelles, have used \\nregulatory instruments to prohibit importation of second-hand vehicles of a certain \\nage in a bid to reduce carbon emissions (UNEP\\n, 2017). For example, in Algeria, Chad, \\nMauritius, and Seychelles, an imported diesel vehicle cannot be older than three years; \\nin Kenya, Mauritania, and Namibia, eight years; in Benin, Democratic Republic of Congo, \\nand Eritrea, 10 years; and in Liberia, Nigeria, and Eswatini, 12 years (UNEP\\n, 2017). Other \\ncountries have also banned use of ordinary diesel in preference of low sulphur diesel to \\nreduce carbon emissions (UNEP\\n, 2017).\\n \\nEVs and charging service ecosystems require specific supporting regulatory instruments \\nthat address various aspects of usage. This may include standards for the construction \\nand operation of charging stations, guidelines on the sourcing and disposal of EV \\nbatteries, safety protocols, and incentives to encourage EV adoption. Moreover, \\nregulations can also consider the integration of EV infrastructure with existing urban and \\nrural environments, to ensure accessibility and convenience for users.\\n \\nInfrastructure standards and regulations can also enhance road safety and promote the \\nintegration of different transport modes, such as linking NMT with public transportation \\nsystems in African countries. These could include implementing urban speed limits, \\nestablishing clear rules for yielding to pedestrians at crossings, and setting penalties for \\nreckless driving that endangers NMT users. Additionally, regulations could support NMT \\nintegration with public transport by mandating the provision of bike racks on buses and \\ntrains and ensuring that transit stations are accessible by foot or bike.”\\n2.2.3\\t Direct Provision\\nDirect provision instruments occur when governments directly provide goods or services \\nto its citizens, rather than through market mechanisms or private sector entities. These \\ninstruments are often used in areas where the government deems it essential to have \\ndirect control to ensure equitable access, quality, and efficiency, or where the market may \\nfail to provide these goods or services adequately.\\n \\nDirect provision instruments offer an alternative option for African governments to \\nsupport critical aspects of decarbonised transport, such as the adoption of EVs. In \\naddition to market- and policy-based instruments, governments can play an important \\nrole in providing enabling infrastructure needed to make public and non-motorised \\ntransport, mass rapid transit, and electric mobility business models profitable and \\nsustainable. Governments can directly invest in and build EV charging stations across \\ncities and along major highways, and in rural areas to support the lack of commercial \\nprovision. This will alleviate range anxiety and position EVs as a more viable option for \\nconsumers. Moreover, direct provision of electric public transit and the electrification of \\ngovernment fleets (official government vehicles) can also set positive precedents for EV \\nadoption while creating a stable demand for EVs and charging infrastructure, ultimately \\nattracting private investors.\\n2.2.4\\t Information Provision\\nInformation provision entails the dissemination of relevant, accurate, and timely \\ninformation to the public or specific target groups to increase public education and \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n22\\nawareness. This provision can play an important role in shaping and changing public \\npreferences and behaviour in the selection of transport options. For instance, some \\nconsumers perceive electric vehicles as expensive and have adopted a “wait and \\nsee” approach while continuing to use ICE vehicles (Alanazi, 2023). Even in countries \\nwith incentives for EV purchases, consumers may be unaware of such incentives. The \\nutilisation of efficient strategies for information sharing on EVs, including the promotion \\nof existing incentives for EVs, and e-mobility modes in general, will assist the transition \\nto sustainable transport. Furthermore, to change consumer attitudes and behaviour \\n(preferences) on walking and cycling when appropriate infrastructure is available, public \\nawareness and campaigns to battle misinformation are required.\\n \\n2.3\\t Business Models and Solutions\\nEVs have high upfront cost compared to ICE vehicles and current EV charging \\ninfrastructure is inadequate, causing range anxiety amongst potential customers and \\nhindering uptake. New business and financing models can address both the issue of \\naffordability and access to charging infrastructure to accelerate adoption of EVs in Africa. \\nBusiness models and solutions include local assembly and manufacturing, conversion \\nof ICE vehicles to EVs, auto parts manufacturing, battery swapping, Pay-As-You-Go \\ncharging, solar charging stations, vehicle to grid, integrated mobility platforms, and \\nbattery recycling and are discussed below. The business models can incorporate EVs \\ncharging at large supermarket complexes and large hospitals, as well as private charging \\nat homes and offices.\\n2.3.1\\t Local Assembly and Manufacturing\\nLocal manufacturing of EVs can create jobs and reduce the cost of EVs, making them \\nmore accessible to consumers. Policies that support local manufacturing, coupled \\nwith the infusion of technology and skills into the local market, could position Africa as \\na potential EV hub for local and regional markets. Several countries, including Egypt, \\nKenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, and South Africa have policies supporting local \\nvehicle manufacturing (see Section 2.1), and have attracted both global automakers and \\nnew innovative e-mobility companies.\\n \\nGlobal companies involved in the manufacturing or assembly of electric vehicles in Africa \\ninclude Nissan and BMW in South Africa, Volkswagen in Rwanda, Hyundai Kona in Nigeria, \\nand Renault in Morocco. BYD (Build Your Dreams), a Chinese multinational company \\nknown for affordable EVs and batteries, has shown interest in the African market through \\npartnerships with local companies. Aside from the popular brands, Africa is increasingly \\ndeveloping its own vehicle brands. Emerging African manufactured brands include Kiira \\nMotors (Uganda), Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (Nigeria), Katanka (Ghana), Mobius \\n(Kenya), Laraki (Morocco), and Birkin Cars (South Africa). Companies like Kiira Motors \\nin Uganda, Mobility for Africa in Zimbabwe, Ampersand in Rwanda, and BasiGo and \\nRoam in Kenya (see Case Study 1 and Figure 9) aim to develop and manufacture electric \\nvehicles tailored to the specific needs and conditions of the continent. \\nUnlike all other vehicle segments, two-wheelers, or motorcycles (called boda bodas \\nin much of East Africa, okadas in Nigeria, and taxi-motos in most English-speaking \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n23\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nFigure 8. BasiGo bus in Nairobi, Kenya\\nSource: BasiGo (2023)\\nCase Study 1\\nBasiGo — pioneering electric public transportation in Nairobi, Kenya\\nRapid urbanisation in Nairobi and other major Kenyan cities has led to an influx of vehicles \\non the road. The prominence of matatus and buses has significantly contributed to the \\nescalating issues of traffic congestion and air pollution. Launched in Kenya, BasiGo’s \\nmission centres on transforming public transportation by introducing electric buses, \\ncontributing to sustainable urban mobility, and reducing carbon emissions. BasiGo \\ninitiated operations by importing electric buses and setting up charging infrastructure \\nin strategic locations along busy transit routes and points where buses typically stop for \\nthe night, ensuring buses could be conveniently charged overnight or during off-peak \\nhours. Through a partnership with the Chinese EV manufacturer BYD, BasiGo introduced \\ntwo 25-seat buses to kickstart a pilot project. The company adopted a business model \\nthat allows bus operators to pay for the buses and their batteries under a Pay-As-You-\\nDrive system. Under this system, operators have two options for adopting electric buses: \\npurchasing the bus without the expensive battery and leasing the battery or leasing the \\nentire bus including the battery with a small initial deposit. Both options include free \\naccess to BasiGo charging stations and maintenance services from BasiGo’s technicians. \\nThis approach treats the battery, a significant part of an EVs cost, as a service rather than \\na one-time purchase and thus lowers the entry barrier for operators accustomed to the \\nhigh upfront costs of diesel buses. BasiGo prioritised training drivers and maintenance \\npersonnel and launched awareness campaigns to educate the public on the multiple \\nbenefits of transitioning to electric transportation. According to Samuel Kamunya, head \\nof business development at BasiGo, who briefed the Working Group, BasiGo faced a set \\nof challenges while pioneering electrification of Kenya’s public transportation. The most \\nsignificant challenge was the initial investment needed to procure pilot electric buses, \\nnecessary parts, and to set up the essential charging infrastructure. Additionally, there \\nwas “range anxiety” among potential users and stakeholders, stemming from concerns \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n24\\nFigure 9. Local manufacturing of electric buses in Nairobi, Kenya\\nSource: ROAM (2024)\\nabout the driving range, and availability and accessibility of charging stations. Moreover, \\nthe entrenched cultural and economic importance of the traditional “matatus” and buses \\nin Kenya’s transportation landscape initially made it challenging to achieve immediate \\nbroad acceptance among transport operators. BasiGo has made a notable environmental \\nimpact by preventing the use of 178,307 tonnes of diesel, resulting in a substantial \\nreduction of 426 tonnes of carbon emissions. Economically, operators have experienced \\ntangible benefits, with a notable reduction in operational costs. The economic relief \\ncomes from the diminished need for regular maintenance and the complete elimination \\nof fuel expenses inherent to traditional buses. Furthermore, the public’s reception of \\nBasiGo’s initiative has been overwhelmingly positive. Commuters have expressed their \\nappreciation for the buses, citing the quieter rides, absence of pollutants, and the overall \\nenhanced comfort.\\nBasiGo plans to have 1,000 buses on Nairobi’s roads by 2025 and has secured more \\nthan 100 reservations from operators. Kenya produces over 70% of its electricity from \\nrenewable sources, making the transition to electric buses not only environmentally \\nbeneficial but also cost-effective for operators. BasiGo is exploring potential \\ncollaborations with renewable energy providers to ensure sustainable charging \\nsolutions. Despite ongoing challenges, BasiGo’s success stands as a promising \\nexample for other African countries considering the adoption of EVs in public \\ntransport. In recognition of this potential, in June 2023, BasiGo received a USD 1.5 \\nmillion grant from the US Agency for International Development (USAID) to pilot its \\npay-as-you-drive model in Kigali, Rwanda, further expanding its innovative approach \\nto sustainable transportation (USAID, 2023). \\nFigure 10. Two- and three-wheelers in Mombasa, Kenya\\nPhoto credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n25\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nAfrican countries) and three-wheelers (called tuktuks in much of East Africa) are largely \\npurchased new in Africa (Kiruga, 2019) (Figure 10). The vehicle segments are easier to \\nelectrify and have gained more traction in Africa and other emerging markets because \\nof their availability, affordability, and flexibility. For instance, two- and three-wheelers EV \\nsales in East Africa are gaining traction. They are better for low-income countries and \\nlow-cost production since they are generally cheaper to electrify compared to buses \\nand heavy-duty vehicles. They have smaller batteries which can be charged through a \\nmini-grid, making them suitable for use in areas with low access to reliable electricity-\\ngrid infrastructure. They can also benefit from a battery-swap model, in which a depleted \\nbattery is replaced with a fully charged battery from a designated “swap station”. Two- and \\nthree-wheelers can make the transition more financially feasible, especially for countries \\nwith limited resources (Mckinsey, 2022). For African EV manufacturers, focusing on two- \\nand three-wheeled vehicles in the short term could make sense, and transition to four-\\nwheeled vehicles in richer areas would offer a sustainable pathway to decarbonisation of \\nthe transport sector (Cash, 2022).\\n2.3.2\\t Auto Parts Manufacturing \\nAuto parts manufacturing presents a viable opportunity for businesses in many countries \\ninterested in supplying to both domestic and international markets. The local production \\nof auto parts could also generate export revenue and create new employment \\nopportunities. The major parts of an electric vehicle include electric motor, DC-DC \\nconverter (electronic circuit or electromechanical devices that convert a source of direct \\ncurrent [DC] from one voltage level to another), power inverter traction battery pack, \\ncharge port controller, onboard charger auxiliary batteries, thermal system (cooling), and \\ntransmission, as shown in Figure 11.\\nFigure 11. Key components of an electric vehicle.\\nSource: Sambo (2023)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n26\\nThese parts are made from a combination of materials including steel, aluminium, \\nmagnesium, lead, nickel, lithium, petrochemicals (plastics), magnets, and copper. Africa \\nis rich in these minerals, and there are also industries that trade or process these materials \\nthat could form both the supply and value chains for these materials for existing and \\nfuture auto parts manufacturing.\\n2.3.3\\t Battery Swapping Stations\\nBattery swapping involves replacing a depleted battery of an EV with a fully charged \\none. Instead of waiting for a battery to charge, battery-swapping stations allow users \\nto simply replace the battery and go. This model, widely implemented in Asia, could \\nsolve problems related to long charging times and the limited availability of charging \\ninfrastructure in Africa. In China, one company, Nio, has established over 1,200 battery \\nswapping stations, and plans to have 4,000 stations by 2025. Gogoro, a Taiwanese \\nenergy company, has implemented battery swapping in their operational model for \\nurban electric two-wheel scooters and motorcycles, with more than 2000 swapping \\nstations available in Taiwan. Ampersand, a Rwandan EV company, has implemented \\nbattery swapping in their paratransit system with single-passenger motorcycle taxis \\nwith some of its swapping stations strategically located near solar powered charging \\nstations or gasoline stations, enhancing the visibility of the EV ecosystem (Figure 12). \\nMeanwhile, Spiro, a Benin-based start-up, aims to deploy more than 1.2 million batteries \\nfor electric two-wheelers by establishing battery swapping stations (Lewis, 2023). The \\ncompany has operations across Benin, Togo, Rwanda, and Kenya. \\nBattery swapping provides an alternative to traditional charging methods and is especially \\nsuitable for regions such as Africa where fast-charging infrastructure might be too expensive \\nor technically challenging. In addition to reducing “range anxiety,” (discussed in Chapter \\n4) for potential EV owners, battery swapping could also result in battery standardisation \\n(technologies and sizes to enhance the swapping process), simplifying the supply chain.\\nHand-swappable batteries can be used for smaller vehicles, but pose significant \\nchallenges for larger vehicles. Large vehicles might require expensive and integrated \\nrobotic systems to swap out the battery of a larger EV. Sub-Saharan Africa has a unique \\nmodel where the same vehicle (a minibus taxi, MBT) is used for both urban and long-\\nFigure 12. Ampersand’s electric vehicle battery swapping station in Kigali, Rwanda\\nPhoto credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n27\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\ndistance applications, presenting challenges for electrification (Akpa et al., 2016). A \\nsolution to this challenge was proposed by Giliomee et al. (2023), who developed a \\nhot-swappable trailer battery bank to eliminate the mechanical challenges of battery \\nswapping and reduce the recharging time during long-distance travel. The group \\nquantified the energy expenditure of an electric minibus taxi (eMBT) for long-distance \\ntravel, proposed an operational plan for routes in South Africa, evaluated the impact on \\nthe electrical grid, and suggested offsetting the strain with solar power installations to \\nreduce net greenhouse gas emissions (Giliomee et al., 2023). \\nA second study evaluates implemen-tation of battery-equipped trailers that can supply \\nextra energy to the EVs and increase their range, while the depleted battery can be \\nunhooked and replaced with a fully charged one — reducing recharging downtime in \\ntime-critical long-distance paratransit in SSA. The use of the battery bank trailer (see \\nFigure 13) reduces the number of stops required and the total trip time, benefiting both \\nthe MBT operator and the environment. Using the battery bank trailer also protects the \\nlongevity of the internal battery, as the external battery is primarily used for energy and \\nallows for easy upgrades.\\nFigure 13. Trailer-based battery swapping model for long-distance transport.\\nPhoto credit: MJ Booysen, working group member\\n2.3.4\\t Localised Battery Storage\\nLocalised battery storage can be used to \\naddress EV charging needs, particularly in \\nsunny regions like Africa where solar energy is \\nabundant. These systems store excess energy \\nduring peak production times and release \\nit as needed, ensuring a consistent charge \\nrate and therefore balancing demand with \\nrenewable energy availability. Research has \\nshown that a local storage of approximately \\nhalf the vehicle’s battery size is sufficient to \\nameliorate the impact of each vehicle on the \\ngrid and to optimise utilisation of available \\nrenewable sources (Füßl et al., 2022). Figure \\n14 shows an example of a battery storage \\nsolution. \\nFigure 14: Example of a battery bank used to charge \\nelectric vehicles in Berlin. The battery bank charges slowly \\nfrom the grid, but discharges quickly into the vehicles. \\nPhoto credit: JH Giliomee\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n28\\n2.3.5\\t Pay-As-You-Go Charging\\nThe Pay-As-You-Go charging model is a model where users pay for charging on a per-use \\nbasis. This model can remove the barrier to EV adoption for those concerned about the \\ncosts of home charging equipment, as it offers a flexible payment structure for consumers. \\nMoreover, it encourages entrepreneurs to establish more charging stations as there is a \\nviable payment system. Making EVs accessible to a larger portion of the population will \\nresult in increased adoption rates and stimulate market competition by pushing other \\ncompanies to offer better lease or rental deals. Pay-As-You-Go models that facilitate EV \\nroaming can be particularly useful. Roaming allows drivers to charge anywhere with one \\nsingle account instead of requiring charging at a specific brand of charger. \\nFigure 15. Electric vehicle roaming\\nSource: EV Roaming Foundation\\n2.3.6\\t Solar Charging Stations\\nGiven the abundance of sunlight in most of Africa, combining solar energy with EV \\ncharging makes the electrification of transport more sustainable. Such stations could \\nbe set up in urban and rural areas, providing affordable and green energy (Figure \\n16). Harnessing abundant solar energy will reduce dependency on non-renewable \\nelectricity sources, while the integration of clean energy with clean transport deepens the \\nenvironmental impacts. In this instance, hybrid EVs with both solar-charging capabilities \\nand traditional electric charging options, such as those illustrated in Figure 17, are more \\nappropriate. This dual approach ensures vehicles can remain operational under various \\nconditions, maximising their efficiency and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n29\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n2.3.7\\t Vehicle-to-Grid\\nVehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology enables EVs to supply electricity back to the power \\ngrid, transforming them into mobile energy storage units. This system allows EVs to both \\ndraw electricity from the grid and supply it back, thereby stabilising and supporting the \\ngrid during peak times or energy shortages (see Figure 18). Denmark has demonstrated \\nthe viability of V2G systems through a collaboration between Nissan, the local energy \\ncompany Enel, and EV owners. In this model, EV owners in Denmark can monetise the \\nenergy stored in their vehicle batteries by feeding it back into the grid at times of high \\ndemand, thus enhancing grid stability and facilitating the integration of renewable \\nenergy sources (Nissan Motor Corporation, 2016). This concept holds significant \\npromise for Africa, where the abundant renewable energy resources could be leveraged \\nFigure 16. Solar powered charging station for electric vehicles in Kigali, Rwanda\\nSource: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff\\nFigure 17. Electric vehicle with solar charging components.\\nSource: Sambo (2023)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n30\\nto create a sustainable and resilient energy system. With the appropriate infrastructure \\ninvestments, Africa could harness its extensive renewable energy systems, such as solar \\nand wind power, to support a continent-wide implementation of V2G technologies. This \\nwould not only aid in stabilising the energy grid but also in maximising the utilisation of \\nrenewable energy. \\n2.3.8\\t Battery Recycling\\nOnce EV batteries are no longer fit for transport usage, they can still hold significant \\nresidual capacity. These batteries can be repurposed for stationary energy storage \\napplications like grid support or domestic energy storage, creating a secondary revenue \\nstream and enhancing sustainability. Notable examples include a partnership between \\nthe auto manufacturing company Nissan and the power management company Eaton. \\nEaton introduced a residential energy storage solution called xStorage, which uses \\nGrid\\nBack-up\\nStorage\\nB\\nI\\n-\\nD\\nI\\nR\\nE\\nC\\nT\\nI\\nO\\nN\\n \\nE\\nN\\nE\\nR\\nG\\nY\\n \\nF\\nL\\nO\\nW\\nR\\ne\\nn\\ne\\nw\\na\\nb\\nl\\ne\\n \\nR\\ne\\ns\\no\\nu\\nr\\nc\\ne\\ns\\nGR\\nID\\n T\\nO \\nVE\\nHI\\nCL\\nE \\nDU\\nRI\\nNG\\n T\\nHE\\n D\\nAY\\nBE\\nTT\\nER\\n G\\nRI\\nD S\\nTA\\nBI\\nLIT\\nY D\\nUR\\nIN\\nG P\\nEA\\nK H\\nOU\\nRS\\nVE\\nHI\\nCL\\nE T\\nO \\nGR\\nID\\n I\\nNT\\nEG\\nRA\\nTI\\nON\\n S\\nYS\\nTE\\nM\\nVE\\nHI\\nCL\\nE T\\nO \\nGR\\nID\\n D\\nUR\\nIN\\nG T\\nHE\\n E\\nVE\\nNI\\nNG\\nGR\\nID\\n T\\nO \\nVE\\nHI\\nCL\\nE \\nDU\\nRI\\nNG\\n T\\nHE\\n N\\nIG\\nHT\\nDay\\nNight\\nEvening\\nPeak Shaving\\nGrid\\nBack-up\\nstorage\\nFigure 18: Illustration of the vehicle-to-grid concept\\nSource: adapted from Ravi & Aziz (2022)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n31\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nrepurposed batteries from Nissan Leaf vehicles to store excess energy. Homeowners \\ncan then use these during peak periods or power outages (Nissan Motor Corporation, \\n2016). Similarly, in Gothenburg, Sweden, old bus batteries are used to store energy in \\napartment buildings (AB Volvo, 2019). These batteries capture and store solar energy \\ngenerated from panels on the building, which can then be utilised during peak times. \\nThese examples highlight the potential of repurposed EV batteries in providing cost-\\neffective, sustainable energy storage solutions, aiding in grid stabilisation, and furthering \\nthe goals of a circular economy. The development of these recycling formats in Europe \\nwas encouraged through legislative policy instruments. In China and the European \\nUnion, manufacturers are required to pay for the cost of collecting and recycling electric \\nvehicle components, and similar laws are being considered in the United States (Lim, \\n2021). Similar models could be applied in African countries. \\n2.3.9\\t Conversion of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles to Electric\\nInnovators in several African countries have pioneered the transformation of ICE \\nvehicles into EVs by replacing the ICE engine with EV components. For example, in \\nSouth Africa, researchers at Stellenbosch University have made notable strides by \\nsuccessfully converting paratransit minibus taxis from gasoline to electric power (Lacock \\net al., 2023), as discussed in Case Study 2 in this section. The continent’s abundance of \\nskilled mechanics and workshops, coupled with a vast supply of used cars, combined \\nwith ingenuity and resourcefulness that African innovators consistently demonstrate, \\nlay the groundwork for a sustainable, scalable model of vehicle conversion. In turn, this \\napproach expands the different paths of achieving scalable adoption of EVs in Africa as \\nit encourages local innovators, engineers, and entrepreneurs to develop solutions and \\nbusiness models tailored to the unique needs and opportunities of the rapidly emerging \\nAfrican EV market, while contributing to the global knowledge pool of electric mobility. \\nTo illustrate further, even BasiGo (Case Study 1) discussed in Section 2.3.1 in this chapter, \\nrepresents conversion of existing gasoline vehicles to EV powertrain. BasiGo works with \\nthe same traditional manufactures of ICE vehicles in Kenya. The only exception is that \\ninstead of using an ICE component, the vehicle is fitted with EV components.\\nThe infrastructure required for this transformative manufacturing route is thus already in \\nplace since many conversions are being carried out in general mechanical workshops \\nalready equipped with some of the necessary, albeit basic tools and equipment. To \\nachieve scalable production, only moderate expansions will be required. This might \\ninclude, for example, the introduction of materials handling equipment like cranes \\nand conveyors, which can help accommodate increased volume and complexity of \\noperations.\\nIn addition to creating a new economic paradigm, generating jobs, fostering technological \\ninnovation, and establishing new markets within the automotive industry, the conversion \\nof ICE vehicles to EVs potentially positions the continent as a world leader in sustainable \\ntransport. This could, for example, result in foreign investment, partnerships, collaborative \\nprojects on electric mobility, and overall impact in shaping the future of transportation.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n32\\nFigure 19. The electric retrofitted minibus taxi (original model from 2009)\\n(a) Completed retrofitted taxi. (b) Retrofitted electric vehicle’s electronic dashboard\\nand controls (Drive (D), Neutral (N), Reverse (R) (Lacock, et al., 2023)\\nCase Study 2\\nElectrifying paratransit vehicles in Stellenbosch, South Africa\\nDespite South Africa’s ongoing electricity challenges, there is an interest among paratransit \\nindustry operators to transition to electric transportation. However, their willingness to \\nimmediately transition their fleet from ICE vehicles to electric alternatives is inhibited \\nby concerns related to vehicle performance, safety, reliability, environmental impact, \\nand operating costs (Hull, et al., 2023; Lacock et al., 2023). Up to 72% of commuters \\nuse paratransit in South Africa (Lacock, et al., 2023), therefore electrification of this sector \\nwould be a big step toward the decarbonisation of transport in the country.\\n \\nBuilding on the study, innovators at Stellenbosch University in South Africa have embarked \\non a project to convert paratransit vehicles into EVs. The team successfully retrofitted \\n(converted) a Toyota Hiace Ses’fikile, commonly used in the South Africa paratransit \\nindustry, from an ICE propulsion to electric propulsion. The process involved testing \\nvarious elements such as weight, torque, and speed to verify the feasibility of retrofitting. \\nRetrofitting vehicles allows older cars to stay in use while decreasing emissions, even \\nCase Study continued on next page\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n33\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nFigure 20. Vehicle with combustion-related components removed\\n(a) Front view of the stripped vehicle. (b) Empty engine compartment. (c) Bottom view of stripped vehicle before \\nelectric motor and prop-shaft installation. (d) Electric motor with prop shaft (protective cover not shown). (e) Radiator \\nfor the electric motor coolant (Lacock, et al., 2023)\\nthough they need to comply with local and national roadworthiness standards (Lacock \\net al., 2023). The researchers computed the electric charging needs of these vehicles \\nand proposed alternative charging and battery swapping models. This assessment \\ninvolves analysing the energy efficiency of the taxis, which refers to the amount of energy \\nconsumed per unit of distance travelled. By examining the energy efficiency under \\nvarious driving conditions, the researchers gained insights into the efficiency variations \\nand estimated the achievable range for different battery sizes. They also analysed the \\ntotal energy requirements of the taxis throughout a typical day of operations. \\nWhile the adoption of this process for the paratransit industry would greatly impact the \\noverall decarbonisation goals of South Africa, it is vital to also consider the impact of \\nwidescale EVs usage on the supply of electricity. The authors note that the electrification \\nof “all minibus taxis in South Africa could add a load of 5% of what the grid can currently \\ndeliver” (Stellenbosch University, 2023). The issues of electric grid are further discussed in \\nChapter 3.  \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n34\\n2.4\\t Data-Driven Decision Making\\nAfrica has one of the world’s fastest motorisation rates, and evidence-based policy \\nplanning and decision-making are critical. However, African countries lack rigorous \\ncollection of transport-related data and a coordinated system to disseminate data when \\navailable. For example, accurate data collection in analysing the energy demand of EVs in \\nAfrica can directly impact the successful decarbonisation of informal paratransit through \\nelectrification (Collett & Hirmer, 2021).\\nIn the case of paratransit vehicles widely used in Africa, four main data capturing methods \\nare used in Africa: passenger-based tracking, vehicle-based tracking, roadside-based \\ncounting, and household travel surveys, with the passenger-based tracking being the \\nmost used (Rix et al., 2022). Traditional methods for capturing transportation data, such \\nas manually recording inflows and outflows of passengers or equipping passengers \\nthemselves to track the vehicles, have many drawbacks, including human error and \\nlimitations in tracking individual vehicles. Vehicle tracking technology, while more \\nexpensive to set up, provides more accurate and reliable data as it is not influenced by \\nhuman behaviour. Analysis of the estimated power profile of electric vehicle charging \\nconducted by Booysen et al. (2022) showed disparity between passenger-based tracking \\nand vehicle-based tracking, with the vehicle-based tracking dataset providing a more \\nprecise representation of the vehicle’s energy requirements (see Figure 21). \\nAccurate data collection is also needed to assess energy efficiency values for electric \\nvehicles. (Abraham et al., 2023) compared the methodologies and simulation tools used \\nin two studies on electric minibus taxis in South Africa that projected different energy \\nefficiency values for these vehicles: 0.39kWh/km (Hull, et al., 2023) and 0.93kWh/km \\n(Abraham et al., 2023). Hull et al., (2023) used high-frequency data, while (Abraham et \\nFigure 21. Comparison of per-vehicle power profiles from passenger-based tracking\\nSource: Adapted from Booysen, et al. (2022)\\n20 k\\nPassenger-based\\nVehicle-based\\n15 k\\n10 k\\nPower (W)\\n5 k\\n0 k\\n00:00\\n03:00\\n06:00\\n09:00\\n12:00\\nTime\\n15:00\\n18:00\\n21:00\\n00:00\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n35\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nal., 2023) used low-frequency data. The low-frequency data require artificial up sampling \\nto capture acceleration and deceleration patterns (further referred to as simulated data), \\nwhile high-frequency data require more bandwidth and storage. Hull et al., (2023) limited \\ntheir study to 62 trips in different driving conditions, while Abraham et al. tracked nine \\ntaxis over two years, providing a more complete representation of movement patterns. \\nThe researchers in the Abraham study also had a more complete representation of \\nmicroscopic acceleration, deceleration patterns, and route details. The simulation tool \\nused by Abraham et al. is designed for low-frequency data, while high-frequency data \\nare needed to accurately simulate an EV model. Abraham et al.’s simulation tool uses \\na driver model and road network obtained from OpenStreetMap to predict the route \\na vehicle would have taken to up sample the low-frequency data. Differences in these \\nvirtualisations and the effect thereof on subsequent energy analysis were pointed out by \\n(Giliomee et al., 2023). The two studies also used different EV models, which calculate \\nthe energy requirements of the vehicles. (Abraham et al., 2023) used a well-tested and \\npeer-reviewed third-party EV model by Kurczveil et al., (2014) bundled with the SUMO \\nsoftware, while Hull et al. (2023) developed their own custom EV model, which has had \\nsignificantly less testing and public exposure.\\nGiven that there are no electric minibuses in Sub-Saharan Africa to validate any of the \\nmodels and assumptions, it is crucial to choose realistic and representative parameters \\nfor accurate planning and thus implement simulation tools that are representative of \\nactual mobility. Figure 22 shows the improvement in energy efficiency between the \\nmodels after aligning input parameters for the simulation. \\nAfter eliminating all the discrepancies between the two simulation tools for a given data \\ninput, a final efficiency estimation is obtained that ranges from 0.49 to 0.53 kWh/km, as \\nshown in Table 3. \\nFigure 22. Comparing energy efficiency models in paratransit vehicles\\nSource: Adapted from Abraham, et al. (2023) \\nEnergy consumption (kWh/km)\\nAbraham data\\nAbraham Sim\\nAbraham data\\nHull Sim\\nHull data\\n(Down sampled)\\nAbraham Sim\\nHull data\\n(Down sampled)\\nHull Sim\\nHull data\\n(Original)\\nHull Sim\\nConfiguration\\nAbraham data\\nAbraham Sim\\nAbraham data\\nHull Sim\\nHull data\\n(Down sampled)\\nAbraham Sim\\nHull data\\n(Down sampled)\\nHull Sim\\nHull data\\n(Original)\\nHull Sim\\n(b) Final\\n1.4\\n(a) Original (replicated)\\n1.2\\n1.0\\n0.8\\n0.6\\n0.4\\n0.2\\n0.0\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n36\\nDecarbonisation of transport is already taking place \\n \\n \\nCity and regional authorities in Africa should\\nacross Africa. There are numerous ongoing\\npromote and scale up local decarbonisation\\nprojects aimed at decarbonising transport in\\nefforts. City and urban authorities should\\ndifferent cities and in the sub-regions of Africa.\\nactively share insights and best practices on\\nThese projects, such as the growing adoption\\nlocal decarbonisation efforts within Africa to\\nof electric mobility solutions, bus rapid transit\\naccelerate their adoption continent-wide. This\\n(BRT) systems, and light rail transport (LRT).\\nincludes creating platforms for knowledge\\nThere is also an emphasis on non-motorised\\nexchange, setting up pilot projects, and\\ntransport such as walking and cycling\\nestablishing benchmarks for success. Regional\\ndemonstrating local successes in\\nauthorities should spearhead the\\ndecarbonisation, with significant economic,\\nestablishment of agencies to enhance\\nsocial, and environmental benefits.\\ngovernance and collaboration within Africa’s\\ntransport sector.\\nPolicy and regulatory instruments can facilitate\\nGovernments in Africa should implement stricter\\nthe decarbonisation of transport. African\\npolicies and regulations that support emission\\ngovernments are employing a diverse\\nreduction during the transition to decarbonising the\\nrange of policy instruments to accelerate the\\ntransport sector. Stricter emission standards for\\ndecarbonisation of transport at  continental\\nvehicles, as well as the introduction of policies\\nand local levels. These are categorised into\\nthat discourage the importation of older, more\\nfour main types: (1) market-based instruments\\npolluting cars, could significantly support\\n(such as taxes, subsidies, fees, quotas,\\nemission reduction goals. Policies banning\\nimport duties, and penalties) (2) regulatory\\nor restricting old and high-emitting vehicles\\ninstruments (licenses, limits, prohibitions\\nfrom metropolitan centres have been shown\\nlaws); (3) direct provisions (governments\\nto reduce urban pollution and encourage the\\ndirectly providing goods or services to its\\nadoption of cleaner transportation alternatives\\ncitizens); and (4) information provisions\\nwhile also improving air quality,  and\\n(dissemination of relevant, accurate, and\\nenhancing public health and the quality of life\\ntimely information to the public).\\nin urban areas.\\nDecarbonisation of transport has the potential\\nGovernments in Africa should implement stricter\\nto drive industrial growth and create green job\\npolicies and regulations that support emission\\nopportunities across Africa. There is growing\\nreduction during the transition to decarbonising the\\nlocal assembly and manufacturing of EVs\\ntransport sector. Stricter emission standards for\\nContinued on next page\\nTable 3: Simulation of electric vehicle energy consumption\\nHull Data\\nHull Data\\nAbraham Data\\n(Downsampled)\\n(Original)\\nAbraham\\nHull\\nAbraham\\nHull\\nHull\\nSimulator\\nSimulator\\nSimulator\\nSimulator\\nSimulator\\nReplicated original \\nresults\\n0.88a\\n0.42\\n0.88\\n0.45\\n0.39\\nFinal result\\n0.50\\n0.50\\n0.53\\n0.53\\n0.49\\nThe deviation from the originally reported 0.93kWh/km is addressed earlier in the paper \\n(Abraham et al., 2023).\\n 2.5            Findings   and   Recommendations\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n37\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nin Africa, as well as initiatives to convert\\nvehicles, as well as the introduction of policies\\ngasoline-powered vehicles, including popular\\nthat discourage the importation of older, more\\nparatransit vehicles, to electric propulsion\\npolluting cars, could significantly support\\nin various African countries which provide\\nemission reduction goals. Policies banning\\nenormous opportunities for industrial growth\\nor restricting old and high-emitting vehicles\\nand innovation. Opportunities extend into\\nfrom metropolitan centres have been shown\\nEV auto parts and battery manufacturing,\\nto reduce urban pollution and encourage the\\nleveraging Africa’s critical mineral resources,\\nadoption of cleaner transportation alternatives\\nalongside innovative business models like\\nwhile also improving air quality,  and\\npay-as-you-go charging and solar charging\\nenhancing public health and the quality of life\\nstations, taking advantage of the continent’s\\nin urban areas.\\nabundant sunlight.\\n\\n\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n38\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nCHAPTER THREE\\nSAFEGUARDING VULNERABLE ELECTRICITY GRIDS: \\nACCESSIBILITY, GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND \\nDISTRIBUTION\\nAfrica’s electricity grids are characterised by infrastructural flaws, inefficiencies, limited \\ncoverage, and lack of government oversight, preventing universal access to electricity \\nand hampering the continent’s development. Transmission and distribution networks on \\nthe continent require major improvement and are likely to become the real bottleneck in \\nAfrica’s sustainable development. This chapter reviews the current state and challenges \\nof electricity in Africa, and the potential impact of large-scale adoption of EVs. The \\ndiscussion highlights the need for additional research to fully understand how the \\ntransition to EVs might affect Africa’s electrical grid and power distribution networks.\\n \\n3.1\\t Current State and Challenges of Electricity in Africa\\nSub-Saharan Africa is the least electrified region, with around 567 million people \\nrepresenting about 43% of the total population without access to electricity in 2021, \\naccording to the 2023 energy progress report published jointly by a group of international \\nagencies, including the World Bank and the International Energy Association (IEA, \\nIRENA, UNSD, World Bank and WHO, 2023). According to the report, while Africa has \\nmade steady progress in electrification in the past decade, the number of people \\nwithout access has generally remained stagnant between 2011 and 2021 due to rapid \\npopulation growth (see Figure 23). \\n \\nElectric shortages are frequent in many countries. For instance, in Southern Africa, except \\nfor Angola and Botswana, widespread power cuts have been common in the past decade \\n(Crisis24, 2023). South Africa, the continent’s most industrialised economy, with the largest \\ngrid and access to electrification, has experienced rolling blackouts, locally known as \\n“load shedding”, of up to 10 hours a day. Load shedding occurs when electricity demand \\noutstrips supply. To stabilise production and maintain voltage, authorities deliberately \\nturn off parts of the grid in a rotating schedule to manage and equalize distribution of \\nelectricity (Crisis24, 2023). Short-term power outages elevate operational risks as they \\nlead to increased instances of theft, violence, road accidents, and disruptions in transport \\nand communication systems.\\n \\nNearly four out of five firms in Sub-Saharan Africa report regular and lengthy outages as \\nsignificant impediment to business operations, according to the World Bank Enterprise \\nsurveys (Oseni, 2019). A high proportion of businesses in the region (53%) own or share \\na generator, the highest rate worldwide. Using backup power systems costs triple the \\nprice of regular electricity in places like Nigeria and Uganda (Oseni, 2019).\\n \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n39\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nFurthermore, certain communities — such as those in informal urban settlements or in rural \\nareas — face greater challenges in obtaining reliable electricity. In 2021, approximately 8 out \\nof 10 people lacking electricity resided in rural areas, most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa \\n(IEA, IRENA, UNSD, World Bank and WHO, 2023). This hinders equal opportunities for \\neconomic development and improvement in quality of life among various societal sectors. \\nThe primary reason for lack of access is the high cost of electricity; even when services are \\navailable, they are often unaffordable (Barasa, 2021). Additionally, while there is significant \\nfocus on expanding the reach of the electric grid, there is less attention to making electricity \\nmore affordable (Barasa, 2021). Consider the cost of running a refrigerator for a year in \\nAfrican countries compared to industrialised countries such as the United Kingdom. One \\ncomparative study found that it costs 49% of average GDP per capita in Liberia and 13% \\nin Rwanda to run a refrigerator compared to negligible cost of (less than 1%) in the United \\nKingdom (Hairsine, 2023). This disparity highlights the significant economic burden of \\nbasic appliance use in African countries compared to industrialised ones.\\n3.2\\t State of the Electrical Grid and Potential Burden from \\nElectric Vehicles\\nAdopting EVs will have significant impact on the electricity system in terms of generation, \\ntransmission, distribution, and accessibility (Table 4). While Africa has made progress in \\nexpanding its electric grid, the power utility infrastructure continues to underperform in \\nmany countries, subjecting the grid to fluctuations (Dioha, et al., 2022). The status of the \\npower systems is a major consideration when assessing the impact of deploying EVs in \\nAfrican countries since electricity forms a central pillar of Africa’s energy infrastructure. \\nThe capacity, reliability and reach of these systems play a key role in determining how \\neffectively EVs can be integrated and supported. \\nFigure 23: Access to electricity in Africa as a share of population in 2020.\\nSource: World Bank (2020)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n40\\nTable 4: Projected electric vehicle power system impacts in African countries\\nCategory\\nImpacts\\nAfrican Countries context\\nPower \\nDemand\\nIncreased energy \\nconsumption leads to an \\naltered daily load\\ncurve, modified peak load \\nin terms of magnitude, \\nduration, and timing, as \\nwell as heightened load \\nprofile variability and \\nuncertainty.\\nLocation, weather, demographics, \\nand driving patterns influence EV \\nadoption, power consumption, and \\ncharging behaviour; electric two- and \\nthree-wheelers dominate; economic, \\nregulatory, and geographical \\ndifficulties in establishing ‘public \\ncharging infrastructure’.\\nGeneration\\nSystem \\nAdditional electricity \\ngeneration is required, \\nnecessitating new capacity \\ninvestments for security \\nand adequacy, leading to \\nincreased power system \\nemissions, high ramping \\nneeds from sharp power \\ndemand spikes, and a \\nheightened demand for \\nancillary services.\\nExisting challenges with electricity \\naccess include security and reliability \\nissues, high generation investment \\nneeds due to rapidly growing \\ndemand, carbon-intensive generation \\ncapacities that often rely on inefficient \\nfossil fuel units, and poor market \\nregulation coupled with difficulties in \\nproviding reserves.\\nTransmission\\nSystem\\nRisk of congestion and \\ndistortion of electricity \\nprices; increased need \\nfor transmission capacity; \\nincreased need for reactive \\npower.\\nLimited interconnectivity and cross-\\nborder capacity; lacking regulations \\nfor appropriate transmission system \\nto encourage investments; high \\ninvestment needs to maintain \\nadequate. \\nDistribution\\nSystem\\nOverloading feeders and \\ntransformers, necessitating \\ncapacity upgrades; \\nincreased power losses; \\nvoltage deviations; power \\nquality issues, such as \\nharmonic distortion.\\nWeak, poorly designed distribution \\nsystems; high distribution system \\nlosses; high rate of transformer failures \\nand maintenance need; insufficient \\nmanagement, standards, and \\nregulations; low awareness of power \\nquality issues; and high reinforcement \\nneeds due to growing demand.\\nSource: Adapted from (World Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, \\n2023)\\nIncreased demand from EVs necessitates more robust and diverse generation facilities and \\npower sources. Transmission networks will need to be upgraded to handle the increased \\nload, especially during peak charging times, requiring more resilient infrastructure. The \\ndistribution system faces changes in load patterns, particularly in residential areas with \\nhome charging, demanding smarter and more responsive grid solutions. As EV adoption \\ngrows, these changes will require careful planning, investment, and innovation to ensure \\nthe electricity system remains reliable, efficient, and capable of meeting new demands.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n41\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n3.3\\t Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity \\nDistribution System\\n \\nThe impact on the distribution network is perhaps the most immediate and visible. \\nWidespread use of EVs introduces new patterns of electricity consumption, especially \\nwhere home charging solutions are prevalent. This shift can lead to significant changes \\nin load profiles, with increased demand during evenings when people typically charge \\ntheir vehicles at home (Dioha, et al., 2022). During the early stages of deployment of EVs, \\nthe impacts on power distribution was not prioritised by decision-makers (World Bank \\nand Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023). Utility providers assumed \\nexisting capacity was sufficient and the adoption would be gradual to allow network \\nadaptation. Yet, as EV usage has grown, the potential effects on power distribution, such \\nas transformer overloads, power losses, and voltage fluctuations, have become crucial \\nissues (World Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023).\\nWhile EVs can handle intermittent supply due to their storage capacity, the additional load \\non grids, especially in countries with energy shortages, can worsen existing problems. In \\ncontexts like South Africa where blackouts are common, there’s growing concern about \\nhow to sustainably power EVs and the resulting strain on the already fragile electrical \\ninfrastructure given the substantial costs to the economy. The Reserve Bank of South \\nAfrica estimates that load shedding costs the economy approximately ZAR 899 million \\n(USD 50 million) daily (Naidoo, 2023), suggesting that the economy subsidises excess \\nelectricity usage. With load shedding costing the economy ZAR 25/kWh (USD 1.25/kWh) \\nand assuming EV efficiency is 5 km/kWh, the economic subsidy for electric mobility is \\napproximately ZAR 6/km (USD 0.3/km) when charged directly from the grid, effectively \\n(Booysen, et al., 2023). \\nMoreover, as electric two-wheelers are introduced, they are expected to significantly \\nimpact local power distribution in rural areas. To effectively address these challenges, a \\ncomprehensive approach is needed that focuses on establishing robust infrastructure, \\ninstalling suitable chargers tailored to local needs and gaining a thorough understanding \\nof both charging behaviour and the levels of EV penetration.\\n \\n3.4\\t Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity \\nTransmission System\\nAlongside the need for increased generation capacity, the adoption of EVs necessitates \\nsubstantial upgrades to the existing electricity transmission infrastructure. The adoption \\nof electric vehicles naturally results in increased demand for electricity, especially during \\ncharging times, and this can strain the transmission systems. Therefore, it is imperative \\nto evaluate and determine the spatial distance between areas with highest EV load \\n(charging demand) and essential power units, particularly in large geographical regions \\nrelying on centralised power generation or transmission system. This assessment can \\nhelp ensure efficient energy distribution and system stability.\\nPower transmission networks in the continent are usually unreliable and poorly \\ndeveloped, both in countries and in cross-country transmissions, leading to frequent \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n42\\nfailures and high losses. Losses due to distribution and transmission cost USD 5 billion \\nannually in sub-Saharan Africa (Adams, et al., 2020). Furthermore, the yearly investment \\nrequired in Africa from 2015 to 2040 for expansion of transmission is between USD 3.2 \\nbillion and USD 4.3 billion (AfDB, 2019). Other challenges include the risk of gradual \\noscillation or frequent control on the tie lines when power generation units stop working. \\nIn Nigeria, for instance, preventing deviation or strengthening frequency control is vital for \\nefficient deregulation of the power market (Vanfretti, et al., 2009). Inadequate regulatory \\nframeworks of market electricity trading, little involvement of private investment, or \\nlack of policies of the transmission systems are some of the challenges that need to be \\nconsidered when planning, operating, and expanding the transmission. The temporal \\nand spatial availability of renewable energy sources like wind and solar can also impact \\npower transmission systems and should be integrated into the accounting of EV demand \\nor supply shocks when possible. In general, modernisation of transmission lines, coupled \\nwith the integration of advanced technologies such as smart grids, becomes imperative \\nto ensure that these increased loads can be managed efficiently and reliably.\\n3.5\\t Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity \\nGeneration \\nThe transition to EVs markedly elevates the demand for electricity, necessitating additional \\nenergy supply over and above the standard or customary distribution levels. By 2021, EVs \\nused 55 million megawatt-hours of electricity, approximately 0.2% of the global energy \\nconsumption. It is estimated that by 2030, EVs will consume approximately 4% of total \\nglobal energy and 10% by 2040, exerting more pressure on the national grids (World \\nBank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023). This heightened \\ndemand necessitates not only the expansion of existing power generation facilities, but \\nalso the development of new ones. The move towards EVs thus acts as a catalyst for the \\nexpansion of green energy sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, aligning with \\nglobal efforts to decarbonise energy systems. Globally, countries that have embraced EVs, \\nsuch as the United States, have developed strategies to bolster their energy production \\ncapacities, with a keen focus on sustainable sources such as renewables (US National \\nAcademies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2021). The additional electricity \\nneeded to power electric vehicles can be harnessed from renewables (see Section 5.7). \\nEVs with solar-charging capabilities such as solar roofs (discussed in Chapter 2) can even \\ncharge while on the road, further reducing demand for power.\\n \\n3.6\\t Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity \\nAccessibility\\nThe rise of EVs also brings into focus the issue of accessibility and affordability of charging \\ninfrastructure. For EVs to be a viable option for a broader population, there needs to \\nbe an adequate and easily accessible network of charging stations. This requirement \\nis particularly crucial in densely populated urban areas and along major transportation \\ncorridors. Globally, China’s approach in creating a vast network of public charging stations \\nexemplifies the efforts needed to support wide-scale EV adoption. In Africa, countries \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n43\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nTransport electrification in Africa will increase the    \\nGovernments in Africa, industry, and \\ndemand for electricity, and the current fragility of\\nacademia should establish research\\nthe electric grid poses a critical concern for the\\npartnerships to investigate energy demands\\nviability and sustainability of electric mobility.\\nand expected impact of EVs on the grid. \\nAdopting EVs will have significant impact on\\nThese research collaborations can also assess\\nthe electricity system in terms of generation,\\nthe potential for charging EVs with renewable\\ntransmission, distribution, and accessibility.\\nenergy sources as well as on increasing local\\nUnderstanding the current state of power\\ncontents on EVs. In doing so, policy decisions\\nsystems in Africa is crucial in evaluating the\\non EV adoption and charging infrastructure\\nimpact of EV deployment across African\\nwill be context-specific, evidence-informed,\\ncountries, as electricity is a central pillar of\\nand based on actual data.\\nAfrica’s energy infrastructure.\\nPrioritising electrification of transport for the\\nGovernments in Africa should prioritise the\\nless costly, higher mileage, and extensively used\\nelectrification of vehicle segments that provide\\nvehicle segments in Africa could streamline the\\nthe most immediate and highest decarbonisation\\nadoption of EVs, maximising environmental\\nbenefits. Decarbonisation efforts should focus\\nbenefits and economic efficiency. Analysis\\non electrifying two- and three-wheelers,\\nindicates that two- and three-wheelers, along\\nas well as passenger buses operating on\\nwith passenger buses on high-use routes,\\nhigh-use routes, due to their lower costs,\\nare attractive candidates for the first stages\\nhigh mileage, and extensive use. These\\nof transport electrification efforts. Similarly,\\nsegments present a significant opportunity\\nfour-wheelers, taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and\\nfor immediate impact. However, in countries\\nother commercial fleets are identified as more\\nwhere it is feasible to decarbonise heavy-duty\\nsuitable for early electrification compared to\\nvehicles and less intensively used cars, such\\nless intensively used private family cars.\\nefforts should be pursued concurrently.\\nlike Rwanda (Case Study 3 in Chapter 4), Kenya (Case Study 1 in Chapter 2), and South \\nAfrica have been working on large scale charging infrastructures that can support large-\\nscale EV adoptions. Availability of large-scale public charging infrastructure can not only \\nensure the practicality of using EVs for daily commutes but also addresses range anxiety \\nconcerns, making EVs more attractive option for consumers.\\nEnsuring an affordable power supply is also essential for creating an accessible electric \\nvehicle charging ecosystem. Some African countries have started to regulate their \\nelectricity prices for EV consumers. For instance, in March 2023, the Energy and Petroleum \\nRegulatory Authority (EPRA) in Kenya approved a special e-mobility tariff effective for three \\nyears (Odhiambo, et al., 2023). The e-mobility tariff is set at USD 0.12 per kWh for energy \\nconsumption of up to 15,000 kWh during peak periods, and USD 0.06 per kWh of the \\nsame quantity during off-peak periods before taxes and other related charges are added \\nto the total cost of consumption (Odhiambo, et al., 2023). The e-mobility tariff is lower than \\nthe general domestic tariff (USD 0.16 per kWh for consumption above 100 kWh) and the \\ncommercial tariff (USD 0.15 per kWh for the same quantity). The special electric mobility \\ntariff is considered a step in the right direction towards incentivising power supply for EVs.\\n 3.7            Findings   and   Recommendations\\n\\n\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n44\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN THE CONTEXT \\nOF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION IN AFRICA\\nEvery society requires a reliable means of transport to drive its socioeconomic development \\nand growth. There is a correlation between the level and quality of transport infrastructure \\nand productivity and economic growth. When transport options are reliable, productivity \\nand economic growth improves (Zhang & Cheng, 2023). Among the multiplier effects \\nthat can result from an effective transport infrastructure are enhanced market access, \\nincreased employment opportunities, and new investments. When transport infrastructure \\nis insufficient in terms of capacity or dependability, economic losses such as diminished \\nor missed opportunities can lead to a decline in the quality of life (Rodrigue, 2020). \\nMoreover, availability of other essential amenities such as food and water depend on \\ngood transportation services. For instance, good road networks between rural and urban \\nareas ensure that foods from farms reach the market in time leading to decreases in post-\\nharvest food losses. Decarbonisation of transport in Africa can only be achieved within \\nthe broader context of establishing a sustainable transportation system, in line with the \\nsustainable development of goals (SDGs).\\n \\n4.1 Defining Sustainable Transportation \\nIn its 2016 report, the UN Secretary-General’s High-level Advisory Group on Sustainable \\nTransport defined sustainable transport as the provision of services and infrastructure \\nfor the mobility of people and goods — advancing economic and social development to \\nbenefit today’s and future generations — in a manner that is safe, affordable, accessible, \\nefficient, and resilient, while minimising carbon and other emissions and environmental \\nimpact (UNEP\\n, 2016). The High-Level Advisory Group’s report, titled Mobilising \\nSustainable Transport for Development, underscored the pivotal role of sustainable \\ntransport in achieving the SDGs and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change.\\nSustainable transport is connected to various SDG targets, either directly as a core \\nelement, or indirectly as a secondary factor (see Figure 24). Sustainable road transport \\naims to address societal issues, economic efficiencies, and environmental protection. In \\naddressing societal issues, sustainable transportation can increase the quality of life and \\nof living standards and can ensure that transportation systems are accessible to people \\nof all ages, abilities, and income levels. For economic efficiency, sustainable transport \\npromotes mobility systems that are adaptable, cost-effective, efficient, and which provide \\nvalue for money over their life cycle including construction, operation, and maintenance. \\nIt also involves investing in infrastructure that supports sustainable modes of transport. \\nFinally, sustainable transport focuses on the interplay between the industry’s practices \\nand the physical environment, such as the reduction of the transportation’s environmental \\nCHAPTER FOUR\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n45\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nimpact—particularly in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, and air and noise pollution. \\nIt also encourages the use of low-emission vehicles such as EVs and car-sharing and \\npromotes alternative modes of transport like trains, cycling, and walking. \\n \\n4.2\\t Decarbonisation of Transport and Sustainable \\nDevelopment Goals in Africa \\nDecarbonisation of transport in Africa can significantly contribute to sustainable \\ntransport’s economic, environmental, and social goals, and aligns with both the core and \\nsecondary SDGs described in Figure 24. Because this report focuses on road transport, \\nthe following discussions will focus on how decarbonisation of transport can contribute \\nto select SDGs related to road transport, with a particular focus on sustainable cities and \\ncommunities (SDG 11). Sustainable urban transportation is crucial to the achievement \\nof other SDGs such as health and well-being (SDG 3), especially for urban populations \\nwhich have the most transport pollution and climate change (SDG13). Meanwhile, \\nthe transition to decarbonisation can contribute to the achievement of other goals, \\nsuch as those focused on decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), through green \\njobs that emerge during the energy transition and new industries, such as the electric \\nSUSTAINABLE\\nDEVELOPMENT\\nCore SDGs\\nSecondary SDGs\\nHealth & wellbeing\\nIndustry & infrastructure\\nSustainable cities\\nEnergy systems\\nWork & economic growth\\nConsumption & production\\n3\\n7\\n8\\n12\\nClimate change\\nWater ecosystems\\n13\\n14\\nLand ecosystems\\n15\\n9\\n11\\nSustainable\\nTransportation\\nModes\\nSociety\\nEconomy\\nEnvironment\\nSafety\\nHealth\\nDisturbance\\nAccess\\nOpportunity\\nMaterial\\nand Energy\\nGrowth\\nEmployment\\nPricing\\nCompetitiveness\\nClimate\\nchange\\nAir quality\\nNoise\\nFootprint\\nWaste\\nOperations\\nInfrastructures\\nFigure 24: Linking transport to sustainable development goals.\\nSource: Adapted from Rodrigue (2020)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n46\\nvehicle manufacturing and related innovations, arise. Table 5 provides an overview of \\nhow decarbonisation of transport contributes to the realisation of select economic, \\nenvironmental, and social development in Africa.\\nTable 5: Contribution of decarbonised transport towards select sustainable \\ndevelopment goals\\nSDG \\nIndicator\\nGoal\\nSocial\\nImpact\\n•  Good Health and Well-Being (SDG 3): Decarbonised transport reduces\\n    air pollution, leading to lower incidences of respiratory and\\n    cardiovascular diseases. For example, replacing diesel buses with\\n    electric ones in congested cities like Lagos, Nairobi, or Cairo could\\n    significantly reduce air pollution, positively impacting public health.\\n  \\n•  Gender Equality (SDG 5): Safe, accessible transport systems can\\n    empower women by improving access to education and employment\\n    opportunities, including through just transition policies. \\n  \\n•  Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG 11): Decarbonised transport\\n    systems, such as efficient public transit and pedestrian friendly urban\\n    design, enhance the quality of urban life, making cities more liveable\\n    and inclusive. \\nEconomic \\nImpact\\n•  Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8): Transitioning to a low\\n    carbon transport sector can create new jobs in renewable energy,\\n    electric vehicle production, and infrastructure development. \\n  \\n•  Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure (SDG 9): Decarbonisation of\\n    transport can drive innovation in green technology and infrastructure\\n    development. \\nEnvironmental\\nImpact\\n•  Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7): Decarbonisation of transport\\n    involves a shift to electric vehicles powered by renewable energy\\n    sources, promoting the use of sustainable energy. For example, 86.98%\\n    of electricity is generated from renewable sources in Kenya (KenInvest,\\n    2023), with the majority coming from geothermal and hydroelectricity.\\n    This means that EVs in the country will rely on purely sustainable\\n    electricity. \\n  \\n•  Climate Action (SDG 13): By reducing greenhouse gas emissions,\\n    decarbonisation of transport directly contributes to climate change\\n    mitigation. \\n  \\n• Life Below Water (SDG 14) and Life on Land (SDG 15): Reduced\\n    emissions and cleaner air from decarbonised transport indirectly benefit\\n    marine and terrestrial ecosystems by decreasing overall pollution and\\n    mitigating the impacts of climate change. Though not directly related to\\n    transport, the Great Green Wall initiative, which focuses on the Sahel\\n    region, demonstrates a broad commitment to environmental\\n    sustainability, which decarbonised transport can complement.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n47\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n4.3\\t Sustainable Urban Transport Development\\nAfrica is expected to experience rapid urbanisation in the coming decades, with more \\npeople moving from rural to urban areas (United Nations, 2017). Rapid urbanisation in \\nthe continent is driven largely by a host of factors, including natural population growth, \\nrural-urban migration, the demographic and spatial expansion of urban settlements, \\nreclassification of rural areas to urban areas, and crisis events like conflicts and disasters \\n(Teye, 2018). With rapid and often unplanned urbanisation, city authorities are confronted \\nwith the challenges of unregulated and spiralling low-density settlements (urban \\nsprawl), overcrowded inner-cities, and slums and rapid motorisation. Urban sprawl can \\ncomplicate the planning of sustainable urban transportation. Urban sprawl occurs when \\nurban populations move from higher density towns and cities to lower density and less \\ndeveloped but growing residential areas in the outskirts of a town. One major impact of \\nurban sprawl is increased reliance on road vehicles, longer commute times, and longer \\ndaily travel distance, since the sprawled settlements are not always connected to public \\ntransit systems (Mwaura & Kost, 2017). A car-dependent culture results in high energy \\nconsumption, more emissions, and smog, and can also have health-related impacts. \\nUrban sprawl can also result in development of dense and irregular settlements, such as \\nslums, which make planning for public services such as transportation and other social \\nservices difficult (Saghir & Santoro, 2018). Studies have revealed that in cities across \\nAfrica, jobs are often not reachable within an hour using public transport (ITDP\\n, 2019; \\nBrookings, 2023). This highlights a significant disconnect between urban development \\nand transportation efficiency on the continent. It also suggests that despite Africa \\nexperiencing the world’s fastest rate of urbanisation, its cities are failing to fully harness \\nthe economic benefits typically associated with urban growth.\\nPolicymakers can project future transportation needs of the cities and implement \\nmedium and long-term plans that incorporate decarbonisation transportation policies. \\nThis can involve identification of strategic hotspots where most people live, and those \\nthat are likely to experience future urban and transportation pressure and invest in mass \\ntransit systems to limit the number of personal cars (including EVs) and pressure on the \\nroads. Potential approaches to achieving sustainable urban planning include: \\n•\\t\\npromoting compact and mixed-use development including through the development \\nof smart cities;\\n•\\t\\nimplementing low-carbon transportation services;\\n•\\t\\npromoting sustainable road transport policies;\\n•\\t\\nensuring road user preparedness; \\n•\\t\\nintegrating transport sector decision-making agencies. \\n4.4\\t Smart Cities and Intelligent Transport Systems\\nSmart cities have emerged as an efficient approach to sustainable urban development. \\nSmart cities leverage technology to enhance efficiency, sustainability, and quality of life \\nin the urban environment. This includes the deployment of intelligent transport systems \\n(ITS) (Platzer, 2021) that encompass services like e-hailing, bike sharing, car sharing, and \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n48\\nadvanced traffic management technologies. As illustrated in Figure 25, the smart city \\ntransportation model operates on a foundation of smart infrastructure, which includes \\nconnected and sustainable multi-modal transport options, such as buses, bikes, and \\ntrains, all working in tandem with automated systems like toll and fare collection. Data \\nintegration is key in this system, drawing from diverse sources like emergency services, \\nweather forecasts and traffic updates to optimise the flow and safety of transport. Smart \\nservices are delivered through a central command centre which oversees a variety of \\nsystems, from smart parking and automatic vehicle locating to driver monitoring and \\nvehicle health monitoring systems. These integrated services work together to minimise \\ntravel times, enhance route management, and improve overall traffic management. With \\nreal-time data and analytics, the system can promptly respond to incidents, adjust traffic \\nsignals to reduce wait times, and provide timely updates to commuters, contributing to a \\nmore resilient and adaptable urban transportation network.\\n \\nFigure 25: Integrated intelligent transport system in smart cities\\nMany African countries are actively engaged in developing smart cities, a trend that \\nsignifies the continent’s push towards technological innovation and sustainable \\nurbanisation. Kenya’s Konza Technopolis, approximately 60 kilometres south of Nairobi, \\nis a comprehensive smart city project designed to spur technological innovation and \\nboost the information technology (IT) sector. This ambitious project includes world-class \\ninfrastructure, a business district, a research-oriented university campus, and residential \\nareas. In Rwanda, the Kigali Smart City Project is transforming the capital with smart \\ninfrastructure solutions like intelligent traffic lights to alleviate congestion and a city-wide \\nWi-Fi network to enhance connectivity. In Nigeria, Lagos is pioneering the Eko Atlantic \\nProject, a city built on reclaimed land from the Atlantic Ocean. Eko Atlantic stands out for \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n49\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nits self-sufficiency and sustainability, featuring energy-efficient buildings, an independent \\nclean energy supply, advanced urban water management, and integrated smart city \\ntechnologies aimed at improving residents’ quality of life. Mauritius is another noteworthy \\nexample, with its series of smart city projects like Ebène CyberCity, Mon Trésor Smart \\nCity, Moka Smart City, Côte d’Or Smart City, and Cap Tamarin Smart City. These projects \\nare at the heart of Mauritius’s strategy to modernise infrastructure and improve living \\nstandards, emphasising eco-friendly practices and sustainable community development. \\nThese initiatives demonstrate Africa’s strong commitment to leveraging technology and \\nsustainability in its urban development strategies, and directly addressing the challenges \\nand opportunities presented by the continent’s rapidly urbanising landscape.\\n4.5\\t Compact Land Use and Transit-Oriented Development \\nCompact and mixed-use development is an urban planning strategy that blends \\nresidential, commercial, and institutional land uses, promoting proximity of different \\namenities. Compact and mixed-use development are a fundamental component of \\ntransit-oriented development (TOD) which focuses on creating vibrant, sustainable \\ncommunities centred around public transport infrastructure. The communities are \\ndesigned to encourage walking, cycling and the use of public transit, while minimising \\nreliance on private vehicles (ITDP\\n, 2017). TOD also promotes providing a range of \\naffordable housing options to accommodate diverse income levels and support inclusive \\ncommunities, establishment of transit-supportive policies, quality public spaces, and \\ncycling and pedestrian-oriented infrastructure (ITDP\\n, 2017). By designing pedestrian \\nand cyclist-friendly streetscapes and encouraging mixed-use zoning, this approach can \\nfoster active transport while also enhancing the walkability and accessibility of cities. This \\napproach also has the potential to facilitate social equity benefits, such as affordable \\nhousing and improved access to services for low-income communities, which, in turn, \\ncan decrease transportation costs and enhance economic opportunities. The application \\nof ITS in compact and mixed-use developments enhances their effectiveness. For \\ninstance, real-time traffic updates and data analytics provided by ITS can assist in \\noptimising routing and scheduling, improving the overall transportation experience for \\nboth commuters and operators. City officials, armed with this data, can make informed \\ndecisions that further the quality of life for residents, as is the case of Kigali, Rwanda (Case \\nStudy 3 on this Chapter).\\n \\n4.6\\t Mass Rapid Transit \\nUrban transportation systems that rely mostly on private vehicles or low-capacity transport \\nvehicles such as paratransit systems, whether electric or not, will inevitably encounter \\nor continue to experience challenges around congestion and parking. The solution to \\nreducing the allure of private vehicle use lies in the availability of quality public transport \\nsystems that bypass traffic jams and road congestion (ITDP\\n, 2023). An example of this \\nmass rapid transit (MRT) or rapid transit is a type of high-capacity public transportation \\ntypically developed and used in urban settings. MRT systems including metros, light rail \\ntrain (LRT), and bus rapid transit (BRT) have emerged as vital solutions to urban transport \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n50\\nFigure 26: Car free day exercise in Kigali, Rwanda\\nImage Source: Ashimwe (2022) \\nTime\\nPM2.5 [µg/m3]\\n0:00\\n2:00\\n4:00\\n6:00\\n8:00\\n10:00\\n12:00\\n14:00\\n16:00\\n18:00\\n20:00\\n22:00\\n24:00\\n60\\nCar free days\\nNormal Sunday\\nSunday week\\nHourly mean variation of PM2.5 from 2017 to 2020 in Kigali\\n50\\n40\\n30\\n20\\n10\\nFigure 27: Impact of limiting vehicular traffic on air pollution in Kigali, Rwanda\\nSource: Kalisa, et al. (2021)\\nCase Study 3:\\nImplementing net zero transport in Kigali, Rwanda\\nIn 2016, Rwanda established the Kigali Car Free Day as part of efforts to make Kigali a \\nmore environmentally sustainable city. During the car free day, motorists are encouraged \\nto ditch their vehicles and motorbikes and a road of approximately 10 km is for motorised \\ntransport. The car free day encourages the use of non-motorised transport such as \\ncycling and walking. In addition to reducing traffic congestion and air pollution, it has \\nhelped cement a culture of walking and cycling among the population. Car-free days are \\nfound to reduce fine particulate matter (PM2.5) such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke in the \\nair by approximately 15%, leading to a 3.7% reduction in total PM2.5 pollutions in the city \\nannually (Figure 27) (Kalisa & Sudmant, 2022).\\nOther initiatives implemented by the government include deployment of electric \\nvehicles and motorcycles, establishment of charging infrastructure. The government \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n51\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nchallenges. MRTs offer the potential for high-capacity, reliable, and efficient public \\ntransportation, and contribute significantly to reducing urban congestion, pollution, and \\ngreenhouse gas emissions. The adoption of MRT systems can contribute to the goals of \\ndecarbonised transport, if they are electrified, as well as to the modernisation of urban \\ntransportation in Africa.\\nSeveral African cities have recognised the benefits of MRT systems and have begun \\nto implement them. These include the Algiers Metro (Algeria), Addis Ababa Light \\nRail (Ethiopia) (Case Study 4), Cairo Metro (Egypt), Lagos Rail Mass Transit (Nigeria), \\nCasablanca Tramway (Morocco), and the Gautrain (South Africa).\\nalso launched the Rwandan Green Fund (FONERWA), which supports projects focused \\non climate change mitigation, adaptation, and sustainable development. Rwanda has \\nalso made significant positive changes in reforming its public transport system aiming \\nto improve accessibility, efficiency, and sustainability such as implementation of smart \\npayment systems.\\nRwanda has also established car-free zones, to restrict the use of cars in certain regions \\nof the city of Kigali. The purpose of these car free zones is to reduce vehicle traffic and \\npromote pedestrian-friendly transportation in urban centres. Within cities, car-free zones \\ncontribute to reductions in both GHG emissions and air pollution. Since they encourage \\nphysical activity and a healthier lifestyle by providing safe and accessible spaces for \\npeople to walk, jog, cycle, or participate in recreational activities, they contribute to health \\nand wellbeing. Furthermore, due to reduced parking facilities, they encourage use of \\npublic transportation systems, such as buses.\\nThe city of Kigali has also established dedicated bike lanes, providing safe and convenient \\nroutes for cyclists. There are also bicycle taxis and bike rental programmes which charge \\nas low as one dollar per ride. Moreover, Rwanda aims to increase the share of hybrid cars \\nin its vehicle fleet, particularly in the public transport sector. There were approximately \\n1,500 hybrid cars and about 5,000 electric motorbikes, respectively, in Rwanda as of \\nSeptember 2021. Affordable electric motorbikes are being introduced into the market \\nthrough government and private initiatives. There were about 80 public and private \\ncharging stations as of September 2021 located in urban centres, commercial areas, \\nand along major transportation routes. Solar-powered charging stations are also being \\nexplored to leverage renewable energy resources.\\nRwanda has developed various incentives to promote e-mobility. These include tax \\nincentives and import duty exemptions, subsidies, and financial support for purchase of \\nEVs, charging infrastructure, reduced registration fees, and lower road taxes for hybrid \\nand EVs. There are also incentives for the conversion of traditional motorcycles to electric \\nmotorcycles. Other measures include stricter emission standards for vehicles, integration \\nof electric mobility considerations in urban planning and transportation policies, and \\ndevelopment of guidelines and standards for the installation of charging stations and \\ninfrastructure. In 2020, Rwanda committed to invest 900 million USD and 190 million in \\nelectric vehicles and vehicle emissions standards, respectively.\\nRwanda’s car free-day has become a reference point for healthy lifestyles and \\ndecarbonisation initiatives, as other African countries such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, \\nand Zimbabwe are introducing their own car-free days (United Nations, 2020).  \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n52\\nFigure 28: Light rail system in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia\\nSource: Assefa, et al. (2016) \\nCase Study 4:\\nLight rail train in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia\\nIn Addis Ababa, transportation is responsible for 47% of CO2 emissions. Operational \\nsince 2015, the Addis Ababa light rail is Africa’s first light rail train (LRT) system. It stretches \\nover 34 kilometres and has significantly improved urban mobility  in Ethiopia’s capital by \\noffering an affordable and faster alternative to buses and paratransit transport (Figure \\n28). Currently, the LRT service is transporting approximately 120,000 passengers daily, \\nusing 17 trains on both routes (Woldeamanuel, et al., 2022), though it has a capacity \\nto transport up to 60,000 individuals per hour (C40 Cities, 2016). The train operates \\non Ethiopia’s predominantly renewable energy-powered grid, utilising hydropower, \\ngeothermal, and wind resources. \\nImpacts: The project was expected to lower emissions by 55,000 tonnes of CO2 \\nannually in 2015 when it began operations to 170,000 tonnes of CO2 by 2030 (C40 \\nCities, 2016).  Moreover, since LRT systems are less land-intensive than conventional \\nroads, the project will decrease the burden of transport on urban ecosystems. \\nSocially, the train significantly reduced commuting time to work because of its higher \\nthan average speed of 10 km/hour, while the LRT has 22 km/hour. Economic and \\nsocial benefits such as jobs and improved health have also come from the project.  \\nSeveral cities have also adopted bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, recognising them as \\ncost-effective solutions that can improve urban mobility and address congestion. BRT \\nsystems are characterised by dedicated bus lanes, modern stations, and priority at traffic \\nsignals, and offer many of the advantages of a tram or light rail system but at a fraction of \\nthe cost and with greater flexibility. BRT systems have become a popular option for cities \\nlooking to upgrade their public transport networks without the extensive infrastructure \\nand investment required for rail. Examples of BRT systems in Africa include:\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n53\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\na.\\t Dar es Salaam, Tanzania — DART (Dar Rapid Transit): The DART system is the first \\nBRT system in east Africa. It extends over 20.9 kilometres and transports 172,000 \\npassengers daily, providing quicker travel via high-capacity buses. Since it began \\noperations in 2016, the DART has transformed Dar es Salaam city’s public transport \\nsystem and is often touted as a model for other African countries on how to develop \\nand operate BRT systems in cities with unregulated paratransit systems (ITDP\\n, 2017). \\nIn 2018, the city of Dar es Salaam became the first African city to win the Sustainable \\nTransport Award due to its BRT system and other transformative improvements to \\ntransit, cycling, and walking (Sustainable Transport Award, 2018).\\n \\nFigure 29: Dar rapid transit system, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania\\nSource: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2019)\\nb.\\t Lagos, Nigeria — Lagos BRT: Launched in 2008, Lagos busway was the first BRT-\\nlike system to be built in Africa and has continued to expand. It was designed to \\ncreate a more efficient and organised public transportation system in Lagos. The \\nsystem has been successful in reducing commute times, improving the reliability \\nof bus services, and serving as a more affordable transport option for millions of \\nLagos residents.\\nc.\\t Johannesburg, South Africa — Rea Vaya: This BRT system serves the Johannesburg \\nmetropolitan area, offering a fast, safe, and affordable public transportation option. \\nRea Vaya is known for its efficiency and safety and has significantly improved public \\ntransport in Johannesburg, reducing reliance on private vehicles.\\nd.\\t Cairo, Egypt: While traditionally known for its extensive metro system, Cairo is also \\nin the process of developing a BRT system to complement its existing transportation \\nnetwork. Once operational, it’s expected to significantly improve urban mobility in \\nCairo, reducing traffic congestion and providing a quicker and more reliable mode \\nof transport.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n54\\ne.\\t Accra, Ghana – Aayalolo: Accra’s busway, known as Aayalolo, aims to provide a \\nmore organised and efficient bus service to reduce travel times and improve public \\ntransport. Although not a BRT, it offers designated BRT-like lanes for buses and \\naims to make public transport more attractive and efficient, thereby improving daily \\ncommutes.\\nf.\\t Nairobi, Kenya: Nairobi’s planned BRT system is part of an urban renewal initiative \\nto address the city’s notorious traffic congestion and improve public transport. \\nOnce implemented, it’s expected to provide a faster, reliable, and more efficient \\ntransportation option for Nairobi’s growing population.\\nGlobally, while BRT systems have been adopted widely, the majority are powered by \\ntraditional fossil fuels. In Africa the scenario is similar, with electric-powered BRT systems \\nbeing a relatively new concept. Only one African country, Senegal, (see Case Study 5), \\ncurrently has an electric BRT system. However, there is growing interest and incremental \\nadoption of electric buses in public transport fleets. Considering the potential benefits \\nof EVs and the evolving landscape of transportation technology, African cities have \\ncompelling reasons to consider adopting electric-powered BRT systems; including their \\nhigh passenger transport capacity and ability to address the environmental and health \\nconcerns associated with increasing urbanisation. \\nWhen it comes to urban development, MRT systems play a pivotal role in fostering \\ncompact, sustainable urban environments. They reduce the demand for expansive road \\nnetworks and parking spaces, paving the way for increased green spaces and mitigating \\nurban sprawl. For instance, well-developed and efficient MRT and BRT systems can \\nencourage people to shift from private cars to public transport. This modal shift is essential \\nfor reducing traffic congestion, lowering emissions, and promoting more sustainable \\nurban mobility. In addition to providing efficient and affordable transportation, BRT \\nsystems often spur economic development along their routes, encouraging investment \\nand improving access to jobs and services.\\nWhile challenges such as finance remain, the continued development and expansion of \\nMRT systems across the continent will be crucial for sustainable urban development and \\nthe overall well-being of African cities. For better function and maximised usage, these \\nnew and existing MRT projects, especially railways, can be integrated into comprehensive \\nintermodal transport systems in three ways.\\nFirst, establishing seamless connections between rail and other modes of transport \\nis crucial. This means strategically locating railway stations to ensure they are easily \\naccessible from major urban centres and are well-connected to local public transport \\nnetworks, such as bus and minibus services. Planning for last-mile connectivity, through \\noptions like shared taxis, biking facilities or walkable pathways, is also vital to ensure the \\nsmooth transition of passengers and cargo from trains to their final destinations.\\nSecond, and especially for passenger transport, synchronisation of schedules and \\nticketing systems across different modes of transportation can greatly enhance the user \\nexperience and efficiency and encourage usage. Implementing integrated ticketing \\nsystems that cover trains, buses, and other local transport options can simplify travel for \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n55\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nCase Study 5:\\nElectric mass rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal\\nThe capital city of Senegal, Dakar is one of the fastest growing cities in the world that is \\nexpected to have a projected population of 6.5 million by 2025. This makes it imperative \\nfor the city to modernise its transportation infrastructure to match its expanding needs \\nand dynamic urban environment. Consequently, Dakar’s transportation landscape has \\nbeen revolutionised with the introduction of the Dakar Regional Express Train (TER) and \\nbus rapid transit (BRT), which are expected to significantly enhance urban mobility and \\npromote sustainable transit. Both systems are central to Senegal’s strategy for an efficient, \\neco-friendly, and integrated urban transport network.\\nBus Rapid Transit: Launched in December 2023, the Dakar BRT system (Figure 30), is the \\nfirst all-electric BRT in Africa and signifies a major leap in enhancing clean transportation \\nin African cities. The project is expected to provide a host of socioeconomic benefits, \\nincluding improved travel and emissions reductions. Through its dedicated bus-only \\nlanes (Figure 31), fixed routes and stops, predictable timetables, and a safe ride for \\nup to 320,000 people daily commuters. It aims to enhance access to jobs, health, and \\neducation services, particularly for women and other low-income residents, with 59% of \\njob opportunities in Dakar being reachable in an hour or less. The BRT also contributes to \\nimproved air quality and to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and align \\nwell with climate change mitigation efforts. \\nWith Dakar’s air pollutants at levels seven times higher than advisable (Dewast, 2019), \\nlargely due to vehicle emissions, the new BRT system aims to ameliorate air quality. \\nEncouraging the switch from private cars to public transit, it is projected to significantly \\ncut air pollution and greenhouse gases, with the World Bank anticipating a decrease \\nof 1.2 million tonnes in GHG emissions over three decades, equivalent to removing \\n260,000 cars from the roads (World Bank, 2023). The implementation of the BRT also \\ncomes with the introduction of the city’s first dedicated bike lanes alongside the BRT \\nroute, complemented by substantial eco-conscious landscape improvements such as \\ntrees and various plants.\\nFigure 30: Electric-powered bus rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal\\nSource: Chen, et al. (2023)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n56\\nThe BRT includes performance indicators to ensure best-in-class quality of service, \\npunctuality, safe operations, GPS-connected vehicles, modern payment system for users \\nthrough contactless smart cards, improved security with video surveillance, appropriate \\nsignposting, and lighting systems, as well as pedestrian safety (World Bank, 2023).\\nFigure 31: Dedicated bus rapid transit lane in Dakar, Senegal\\nSource: Chen, et al. (2023) \\nSince Dakar’s transport challenges are similar to other African cities’, the project serves as a \\nblueprint for the introduction of electric-powered BRT systems in Africa as the experience \\nand lessons learned can be shared and replicated in other urban areas. According to \\nthe World Bank, it demonstrates the impact of collaborative financing, involving multiple \\ndevelopment partners and the private sector. The project was backed by multiple entities, \\nincluding the World Bank, the European Investment Bank, IFC, MIGA, the government, \\nand the private sector. Electrification of the BRT’s buses was made possible with USD 144 \\nmillion in private sector financing, delivered through a public-private partnership (PPP) \\nimplemented with the support of IFC. This exemplifies how substantial the infrastructure \\nfunding gap is in developing countries and illustrates the successful mobilisation of \\nprivate capital for urban transport development.\\nDakar Regional Express Train (TER): Launched in 2021, the TER is a flagship project \\nunder the Emerging Senegal Plan (Government of Senegal, 2023), aiming to provide \\nfast, secure, reliable, and affordable transportation. The railway boasts a 36-km line \\nwith 13 stations, employing latest rail technologies, including the European Rail Traffic \\nManagement System for high-capacity operations, carrying 115,000 passengers daily at \\nspeeds up to 150 km/h. It significantly reduces pollution by 32%, enhancing urban health \\nand mobility. The TER not only boosts economic productivity and quality of life but is also \\nset to expand, further integrating into Dakar’s transportation network (AfDB, 2022).\\nBoth the BRT and TER are critical components of Senegal’s vision for an efficient, \\nsustainable, and accessible urban transportation system. They represent a significant \\ninvestment in public infrastructure, aiming to enhance the daily lives of residents, reduce \\nenvironmental impacts, and set a precedent for future transportation projects in Africa \\nand other developing regions.  \\n \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n57\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\npassengers, making it more appealing to use public transport. Moreover, incorporating \\ndigital technology and data analytics into transport planning can significantly improve \\nthe efficiency and attractiveness of the rail network. Utilising real-time data for managing \\nschedules, predicting maintenance needs, and optimising routes can enhance the \\nreliability and performance of railway systems.\\nFinally, effective communication and collaboration among various stakeholders — \\nincluding government entities, private sector partners, and local communities — are \\nessential for the success of these projects. This collaborative approach ensures that the \\nrailway developments are aligned with broader urban and regional planning goals and \\nthat they meet the actual needs of the populations they serve.\\n4.7\\t Integrated Urban Planning and Policy Making \\nThe optimal approach to incorporating climate-friendly transport options into urban \\nareas is in their planning phase. This entails implementing measures to guarantee the \\nharmonisation of all sectorial plans and the integration of climate-friendly transport and \\nland use considerations throughout all stages (Kumar, et al., 2016). In many cities, the \\nresponsibility for land use or spatial planning and transport planning rests with different \\npublic-sector agencies. For instance, in Ghana, national agencies like the Land-Use \\nand Spatial Planning Authority and the National Development Planning Commission \\nare tasked with planning and developing settlements. However, many other entities \\nsuch as the Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Railway Development, the \\nMinistry of Transport and the Ministry of Local Government, Decentralisation and \\nRural Development and including the Ghana Highway Authority, the Department \\nof Urban Roads, Department of Feeder Roads, the Department of Transport entities \\nhave responsibility for transport issues. While the National Development Planning \\nCommission (NDPC) is geared towards establishing a unified framework for planning, \\nother national and regional institutions continue to develop and carry out their own \\nplans, programmes, and projects with minimal consultation with NDPC. To address \\ninstitutional fragmentation and discourse, planning activities need to be streamlined for \\nmore effective and coordinated delivery. Transforming the transport system is possible \\nthrough strengthening local governments’ capacities to develop and implement \\nefficient urban development plans and incorporating them into the national financial and \\nregulatory framework (UN-Habitat, 2009). Governments can promote transit-oriented \\ndevelopment which incorporates compact and mixed-use development, cycling and \\nwalking designs, well-connected street networks, and affordable housing options, \\nthus, fostering connectivity, inclusivity, and sustainability. Low-carbon transportation \\npolicies such as low-emission zones, congestion charges, and parking policies that \\ndiscourage car use can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport \\nsector. Planners and urban designers can work with policymakers to implement these \\npolicies by conducting research to identify the most effective strategies, engaging \\nwith stakeholders to build support for the policies, and monitoring and evaluating the \\neffectiveness of policies.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n58\\n4.8\\t Rural-Urban Connectivity \\nRural-urban connectivity refers to the capacity for connecting areas (cities, towns, and \\nvillages) and people, by physical and non-physical means, through transport and \\ncommunication (Avery, 2017). It measures the distance and ease with which people, \\ngoods and services move between and within rural and urban nodes (locations). Rural-\\nurban connectivity is also highly correlated with economic development (affluence) and \\nis an important indicator of transport development in Africa. High rural-urban connectivity \\nis generally associated with low market integration and productivity and is an indicator \\nof the depth of income disparities between rural and urban households and localities.\\nAfrica’s rural-urban connectivity landscape varies from one country to another depending \\non the level of socio-economic development, population, rate of urbanisation, and \\ngeographical and climatic conditions among others. Intergovernmental Panel on \\nClimate Change (IPCC) that 45% of the global population lives in rural areas and 90% \\nof these reside in developing countries (IPCC, 2014). This number is higher in Africa at \\napproximately 52%, with Burundi having one of the highest proportions of people living \\nin rural areas estimated at about 86% and Gabon the lowest at less than 10%. \\nDespite the important role that rural-urban connectivity plays in igniting the growth and \\nprosperity of rural economies, most countries prioritise investment on urban transport \\nnetworks and infrastructure at the expense of rural regions. For instance, just a third (34%) \\nof the rural population in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has access to road networks, compared \\nto 90% in East Asia and the Pacific countries (Workman & McPherson, 2020). Besides, the \\naverage length of a road connecting two geographical locations or cities, as measured by \\nthe circuitousness ratio, an indicator of how curvy a road connecting two cities or locations \\nis also high in Africa compared to the rest of the developing world (Prieto-Curiel, et al., \\n2023). This is because of Africa’s complex physical terrain. Connecting rural and urban \\nlocations often involves meandering road networks to avoid landscapes such as mountains, \\nrivers, and wetlands. This not only increases the economic and environmental cost of \\nconstructing and maintaining requisite transport infrastructure networks and systems to \\nease rural-urban connectivity, but also increases travel time and subsequently carbon \\nemissions from motorised road transport. In general, the quality of road infrastructure is \\nrelatively poor in Africa compared to other developing regions such as Asia and Latin \\nAmerica. The road quality index, developed by the World Economic Forum and used in \\ncomputing global competitive index rates, estimates Africa’s road quality at 3.43 points in \\na 7-point scale, compared to 4.39 in Asia, and 4.95 in OECD countries. The road quality \\nindex in Egypt, Rwanda, Mauritius, Morocco, and South Africa ranges from 4.7 to 5.1 while \\nin Chad, Mauritania, Madagascar, DRC, Angola, and Mozambique, it ranges from 1.9 to \\n2.4 points. Improving rural-urban connectivity could help narrow down disparities and \\npromote equitable growth between rural and urban regions.\\nThe poor-quality road infrastructure in rural areas is in part responsible for the large \\nincrease in motorcycles in Africa in the last decades. In 2022, the number of registered \\nmotorcycles in Sub-Saharan Africa was estimated at 27 million, compared to 5 million in \\n2010 (FIA Foundation, 2022). The number of registered motorcycles in Africa is expected \\nto increase at an average annual rate of 9.54% between 2022 and 2030 (FIA Foundation, \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n59\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n2022). In rural areas, motorcycle taxis provide over 70% of passenger and goods transport \\n \\nannually (Jenkins, et al., 2021).\\nMotorcycles are flexible and better at navigating complex rural terrain and overcrowded \\nurban streets, and in moving people from door to door with greater fuel efficiency \\n(Figure 32). They are convenient, fast, affordable, and mobile phone penetration has \\nmade them easily accessible on-demand through a simple text or phone call within rural \\ncommunities. However, given the unregulated nature of their operations, motorcycles \\naccount for more than half of road deaths (and as high as 70%) in many Sub-Saharan \\ncountries, in both rural and urban settings (FIA Foundation, 2022). \\n \\nFigure 32: Motorcycles navigating diverse rural terrain in Africa\\nPhoto credit: Jack Omondi, NASAC staff.\\nGiven the high usage of motorcycles in many African regions, integrating safety measures \\nfor motorcycles into road design could enhance their safety. Similarly, electrifying the \\ncontinent’s large motorcycle fleet will also help Africa to achieve its climate change \\nmitigation and the SDGs. In addition, promoting multimodal transport strategies such as \\nintegrating walking and cycling infrastructure with planned or existing public transport \\nsystems can enhance sustainable transport, as illustrated in Case Study 6.\\nWithin the urban context, in addition to motorcycles and three-wheelers, electric \\nmicrocars (Figure 34) also present a promising avenue for reducing greenhouse gas \\nemissions while enhancing urban transport efficiency. Microcars are very small and \\nlightweight vehicles. They are typically designed for short-distance urban travel and \\nare known for their compact dimensions, which makes them well-suited for navigating \\ncrowded city streets and for ease of parking (Elmasry, et al., 2024). \\nFrom a social perspective, microcars offer an affordable and accessible means of \\ntransportation, especially in densely populated urban areas where traffic congestion \\nand limited parking are persistent challenges. Their small footprints make them ideal for \\nnavigating narrow city streets, thus improving urban mobility. Environmentally, microcars \\nare often powered by electric or hybrid engines, which further diminishes their carbon \\nfootprints (Elmasry, et al., 2024). Furthermore, the production of microcars generally \\nrequires fewer resources than standard vehicles, contributing to a more sustainable \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n60\\nCase Study 6:\\nEnhancing the walking environment in Kisumu, Kenya\\nKisumu, a key hub in western Kenya, has experienced a boom in infrastructure projects \\ndue to its role as a regional commercial, educational, and administrative centre. This \\ngrowth has brought urban mobility issues common in emerging African cities, such as \\nrising car traffic, inefficient public transport, and inadequate facilities for walking and \\ncycling. \\nIn Kisumu, non-motorised transport (NMT) is predominant: 53% of daily trips are on foot, \\n13% by matatu, 13% by boda-boda, and smaller percentages by other modes. Kisumu’s \\nflat terrain makes it suitable for walking, cycling, and driving tuktuks and microcars. \\nHowever, infrastructure often prioritises motorised transport. To address this, Kisumu \\nintroduced the Kisumu Sustainable Mobility Plan (KSMP), supported by UN-Habitat \\nand the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP). The city is now \\nimplementing designs focusing on pedestrian and cyclist safety (Figure 33). For example, \\nthe USD 2.2 million Kisumu Triangle involves upgrading 1.5 km of pathways with features \\nlike wide footpaths, streetlights, public toilets, and measures to prioritise pedestrians. The \\nproject’s second phase will invest USD 6 million to enhance eight km of roads, aligning \\nthem with Kenya’s 2011 policy that expressly includes walking and cycling facilities in new \\nurban road projects.  \\nFigure 33: Artist’s impression of a pedestrian friendly transportation terminus in Kisumu, Kenya\\nSource: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2020)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n61\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nAn integrated sustainable transport\\nGovernments in Africa should improve\\nstrategy that includes mass rapid transit\\nexisting transportation systems and\\nand non-motorised transport can enhance\\nadopt and scale up sustainable land-use\\ndecarbonisation of transport. A holistic\\ndevelopment. Improving existing transport\\napproach to sustainable transport can\\nsystems and adopting sustainable land-\\nnot only reduce carbon emissions but\\nuse developments such as compact and\\nalso has the potential to alleviate negative\\nmixed-use development and transit-oriented\\ntraffic externalities, thereby contributing\\ndevelopment, are essential strategies for\\nto a healthier environment and improved\\nAfrican governments to promote economic\\nquality of life. In Africa, where urbanisation is\\nprosperity, social inclusion, environmental\\nrapidly increasing, the need for efficient and\\nsustainability, and resilience. For instance,\\nsustainable transportation systems is more\\nby investing in more efficient and accessible\\npronounced than ever. The implementation\\npublic transit options, including mass rapid\\nof mass rapid transit systems, such as the\\ntransit options such as BRT and light rail\\nbus rapid transit (BRT) development of light\\ntransit systems, cities can significantly lower\\nrail projects, and non-motorised transport\\ntheir carbon footprint. In addition, creating\\ninfrastructure and policies  serves not only\\nsafer and more appealing conditions for\\nto decrease reliance on individual car usage\\nactive transportation, like walking and cycling,\\nbut also to spearhead the transition towards\\nthrough dedicated bike lanes and pedestrian\\nelectrification of public transport networks. \\nzones not only promotes a healthier lifestyle, \\nbut also reduces emissions.\\nFigure 34: Example of a microcar.\\nSource: Moses Ogutu, IAP Staff.\\nmanufacturing process that can also be adopted by African countries. Still, it is crucial \\nto address potential challenges, such as the need for charging infrastructure for electric \\nmicrocars and ensuring that these vehicles meet safety standards. Microcars have \\nalready been introduced in some African countries including South Africa which has \\nmany microcar models. For instance, at the Smarter Mobility Africa Summit, held in South \\nAfrica in October 2021, a notable highlight was the showcase of a compact electric \\nmicrocar by Funky Electric (Piper, 2023). Further cementing this trend, in June 2023, City \\nBlitz, an electric microcar was introduced in the South African market (Droppa, 2023). A \\nshift towards smaller, more efficient vehicles could be particularly relevant in the context \\nof Africa’s urban dynamics. \\n 4.9               Finding   and   Recommendation\\n\\n\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n62\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nPOLICY OPTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS\\nInnovative policies and regulations aimed at fostering cleaner transportation alternatives \\nare essential in realising decarbonised and sustainable transport objectives. The policy \\noptions and implications explored in this chapter seek to address the broad spectrum \\nof needs and challenges associated with the decarbonisation of transport in Africa. \\nRecognising that no single policy pathway suits all countries in the continent, the \\nadoption and implementation of policies needs to be customised to fit the specific \\npriorities and conditions of each country. Central to the transition towards decarbonised \\ntransport, however, is ensuring a just transition, one that is equitable and inclusive for all \\nstakeholders involved.\\nWhile regulations are essential for driving the decarbonisation of transport in Africa, \\npolicymakers must carefully balance the need for environmental protection with \\nconsiderations of economic viability, equity, and social welfare. Collaborative and \\ninclusive policymaking processes, informed by robust stakeholder engagement and \\nevidence-based analysis, are essential to maximise the positive impacts and minimise \\nthe potential drawbacks of regulatory interventions in the transportation sector.\\nSome of the positive impacts’ regulations play in decarbonisation of transport in Africa \\ninclude emission reduction, promotion of cleaner technologies, creation of conducive \\nenvironment for investment in sustainable transportation infrastructure and technologies \\nand reduction on reliance on private vehicles and encouragement of modal shifts \\ntowards more sustainable modes of transport. However, stringent regulations can impose \\nadditional costs on vehicle manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. Distortion \\nof market dynamics hinder competition, leading to inefficiencies and unintended \\nconsequences, and limited enforcement capacity and institutional weaknesses that can \\nundermine the effectiveness of regulations aimed at decarbonising transport.\\n \\n5.1\\t Disrupting Dominant Regimes in the Transport Sector \\nPolicies and processes of decarbonising road transport will result in the disruption \\nof existing and often dominant regimes in the transportation sector. These regimes \\ninclude the oil or fossil fuel industry, transport sector operators, and the institutions and \\ninstitutional frameworks that govern these transport systems. Decarbonisation involves \\nreducing dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, which are the primary energy sources \\nfor conventional ICE vehicles. Transitioning to low-carbon or zero-carbon alternatives like \\nEVs significantly impacts the demand for fossil fuels. For transport sector operators such \\nas the companies and organisations involved in manufacturing, operating, or maintaining \\ntransportation systems, decarbonisation will require them to adopt new technologies, \\nchange business models, and comply with different regulations. For instance, car \\nCHAPTER FIVE\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n63\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nmanufacturers will need to shift from producing traditional vehicles to electric ones, while \\nvehicle owners and both private and public service providers will need to acquire new \\nvehicles. Decarbonisation efforts will necessitate new or revised policies, regulations, and \\nincentives to encourage the adoption of cleaner transportation modes. This could disrupt \\nexisting institutional frameworks that have traditionally supported existing regimes, \\nsuch as subsidies that have historically supported the fossil-fuel industry and transport \\nsystems or the associated fuel tax revenues for governments (discussed in Section 5.4). \\nDecarbonisation policies inherently challenge the status quo and can lead to significant \\neconomic, social, and institutional changes and tensions. \\nThe Multi-Level Perspective (MLP), a framework for understanding challenges associated \\nwith complex sustainability transitions encompassing multiple actors, including \\nbusinesses, consumers, social movements, policymakers, academia, media, and investors \\n(Geels, 2019) has been applied to assess the speeds and natures of transitions across \\ncountries, such as electric mobility in the UK and Germany, and offers a useful lens for \\nunderstanding the challenges associated with decarbonising transport. Figure 35 depicts \\nthe MLP\\n, highlighting its three analytical levels (niche–regime–landscape) and temporal \\nphases (emergence, diffusion, and reconfiguration). This arrangement facilitates the \\nidentification and visualisation of influences and interactions across various levels.\\nThe MLP argues that for transformative innovations such as EVs to be effectively adopted, \\nsome essential factors need to be considered (Medina-Molinaa, et al., 2022). First, it is \\nimportant to understand the regime—that is the dominant actors, practices, and rules \\nthat govern the current system—and the implications of maintaining the existing regime. \\nSecond, because the regime constitutes a social and technical system, it is important to \\nLandscape developments put pressure on existing regime\\nLandscape \\nRegime\\nNiches\\nEmergence\\nDiffusion\\nReconfiguration\\nTime\\nThe regime is dynamically stable\\nNew configuration breaks through, taking\\nadvantage of ‘windows of opportunity’.\\n \\nAdjustments occur in regime\\nSmall networks of actors support innovation\\non the basis of expectations and visions\\n \\nLearning and experiments take place\\nMarkets & consumer\\npreferences\\nIndustry\\nPolicy\\nTechnology\\nCulture\\nScience\\nFigure 35: The multi-level perspective framework for complex sustainability transitions.\\nSource: Adapted from International Science Council (2019)’s adaptation of Geels (2019).\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n64\\nunderstand how to disrupt the regime and what the associated consequences may be. \\nDisrupting the regime to usher in a more sustainable and decarbonised system may \\noccur, for example, by introducing alternative (and often more sustainable) practices from \\nniche actors or taking advantage of landscape pressures or “shock events” (such as the \\nCOVID-19 pandemic). Changes in the global contexts, such as increased awareness of \\nclimate change impacts by society, can also provide opportunities for destabilising the \\nregime to allow transition to sustainable solutions. Third, all five subcategories of regimes \\n(policy, science and technology, industry practices, market and user preferences, and \\nculture) need to simultaneously change to transition successfully to a sustainable socio-\\ntechnical system. Regimes are typically stable systems and difficult to disrupt for various \\nreasons: the sub-regimes are aligned, mutually dependent, re-enforcing, evolving, and \\nsubject to the same set of rules. This points to the importance of niches, which according to \\nthe MLP\\n, is where alternative approaches to socio-technical transformation, and innovative \\npractices with potential to transform (change, disrupt, destabilise) regimes occur. \\nThus, for successful decarbonisation of transport to occur, strategies are needed to \\naddress these regime dimensions comprehensively, recognising that focusing on one \\narea (like policy) without considering others (such as technology, market preferences, \\nand culture) is unlikely to yield transformative change. \\nIn addition to the business models and solutions discussed in Chapter 2, the policy \\noptions and implications presented in this chapter attempt to address most of the \\nidentified needs and challenges to decarbonisation of transport in Africa. African \\ncountries have unique and differing needs, and no single policy pathway can meet the \\nneeds of all countries. The adoption and application of policy pathways for decarbonising \\ntransport needs to be tailored to the specific priorities and prerequisites of individual \\ncountries.\\n5.2\\t Promotion of Electric Vehicles\\nMany countries around the world including countries in Africa such as Egypt, Kenya, \\nMauritius, Rwanda, South Africa, and Uganda have developed policies to promote \\nthe use of EVs such as subsidies, tax incentives, and development of affordable and \\naccessible charging infrastructure (see Section 2.1). EVs offer significant cost advantages \\nover ICE vehicles in terms of operating expenses. EVs have lower fuel costs, as electricity \\nis generally cheaper than gasoline or diesel, leading to substantial savings over the \\nvehicle’s lifetime. EVs also have fewer moving components, hence they require less \\nmaintenance. As a result of the electric motor’s durability relative to ICEs, they also have \\nlonger lifespans.\\n \\n5.3 Cost-Benefit analysis of Electric Vehicles Compared to \\nInternal Combustion Engine Vehicles\\nThe total cost approach is widely utilised to compare the costs of acquiring and operating \\nEVs compared with those of conventional vehicles (Liu, et al., 2021; Wu, et al., 2015). This \\nmethod aggregates the purchase price and operating expenses, such as maintenance, \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n65\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nbattery replacement, energy, fuel, financing, and insurance costs for various electric \\nmobility modes — including cars, buses, and two-wheelers — and contrasts them with \\ntheir conventional counterparts. Additionally, it factors in the external benefits and costs \\nassociated with decarbonisation, such as environmental and health impacts. To enable \\ncross-country comparisons, the total costs are adjusted for taxes and subsidies, which \\nsignificantly affect the final acquisition and operational expenses of EVs. Table 6 applies \\nthe total cost approach to provide a comparative cost-benefit analysis of EVs versus ICE \\nvehicles, using Thailand as a case study (Suttakul, et al., 2022).\\nTable 6: Comparing cost elements for electric and internal combustion engine \\nvehicles in Thailand\\nType\\nTotal \\nCost of \\nOwnership \\n(TCO) \\n(USD)\\nDeprecation \\nCost\\n(USD)\\nEnergy\\nCost\\n(USD)\\nBattery\\nCost\\n(USD)\\nOther\\nCosts\\n(USD)\\nInternal\\nCombustion\\nEngine (ICE)\\n61,190.00\\n26,311.70\\n23,864.10\\n611.90\\n10,402.30\\nHybrid\\nElectric\\nVehicles\\n(HEV)\\n54,940.00\\n29,118.20\\n13,735.00\\n1,098.80\\n10,988.00\\nPlug-in\\nHybrid\\nElectric\\nVehicles\\n(PH)EV\\n55,940.00\\n33,564.00\\n7,831.60\\n2,797.00\\n11,747.40\\nBattery\\nElectric\\nVehicles\\n(BEV)\\n60,890.00\\n34,098.40\\n6,089.00\\n10,960.20\\n9,742.40\\n Note: Depreciation cost reflect capital cost for the vehicle over its life cycle. \\n Source: Suttakul, et al. (2022) \\nTable 6 compares the costs of owning and operating an ICE vehicle against three types \\nof EVs over a 15-year period: hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric \\nvehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). HEVs combine a petrol engine with \\na battery-powered electric drivetrain without plug-in capability. PHEVs feature both a \\npetrol engine and an electric drivetrain, with the ability to recharge via plug-in. BEVs are \\nfully electric with plug-in charging but do not use petrol.\\nThe analysis shows that while BEVs vehicles have a higher initial cost, over a 15-year \\nhorizon they have a marginal cost advantage over ICE vehicles (60,890 vs 61,190). \\nHowever, BEVs offer substantially lower energy costs, at just a quarter of that of ICE \\nvehicles, with battery costs —18% of total EV costs — being the main expense. With \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n66\\nadvancements in EV and battery technology, the costs associated with depreciation \\nand batteries are expected to decrease, making BEVs much more economical than ICE \\nvehicles. This shift will likely ease the transition to BEVs, assuming other concerns, such as \\nrange anxiety and infrastructure limitations, are addressed. Currently, HEVs and PHEVs \\nface a cost advantage of USD 6,250 compared to ICE vehicles, aznd this gap is expected \\nto widen as the technology becomes more affordable. It should be noted that Table 6 \\nfocuses only on direct costs which include maintenance, battery replacement, energy \\nand fuel, financing, insurance, and related expenses. The direct costs do not account for \\nthe environmental and social implications associated with using either type of vehicle, \\nwhich are significant factors in the push for decarbonisation to mitigate GHG emissions \\nand advance the global climate agenda. These broader impacts are detailed in Table \\n7 in this section, and Appendix A, both of which compare the national aggregate cost \\nadvantage of EVs in select African countries. \\nTable 7: National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicle adoption in \\nselect African countries by 2030\\nCountries\\nCharging\\ninfrastructure Cost \\nAdvantage (USD)\\nCapital Cost\\nAdvantage (USD)\\nOperating Cost\\nAdvantage (USD) \\nSubtotal (USD)\\nExternality (USD)\\nCost Advantage \\n(Economic Analysis)\\n(USD)\\nNet taxes subsidies\\n(fiscal wedge) (USD)\\nEconomic Cost\\nAdvantage plus\\nfiscal wedge (USD)\\nEgypt\\n-4107\\n-13010\\n15300\\n-1817\\n19019\\n17202\\n10165\\n8348\\nEthiopia\\n-1512\\n-4692\\n6920\\n716\\n1330\\n2046\\n11359\\n12075\\nGhana\\n-3017\\n-6241\\n10846\\n1588\\n2494\\n4082\\n9346\\n10934\\nNigeria\\n-4330\\n-6511\\n10850\\n9\\n1934\\n1943\\n-1112\\n-1103\\nRwanda\\n-2762\\n-5112\\n6356\\n-1518\\n1760\\n242\\n25110\\n23592\\nSource: Briceno-Garmendia, et al. (2023)\\nAlthough the upfront capital costs of acquiring EVs are high, these vehicles typically have \\na lifespan of around 15 years. Hence, the costs and benefits are calculated over this period \\nusing the World Bank’s approved discount rate of 7% (Briceno-Garmendia, et al., 2023). \\nEgypt and Nigeria face the highest costs in providing charging infrastructure, translating \\ninto higher capital costs compared to countries like Ethiopia and Rwanda. The capital cost \\ndifferential for EVs ranges from USD 5,112 in Rwanda to USD 13,010 in Egypt, relative \\nto the cost of acquiring and operating an equivalent ICE vehicle, which spans between \\nUSD 10,000 to USD 20,000 for the countries examined. Initially, acquiring an EV is at least \\n10% more expensive than an ICE vehicle, but this gap narrows to 5% when considering \\npositive fiscal incentives such as lower EV taxes. In Ethiopia, the fiscal incentives are so \\nsubstantial that they eliminate the cost disparity between EVs and ICE vehicles.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n67\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nEVs are preferred for their minimal GHG emissions, which translates to significant \\nenvironmental and social benefits over ICE vehicles. These benefits, or externalities, \\nare computed and presented in column 6. When these external benefits are added to \\nthe operating costs of EVs, the net cost advantage under the 30x30 decarbonisation \\nscenario target becomes positive for all countries studied. Egypt, in particular, sees \\nhigher external benefits due to its dense population. This scenario posits a net social \\nadvantage in acquiring and operating EVs, supporting the goal of 30% of new cars and \\nbuses and over 70% of two- and three-wheelers being electric by 2030. \\nThe fiscal benefits of adopting EVs, which result in lower taxes for importers compared to \\nICE vehicles, range from USD 8,348 in Egypt to USD 23,592 in Rwanda, where favourable \\ntaxes on EVs significantly reduce their purchase price compared to ICE vehicles. The \\nRwandan case shows how effective fiscal policies can internalise environmental costs to \\npromote electric mobility, sustainability, and social inclusion through improved health \\noutcomes.\\nSimilar to four-wheeled electric vehicles (EVs), electric motorcycles offer notable cost \\nsavings compared to their fossil-fueled counterparts. These savings manifest across \\nvarious operational aspects, highlighting the financial benefits of adopting electric \\nmobility in two-wheeled transportation. One of the most significant areas of savings is in \\nenergy (fuel vs. electricity), service and maintenance costs. Data based on models like the \\nRoam Air — an electric motorcycle — illustrate a marked reduction in these expenses (see \\nTable 8). Electric motorcycles incur service and maintenance costs of just USD 0.035 per \\n10 kilometres, a stark contrast to the USD 0.05 per 10 kilometres required for traditional \\nmotorcycles. This represents a 33% reduction in service and maintenance expenses, a \\nsaving attributed to the simplified mechanical design of electric vehicles. The reduction \\nin service and maintenance expenses increases over the product lifetime from 33% up \\nto 70%, due to faster deterioration of parts requiring lubrication and higher vibrations in \\nfossil fuel vehicles. The absence of conventional engine components reduces the need for \\nregular oil changes and minimises the number of moving parts susceptible to wear and \\ntear. Moreover, the operational or running costs of electric motorcycles further emphasise \\ntheir economic advantage. Operating at a cost of only USD 0.08 per 10 kilometres, electric \\nmotorcycles present a significantly cheaper option than fossil-fueled motorcycles, which \\nhave running costs of USD 0.288 per 10 kilometres. This 68% reduction in running costs \\ncan accumulate to substantial long-term savings for owners, particularly beneficial for \\nthose who frequently rely on their motorcycles for daily commutes or leisure.\\nTable 8: Comparing cost elements for electric vs fossil fueled motorbike\\nAspect\\nFossil Fueled \\nMotorcycle\\nElectric\\nMotorcycle\\nImprovement\\nService & Maintenance Cost (per \\n10 KM)\\nUSD 0.05\\nUSD 0.035\\n33% cheaper\\nEmissions (CO2 per KM)\\n27g\\n0g\\n97% reduction\\nRunning Cost (per 10 KM)\\nUSD 0.288\\nUSD 0.08\\n68% reduction\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n68\\nIn conclusion, a cost-benefit analysis that encompasses environmental and social costs \\ncan powerfully inform public policy options and the design of optimal fiscal incentives for \\npromoting electric mobility. It underscores the critical role that fiscal and monetary policies \\nplay as economic instruments in fostering electric mobility and the decarbonisation of \\ntransport, both in Africa and beyond.\\n5.4\\t Minimising Tax Revenue Losses \\nFuel tax losses represent one of the biggest challenges for most governments with the \\ntransition to EVs. In January 2022, the United Kingdom projected losses of about USD \\n6.8 billion annually in fuel duty within eight years due to the transition to EVs (Goodrich, \\n2022). As fuel duties comprise approximately a third of yearly revenues in the country, \\nthis posed a great threat to the tax income used to enhance, operate, and maintain \\nmotorways, with EVs already representing over 10% of the domestic vehicle market.\\nSimilarly, fuel is an important tax revenue base in many African countries. For instance, \\nthe government of Ghana collects eight different taxes on each litre of fuel sold. These \\ncomprise of levies for energy debt recovery, energy fund, energy sector recovery, \\nprice stabilisation and recovery, road fund, sanitation and pollution, special petroleum \\ntax and unified pricing petroleum fund (Acheampong, 2022). The fuel pump price is \\ntherefore higher for Ghanaian motorists at about USD 1.14 per litre, relative to those \\npaid by motorists in Nigeria (USD 0.169), Togo (USD 0.91), and Ivory Coast (USD 1.076) \\n(Goodrich, 2022). Reduced consumption of fuel through the introduction of EVs would \\nthus result in reduced tax income. While some governments may hesitate to adopt \\nEVs due to this reduction, the lost income can be recovered by shifting tax handles to \\nalternative broad-base taxes, such those on telecommunication and mobile financial \\nservices. Governments will get more revenues through the surge in electricity purchases \\nto charge EVs and the import taxes of EVs. Other compensating revenue sources would \\ninclude increasing carbon taxes on hydrocarbons uses and excise duties, road taxes, \\nand other levies on motor vehicles more generally where a motor vehicle becomes a \\nnew alternative tax base. Road pricing schemes in which motorists pay based on the \\ntime, distance and location travelled can also be adopted. In this case, road toll fees can \\nbe an alternative compensating tax base for fuel. \\nAfrican governments heavily subsidise fossil fuels, at an average cost of 1.4% GDP to \\ncushion consumers against rising global oil prices. But this creates heavy fiscal debt. \\nFor instance, Nigeria spent more than USD 30 billion on fuel subsidies in the past 15 \\nyears, resulting in a significant budget deficit (Goodrich, 2022). On the other hand, \\nKenya’s petroleum expenditure in 2021 was about USD 2.6 billion, widening the trade/\\nbalance of payments deficit (Brookings, 2023). If EVs can gain traction in these countries, \\ngovernment spending could be channelled away from fossil fuel subsidies towards other \\nsectors such as clean energy development and other poverty reduction initiatives. \\nOil producing countries like Angola, Equatorial Guinea, and Nigeria may be hesitant \\nabout global and continental phase-out of ICEs in the near future because of the need \\nto safeguard the oil exports that sustained their economies. In 2019, the Nigerian senate \\nunanimously rejected a bill which sought to phase out ICEs by 2035 (IOA, 2022). While \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n69\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nreforms that seek to regulate petroleum products such fuel prices will remain fraught with \\neconomic and political contestations, in the longer term, EVs are expected to replace \\nICE vehicles, leaving oil-producing countries with no choice but to support the adoption \\nof EVs and pursue other pathways for diversifying petroleum value chains away from \\nfossils. Besides, there are numerous uses of oil and gas apart from its use as fuels for \\ntransportation, electricity generation, and in industries.\\n5.5\\t Transport Sector Governance, Institutional Framework \\nand Policy Ownership\\nA major challenge in governing road transportation in Africa is the absence of sustained \\nactions and long-term strategic planning in the sector (Sustainable Mobility for All, 2022). \\nOften, national and subnational governments struggle to effectively tackle mobility \\nissues due to a lack of comprehensive planning. Moreover, even when such plans are in \\nplace, their implementation is frequently inadequate. It is common for new plans to be \\nintroduced, only to be replaced when a change in administration occurs. The incoming \\nauthorities often disregard the efforts made by their predecessors and hastily modify or \\nhalt ongoing programmes rather than sustain them for political expediency.\\nFurthermore, the effectiveness of these programmes is hindered by the lack of \\ncoordination and monitoring among the various entities involved in road transport \\n(Sustainable Mobility for All, 2022). Responsibilities are frequently dispersed among \\ndifferent national, subnational, metropolitan, or local entities without clear delineation, \\nleading to confusion, neglect, and even duplication of roles leading to inefficiencies \\nin programme implementation. These factors contribute to an environment where \\nprivate stakeholders can easily overstep boundaries and take advantage of the poorly \\nregulated context.\\nOne way to address these challenges is to establish a transport planning and regulatory \\nmetropolitan agency, particularly for major cities and metropolitan areas. This institution \\nwould assume the role of the lead authority for transport planning, regulation of public \\ntransport supply, and improvements to the transport system, including parking and \\ntraffic management. Examples of successful initiatives include the Lagos Metropolitan \\nArea Transportation Authority (LAMATA), which has broad powers and independent \\nresources over transport planning in Lagos, Nigeria. LAMATA is recognised for reviving \\na previously dysfunctional and unregulated transport system (Gomez-Ibanez, 2015). The \\nimplementation of such agencies can be difficult, and strong political commitment and \\nsufficient resources are necessary to ensure their effectiveness. \\nAfrican countries have also explored the formation of regional transport infrastructure \\nagencies encompassing several countries including the establishment of the African \\nAssociation of Urban Transport Authorities (AAUTA) in February 2023 (Kaori & Malgrace, \\n2023). The initiative emerged through a collaboration between The Greater Abidjan \\nUrban Mobility Authority (AMUGA), or Autorité de la mobilité urbaine dans le Grand \\nAbidjan, and the Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP), which is an international \\npartnership administered by the World Bank (Niina & Annin, 2023). The AAUTA brings \\ntogether over 40 urban transport leaders from 13 African countries. It aims to serve as a \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n70\\ndedicated platform for African urban transport authorities (UTAs) to meet and exchange \\nlessons learnt and good practices related to planning, coordinating, regulating, financing \\nand managing urban transport systems, and promote public-private partnerships that \\nprovide the best conditions for mobilising resources and strengthening cooperation \\nwith partners in development (Kaori & Malgrace, 2023). Regional initiatives such as \\nthese can foster learning and collaboration in transport sector governance across \\nAfrica, especially in the context of the renewed urban designs that are necessary to \\naccommodate electric mobility. \\nIn addition to the AAUTA initiative, city authorities can also follow the example of the C40 \\nCities Climate Leadership Group, which unites 96 cities globally in a concerted effort to \\ncombat climate change. Through this platform, cities share strategies, innovations, and \\nactionable plans, thereby cultivating a global network of municipal leaders committed to \\nthe reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the development of resilient, low-carbon \\nurban environments. The C40 initiative demonstrates the potential of collaborative \\nplatforms to inspire similar efforts within Africa, thereby enhancing the continent’s capacity \\nfor transport decarbonisation. By leveraging collective expertise and initiatives, such \\ncollaborations can drive significant progress in regional sustainable development efforts.\\n5.6\\t Investments in Public Transport\\nInvestments in public transport systems such as mass rapid transit modes (light rail \\nand bus rapid transit (discussed in Section 4.6) are an effective way of reducing carbon \\nemissions in the transport sector. Cities across the world, in both developed and emerging \\neconomies such as Bogota (Colombia), Sao Paulo (Brazil), and Jakarta (Indonesia) have \\ninvested in these systems, and have seen significant emissions reductions and improved \\npublic transportation. To benefit from the environmental and social benefits associated \\nwith public transportation systems such as mass rapid transit, countries need to:\\n•\\t\\nPrioritise investment in public transit infrastructure: Investing in public transit \\ninfrastructure, such as bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, light rail, and commuter rail, \\ncan significantly improve public transit in Africa, in turn reducing transport sector \\nemissions as populations reduce reliance on personal cars. Countries such as \\nEthiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania have already made progress in this area by investing \\nin BRT systems, expanding existing rail networks, and building new commuter rail \\nsystems (as discussed in Section 4.6). \\n•\\t\\nDevelop integrated transportation systems: Integrated transportation systems \\nconnect different modes of transportation, such as buses, taxis, and trains, and \\nimprove the efficiency and convenience of public transit. Cities such as Lagos, \\nNigeria, have implemented integrated transportation systems that allow passengers \\nto use a single ticket to access multiple modes of transportation (AfDB, 2019), making \\nit convenient and attractive to users. \\n•\\t\\nEncourage public-private partnerships: Public-private partnerships can help increase \\nprivate investment in public transit and improve the quality of service and innovation \\nin transport systems. For example, in Rwanda, the government has partnered with \\nprivate companies to establish a new dedicated bus lanes (DBL) system. Dedicated \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n71\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nbus lanes for public transport in the country are expected to be operational on a pilot \\nbasis in mid-2024 (TRT Africa, 2023). Public-private partnerships have successfully \\nbeen utilised to enhance public transport systems around the world, including in \\ninfrastructure financing and development. \\n•\\t\\nPrioritise safety and security: Improving safety and security of public transit systems \\ncan help to increase ridership and improve the overall perception of public transit. \\nMeasures such as installing CCTV cameras, hiring security personnel, and improving \\nlighting in and around transit stations can help to enhance safety and security (Lierop \\n& El-Geneidy, 2016). \\n•\\t Implement innovative fare collection systems: Implementing innovative fare \\ncollection systems, such as smart cards and mobile payments, can help to improve \\nthe efficiency and convenience of public transit. For example, Kenya has proposed \\nto implement a smart card system for its upcoming BRT system, which could help \\nreduce fare evasion and improve the overall customer experience (The World \\nBank, 2017).\\n5.7\\t Investments in Renewable Energy\\nElectric vehicles could maximise their contribution towards decarbonisation efforts if \\nthe electricity used for charging them comes from renewable energy sources such as \\ngeothermal, hydroelectric, solar, wind power or biofuels. Africa is naturally endowed with \\nthese renewable energy sources. For instance, hydropower is widespread, particularly in \\neast and central Africa, with countries like Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo \\nharnessing river systems to generate hydroelectricity. Solar and wind power are also \\nincreasingly being utilised due to Africa’s abundant sun and favourable wind conditions, \\nespecially in the north and in parts of East Africa. Geothermal energy is also being tapped \\nin the Rift Valley, notably in Kenya, which is the top geothermal power producer in Africa. \\nIncreased adoption of EVs can drive the demand for cleaner energy, acting as a catalyst for \\nfurther investment in renewable energy infrastructure. Increased adoption of EVs can also \\ncreate a positive feedback loop, where the growth of e-mobility spurs decarbonisation \\nof the electric grid itself. In addition to supporting regulation, investments in renewable \\nenergies can be enhanced through innovative financing mechanisms such as green \\nbonds, which are specifically destined for the funding or refunding of green projects — that \\nis, projects that are sustainable and socially responsible in areas as diverse as renewable \\nenergy, energy efficiency, clean transportation or responsible waste management (AfDB, \\n2019). \\nOff-grid energy solutions that provide electricity independently of the traditional \\ncentralised electrical grid can also serve areas where it is either too expensive or \\nimpractical to connect to the grid. Examples of common off-grid energy solutions \\ninclude solar photovoltaic systems, wind turbines, micro-hydro power, biomass and \\nbiogas systems, battery storage systems, and hybrid systems that combine two or more \\nof power systems to ensure a consistent and reliable power supply. Off-grid solutions are \\ncrucial for enhancing energy access in remote or underserved areas and are also a part \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n72\\nof the strategy for many regions to increase the use of renewable and sustainable energy \\nsources (Nyarko, et al., 2023).\\n5.8\\t Promote Non-Motorised Transport\\nNon-motorised transport (NMT) such as cycling, walking, and other human-powered \\ntransport can significantly reduce carbon emissions in the transport sector. Many cities \\nin Europe have invested in cycling infrastructure, such as bike lanes and bike parking \\nfacilities, which have encouraged people to cycle instead of drive. A study by the European \\nCyclists’ Federation (ECF) found that increased cycling could reduce carbon emissions \\nfrom the transport sector by up to 10% by 2050 (European Cyclists’ Federation, 2015). \\nNMT, especially walking, is the dominant mode of transport in Africa, since between 33% \\nand 90% of trips are made as a pedestrian (Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program \\n(SSATP), 2015). Walking is popular in Africa because of many factors including favourable \\nweather, short trips, poverty, and the high cost of private and public transit (Hernandez, \\net al., 2021). Figure 36 compares modes of transport in Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. \\n \\nWalking\\n \\nPublic transport\\n(Bus/minibus/\\nmatatu)\\nCycling\\nTwo-wheeler\\n(Bodaboda)\\nOwn private car\\nThree-wheeler\\n*Bajaj/Tuktuk)\\nOwn private\\nmotorcycle\\nOffice transport\\nservice\\nTaxis (Uber, Bolt)\\nDaily\\n1–2/3–4 days a week\\n1–3 days a month/ Once a month\\n1–2 times a year\\nnever\\n90%\\n3% 3%\\n30%\\n13%\\n7%\\n49%\\n10%\\n84%\\n4%\\n2%\\n19%\\n7%\\n3% 3%\\n68%\\n8%\\n21%\\n23%\\n5%\\n43%\\n2%\\n81%\\n8%\\n2%\\n6%\\n3%\\n13%\\n1%\\n56%\\n25%\\n5%\\n91%\\n3%\\n2%\\n3%\\n1%\\n95%\\n2%\\n1%\\nFigure 36: Modes of transport used in Nairobi, Kenya\\nSource: Mitullah (2023)\\nNMT infrastructure remains underdeveloped in Africa. In many countries, it is common \\nto find pedestrians walking across and along major arterials and highways, as there are \\noften no secondary roads that could be used as an alternative. When NMT infrastructure \\nsuch as footpaths are available they are sometimes poorly designed or frequently ill-\\nmaintained, leading to secondary problems such as inaccessibility for people with \\nmobility challenges (e.g., those in a wheelchair or with a walking stick) drainage problems, \\ninadequate lighting, and poor landscaping that make them unsafe or unattractive for \\nusers (Vanderschuren, et al., 2022). Figure 37 shows a finished walkway in Nairobi; \\ninstead of the pathway being located on the sides of the road, it is in the centre of a busy \\nroad, forcing pedestrians to cross the street to utilise it (IDS-VREF MAC study 2020–2021, \\npedestrians in Nairobi). \\n \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n73\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nMany who opt for non-motorised transport thus suffer from challenges such as road \\ninjuries and fatalities. Africa has the highest proportion of pedestrian and cyclist deaths, \\naccounting for 44% of the total number of road deaths (United Nations, 2023). Many \\nof these can be prevented by implementing policies that promote NMTs. NMT policies \\nin Africa, though increasing, are limited to a few countries. As Figure 38 illustrates, \\nNMT policies are either adopted at the national level (for example, as part of a national \\ntransport master plan) or sub-national level (for example, by a local city), with some \\ncountries having both. \\n \\nAfrican countries can adopt and improve non-motorised transport in several ways \\nincluding:\\n•\\t\\nDeveloping a cycling and walking infrastructure that is safe, comfortable, and \\naccessible: Providing dedicated and well-designed bike lanes and pedestrian paths \\ncan encourage more people to walk and cycle. Amsterdam and Copenhagen have \\nshown that investing in cycling infrastructure can result in significant increases in \\nthe number of people cycling (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Access to high-quality bike \\nlanes is key since it can enhance a shift to a near-zero carbon form of transport and \\nimprove the health and safety of people. A study of European cities found that even \\noccasional cyclists (once or twice weekly) had 84% lower CO2 emissions per person \\nfrom all daily travel than non-cyclists (Systems Change Lab, 2023). The study noted \\nthat if 10% of the population was to change travel behaviour from driving to cycling, \\nemissions from transportation would be expected to drop by about 10%. \\n•\\t Implementing policies that support active transportation: Governments can \\nimplement policies such as active transportation plans, complete streets policies, \\nand incentives for employers to promote active transportation. Complete streets \\nis a transportation policy and design approach that requires streets to be planned, \\ndesigned, operated, and maintained to enable safe, convenient, and comfortable \\ntravel and access for all anticipated roadway users, regardless of their age, \\nFigure 37: Pedestrian footpath in Nairobi, Kenya\\nSource: Moses Ogutu, IAP.\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n74\\nabilities, or mode of travel. This can help create a culture of walking and cycling \\nand encourage more people to choose active modes of transportation. One \\nsuch example is Rwanda (see Case Study 3). Moreover, African countries should \\ndesign manuals for urban areas to mainstream proven practice street designs that \\npromote the use of sustainable modes of transport and enhance the safety of \\nvulnerable road users like cyclists and pedestrians. \\n•\\t Involving the community in planning and design: Engaging with the local \\ncommunity and understanding their needs and preferences is essential when \\nplanning cycling and walking infrastructure. This can help ensure that the \\ninfrastructure is designed to meet the needs of the community and is, therefore, \\nmore likely to be used by people.\\nFigure 38: Non-motorised policies in African countries\\nSource: Adapted from Collaboration for Active Mobility in Africa\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n75\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n•\\t\\nEncouraging multi-modal transportation: Encouraging people to use a combination \\nof transportation modes can help reduce car use and increase the use of walking \\nand cycling. Providing facilities such as bike parking and bike share schemes can \\nencourage people to combine cycling with public transportation. Paths and crossings \\nshould also be cogniant of the specific needs of women, children, and the elderly. \\n•\\t\\nAddressing safety concerns: Addressing safety concerns is crucial for encouraging \\nmore people to walk and cycle. This can be achieved through infrastructure \\nimprovements such as well-lit paths and crossings.\\n5.9\\t Technology and Innovations for Sustainable Mobility \\nTechnology transfer is key to driving innovation and the shift to sustainable transport \\nin Africa, particularly in regard to the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and related \\ninfrastructure. Technology transfer in transportation is giving rise to new forms of \\nflexible, shared mobility and on-demand services. The use of such technologies has \\nenabled the integration of multiple transportation modes in Africa and is facilitating \\nmore environmentally friendly, predictable, and high-volume trips. To scale and achieve \\nthis technology transfer in transportation in Africa, it is essential to create partnerships \\nbetween developed countries which are early adopters of EVs, and emerging African \\ncountries. These collaborations would facilitate access to EV technologies, including \\nthose under copyright protections, crucial for decarbonising transport globally. African \\ntransport tech startups are at the forefront of this sustainable transition, with more than 500 \\nstartups active across the continent (Briter Bridges, 2023; GSMA, 2023). These startups \\nhave attracted significant investment, securing around USD 1.4 billion over the past four \\nyears, primarily in passenger solutions, multi-tier systems, and logistics services (GSMA, \\n2023). They are not only the third most attractive sector in Africa’s startup landscape, but \\nare also pivotal in offering solutions to the continent’s transportation challenges, focusing \\non reliability, affordability, and reduced carbon emissions. These startups such as Roam \\nin east Africa (see Case study 7 in this Section) are often adapting foreign technologies to \\nsuit local conditions, terrains, environmental challenges, and infrastructure needs. \\nDespite their innovative approaches, including the use of intelligent transport systems \\nand big data analytics, these startups face considerable challenges like inadequate \\ninfrastructure, funding shortages, and limited managerial expertise (Dosso, 2022). Skilled \\nroles such as design engineers and solar technicians are scarce, often leading startups \\nto depend on expatriate talent. To overcome these barriers and continue advancing, it is \\ncrucial for these startups to engage in long-term research and development, partnerships \\nthat integrate advanced knowledge and technologies from established companies and \\nresearch institutions. While policy support in Africa is gradually improving, sustainable \\nmobility startups still struggle to obtain localised data on market practices and demands. \\nIntervening policy is needed to encourage and support these startups.\\n \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n76\\nCase Study 7:\\nRoam, electrifying motorcycles in Africa\\nPassenger buses and the popular two-wheelers (motorcycles or motor taxis) are the main \\npublic transport vehicles serving the growing population of African cities but are also \\nsome of the highest carbon-emitting vehicles on the market (SitatiI, et al., 2022). Founded \\nin 2017, Roam is an East Africa based company with the vision of electrifying the African \\ntransport and energy systems. Roam initially focused on electric conversions, converting \\nICE vehicles to EVs, but later evolved to provide tailored solutions to meet local market \\ndemand through business segments that now include an electric motorcycle (two-\\nwheelers) designed in Kenya and tailored for Africa (Roam Air); electric bus production \\nfor Kenyan and African public transport sectors (Roam Transit), which produces the \\nRoam Move and Roam Rapid; off-the-shelf energy and charging products (Roam Energy \\n& Charging); and tailored software applications to fleet owners, business operators, \\nfinanciers and others that includes a mobile application for chargers and transactions \\n(Roam Canopy).\\nRoam’s research found that ownership of the battery and the system increases product \\nlifetime, providing the best performance and the lowest total cost of ownership. In the \\ncase of motorcycles (Roam Air), the company provides each user with a home charger \\nthat allows users to charge at home and anywhere at any time (Figure 39). The company \\nalso established ROAM Hubs, multi-purpose electric charging stations that act as an \\necosystem solution for motorcycle operators. The hubs offer battery rental services and \\npublic charging access, and are outfitted with after-sales support, including spare parts \\nand maintenance services provided by skilled technicians. \\nFigure 39: A motorcycle rider charging his own battery at a Roam hub\\nSource: ROAM (2024)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n77\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n5.10\\t Just Transition Principles\\nThe decarbonisation of the economy is reshaping labour markets and workforce skills in \\ncomplex and dynamic ways, influenced by global trends like technological advancements \\nand demographic changes (International Labour Organisation, 2022). As e-mobility \\nis increasing, various segments of the conventional automobile value chain, spanning \\nmanufacturing, sales, and service sectors will become obsolete or undergo significant \\ntransformations. These changes are likely to result in job losses in the conventional ICE \\nvehicle industry, while at the same time creating new job opportunities in the EV industry. \\nThis transition will require upskilling existing workers and training new ones. In Africa, \\nwhere many transport jobs are informal, workers often lack social safety nets and access \\nto essential resources like credit or insurance, which will make it challenging for them to \\nadapt their business models to these changes.\\nTo ensure socially equitable and inclusive outcomes alongside environmental \\nsustainability, Africa needs to ensure that the transition to a net-zero economy follows a \\njust transition approach. A just transition through social justice has been recognised as \\na fundamental precondition for sustainable transport (Bongardt, et al., 2023). According \\nto the International Labour Organisation, (ILO) a just transition means greening the \\nIn line with the goal of achieving climate impact with speed and scale, home charging \\nallows for deployment without the need for capital intensive charging infrastructure. \\nPublic infrastructure can be used assupport, rather than as a necessity. The lower cost of \\nthis strategy lowers operating cost by 28% to the end user. The motorcycle components \\nsubject to maintenance have been designed to be serviceable with common ICE \\ncomponents. This allows owners to have flexibility and low cost in maintenance. In \\naddition, the hubs serve as public access locations for software and technology updates \\non the motorcycles making them one-stop-shops for the varying needs of the operators. \\nThe hubs are open to other EV players, with several already leveraging this infrastructure \\ntoday. This open EV platform enables the industry to scale faster, reducing the higher \\namortisation of closed architecture charging infrastructure being pushed to the end user. \\nRoam’s electric motorcycles have made a notable environmental impact, with each \\nkilometre driven on the Roam Air mitigating 58 g/CO2e. The social and economic \\nimpacts are equally significant, with every dollar invested in Roam generating a social \\nreturn of $2.4 through reduced ownership costs and increased income for users. Over 3 \\nmillion kilometres have been covered by Roam’s electric motorcycles, underscoring the \\nwidespread adoption and effectiveness of their solutions.\\nRoam’s journey has yielded valuable insights, including the importance of vertical \\nintegration, the demand for low-cost ownership, and the effectiveness of designing for \\nlocal conditions. The higher upfront cost remains the primary barrier to faster adoption \\nrates. However, the significantly lower operational costs ensure a more affordable total \\ncost of ownership in the long run. Overcoming this barrier requires achieving economies \\nof scale, possible through innovative financing methods such as non-dilutive funding, non-\\nrecourse debt, first-loss guarantee funds, and carbon financing.  \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n78\\neconomy in a way that is as fair and inclusive as possible to everyone concerned, creating \\ndecent work opportunities and leaving no one behind (ILO, 2021). Just transitions involve \\nmaximising the social and economic opportunities of climate action, while minimising \\nand carefully managing any challenges—including through effective social dialogue \\namong all impacted groups, and respect for fundamental labour principles and rights. \\nEnsuring a just transition is important for all economic sectors, including transport.\\nThe ILO’s “Guidelines for a Just Transition towards Environmentally Sustainable Economies \\nand Societies for All” (ILO, 2015) highlights key principles for effective transport \\ndecarbonisation, and just transition, including:\\n•\\t\\nSafeguarding worker rights: A just transition places a strong emphasis on \\nsafeguarding workers’ rights and livelihoods during the transition. It advocates for \\nretraining and reskilling programmes, fair employment opportunities in emerging \\nsectors, and maintaining social protections. As decarbonisation of transport will result \\nin job losses and demand new skills, governments, private sector, non-governmental \\norganisations and other stakeholders need to work together to implement \\nprogrammes to support workers in the transport sector. \\n•\\t\\nEnsuring stakeholder participation, equity, and inclusion: A just transition prioritises \\nsocial equity and inclusion, ensuring that no group or population is disproportionately \\nburdened or excluded from the benefits of the transition. This involves paying \\nparticular attention to marginalised and vulnerable groups, including women, \\nindigenous communities, low-income populations, and residents of rural areas. It \\naims to correct historical inequalities, promote equal opportunities, and ensure fair \\ncost and benefit distribution. Historically, the transport system has not addressed \\nthe safety of women or equity between women and men in the transport workforce \\n(International Transport Forum, 2022). Moreover, persons with disabilities and older \\npersons (PWDOD) also have unique challenges that hinder their mobility and \\naccess to effective transportation services. In Africa, key transport issues affecting \\nPWDOD include inaccessible infrastructure like missing sidewalks, ramps, and \\nelevators, especially for wheelchair users, a lack of vehicles adapted for their needs, \\nand insufficient awareness among transport staff about their requirements. Lack of \\naccessible transport significantly hinders persons with disabilities and older persons \\nfrom participating in economic activities, as evidenced by the Kenya Integrated \\nHousehold Budget Survey (KIHBS) 2015/2016, which revealed that over half of \\nthe persons with disabilities in both urban and rural areas face mobility-related \\nchallenges that impede their ability to engage in work or access education and \\nwelfare services, thus isolating them from critical societal functions and opportunities \\nfor economic independence (KIPPRA, 2020).\\n•\\t\\nThe move towards decarbonisation of transport in Africa offers a chance to \\nimprove inclusivity and accessibility for these groups. Solutions include developing \\ninfrastructure with features like ramps and elevators at transportation hubs, upgrading \\nvehicle fleets with accessibility features especially for new EVs, integrating technology \\nfor enhanced access, and increasing awareness and training among transport \\noperators and staff. An example of this includes South Africa’s MyCiTi Integrated \\nRapid Transport System in Cape Town. MyCiTi stands as the first universally accessible \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n79\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\ntransport system in Sub-Saharan Africa that explicitly prioritised universal accessibility \\nfrom its inception by integrating all the essential features to accommodate passengers \\nwith various mobility needs. These universal access features include tactile paving to \\nassist visually impaired individuals in navigating to stations and platforms, induction \\nloops at ticket kiosks for the hearing impaired, and CCTV surveillance both on \\nbuses and at stations for enhanced security. Additionally, the service offers boarding \\nbridges on buses along residential and central city routes, ensuring level access from \\nbus stops directly onto the buses for those who need it (DiSA, 2024). \\n•\\t\\nIntegrating Sustainable Development Goals: A just transition recognises the \\ninterconnection of social and environmental challenges and seeks to address them \\nconcurrently, promoting a holistic approach to sustainability. This involves integrating \\ndecarbonisation policies with broader socio-environmental actions for cohesive and \\neffective sustainability strategies, as discussed in Chapter 4.\\nThe Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) Partnership, a global initiative for international \\ncooperation on transport and mobility issues advocates for the integration of just \\ntransition principles in sustainable mobility in developing countries in areas such as \\ngovernance, equity and climate finance (SuM4All, 2022). It emphasises the need to \\ndevelop transport systems and policy priorities to achieve the greatest socioeconomic \\nbenefits for all and notes that even though high-income countries have incentivised the \\npurchase of EV passenger vehicles through purchase subsidies, this approach may not \\nbe applicable in low-income African countries. Since the upfront capital costs of EVs \\nare relatively high, limiting their uptake at scale in low-income countries in Africa, the \\nSuM4All partnership suggests that in some countries, a push towards EV adoption can be \\ndelayed until supporting infrastructure and ecosystem are developed. Therefore, scarce \\npublic resources should instead be focused on improving the transport system through \\nmeasures like the provision of adequate, safe, comfortable, inclusive, and sustainable \\npublic transport (SuM4All, 2022).\\n5.11\\t Sustainable Electric Vehicle Supply and Value Chains \\nThe principal materials used in the production of EVs and EV batteries such as cobalt, \\nlithium, and nickel, continue to be in short supply as demand and prices increase. The \\nprice of lithium rose seven-fold between 2021 and 2022 (IEA, 2022). EVs use lithium-\\nion batteries, and most EVs require six times the amount of minerals a non-electric \\ncar requires (IEA, 2022). Africa has a large concentration of the minerals required \\nto manufacture EVs, including global deposits of cobalt (54%), manganese (46%), \\nbauxite (24%), graphite (21.2%) and vanadium (16%) (Anon., n.d.). The Democratic \\nRepublic of Congo (DRC) alone accounts for 70% of the world’s cobalt production \\nand more than 50% of the world’s reserves (Anon., n.d.). Nevertheless, despite the \\ncontinent’s vast reserves, it remains a net exporter of the minerals, largely operating \\nthe primary stage of the mineral value chain (mining), approximated at USD 8.8 \\ntrillion by 2025 (Anon., n.d.).\\nFor African countries to participate effectively in the EV value chain, they will need \\nto break their overdependence on mineral exports by establishing more value by \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n80\\nstrengthening production capacities, mineral-driven industrialisation, and increasing \\ntheir exports of value-added products. Moreover, investment incentives can be used to \\nattract investors to develop manufacturing facilities such as battery manufacturing locally. \\nOther suggestions include establishing a robust and coherent continental green mineral \\nstrategy to fast-track development of the region’s green mineral resources to take \\nadvantage of the economic opportunities associated with the global energy transition \\nand investing in research and development. Examples include the uYilo e-mobility \\ninitiative in South Africa, which is developing facilities including national accredited \\nmaterial and battery testing, battery manufacture, second-life usage, recycling and \\nvehicle-to-grid technology and developing suitable strategies and policies to enhance \\nsustainability across the battery supply chain (Anon., n.d.).\\n5.12\\t Environmental and Social Impacts of Electric Vehicles\\nThe current life cycle of EV batteries could impede the attainment of several SDGs, \\nincluding those related to climate action, health, education, and decent work. For example, \\ncobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo have been reported to violate human \\nrights, with workers both adults and children working in perilous conditions that expose \\nthem to fatal accidents and long-term health damage (Amnesty International, 2016). \\nCobalt mining generates environmentally damaging by-products, like sulphuric acid, \\nwhich can harm aquatic life (EVBox, 2023). Similarly, lithium extraction involves a water-\\nintensive process that can contaminate and divert vital water resources, especially in rural \\nareas with scarce water supply. \\nResearch by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) indicates that \\nbattery production contributes significantly to the environmental impact caused by \\nEVs, accounting for between 35% and 41% at the EV manufacturing stage (Guzek, et \\nal., 2024). While EVs share many parts with traditional vehicles, their battery recycling is \\nless efficient. Only about 5% of lithium batteries are recycled globally, a stark contrast \\nto the 99% recycling rate of lead car batteries in the United States (Continental Battery \\nSystem, 2023). Furthermore, compared to lead batteries, lithium batteries come in \\nmany shapes and sizes, and component ratios vary from one manufacturer to another. \\nEach requires a specialised skill to break down given the differences in electric circuitry, \\nmaking the process time-consuming and labour-intensive. Non-recycled batteries pose \\nenvironmental risks when disposed of in landfills.\\nThe EV industry needs to operate in a manner that is both sustainable and ethically \\nresponsible, contributing to a greener economy while upholding the rights and well-being \\nof workers and communities. This can be achieved through adherence to Environmental, \\nSocial, and Governance (ESG) standards and the principles of the UN Global Compact. \\nThe UN Global Compact offers detailed guidance to reinforce labour standards in \\nbusiness operations, emphasising principles like the freedom of association, recognition \\nof collective bargaining rights (Principle 3), elimination of forced and compulsory labour \\n(Principle 4), and the abolition of child labour (Principle 6) (United Nations, n.d.). \\nAfrican and global governments can enforce UN Global Compact principles in EV \\nproduction by enacting and enforcing legislation aligned with labour and environmental \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n81\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nstandards, establishing robust monitoring and compliance systems, and fostering public-\\nprivate partnerships for best practices. Incentives can be provided for compliance and \\npenalties for non-adherence. \\n5.13\\t Financing Decarbonisation of Road Transport in Africa\\nOne of the foremost challenges for the successful decarbonisation of many sectors, \\nincluding transport, is access to finance. The development of a robust charging \\ninfrastructure for electric vehicles, for example, requires significant financial resources. \\nInfrastructure retrofitting, especially in densely populated urban areas, can be logistically \\ncomplex and time-consuming. Many African countries already struggle with high levels \\nof public debt, making it difficult to allocate sufficient resources to decarbonisation \\ninitiatives. Furthermore, the lack of a well-established regulatory framework and \\npolicy incentives for clean transportation discourages private sector investment in the \\ncontinent’s decarbonisation. \\nFinancing decarbonisation of road transport requires a diverse and strategic approach, \\nleveraging funds from multiple sources including multilateral institutions, private \\ninvestors, and public sector budgets. These funds can be channelled into a range of \\nproject from supporting acquisition of EVs and charging infrastructure development \\nto re-designing of public transit systems, each with unique social and economic \\nreturns. By most estimates, the scale of financing channelled towards meeting Paris \\nAgreement targets falls significantly short of that required. The IPCC approximates \\nthat an annual investment of between USD 1.6 to USD 3.8 trillion is needed to meet \\nthese objectives. However, the current annual climate financing flows are about USD \\n600 billion (Guzmán, et al., 2022). Of the 53 African countries that have submitted their \\nNationally Determined Contributions, 51 have provided data on the estimated costs \\nassociated with implementing these commitments. Collectively, Africa has a GDP of a \\nUSD 2.4 trillion, indicating that 10% of the continent’s yearly GDP needs to be mobilised \\nabove and beyond current flows yearly for the next 10 years. Based on these data, it \\nwill cost approximately USD 2.8 trillion between 2020 and 2030 to implement Africa’s \\nNDCs alone. Africa requires support from international public sources and international \\nprivate sectors to implement their NDCs. Even though many African countries have \\nexpressed high needs (Figure 40), these needs could be underestimated because of \\nlack of guidance and capacity to make accurate assessments and inadequate data from \\nvulnerable communities and subnational governments. Mitigation efforts account for \\nthe largest share of reported needs between 2020 and 2030, at 66% of the total finance \\nneeded (Guzmán, et al., 2022). Mitigation needs are predominantly split across four \\nsectors, with transport accounting for the largest share of mitigation funding (58%), \\nfollowed by energy (24%), agriculture and other land use (9%), and industry (7%). \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n82\\n5.13.1   Concessional Climate Finance\\nConcessional climate finance consists of grant and non-grant instruments, which are \\nprovided with below-market interest rates and target high impact projects that overlap \\nacross both development and climate such as sustainable transport projects. In Africa, \\nconcessional climate financing is basically concessional loans or grants sourced from \\nmajor multilateral, bilateral, regional, and national financial institutions. One of the \\ncurrently existing concessional financing instruments that can be leveraged include \\nthe Multilateral Development Bank (MDB)’s Working Group (WG) on sustainable \\ntransport funding transport projects in developing countries. As part of the 2012 \\nRio+20 commitment for sustainable transport, the WG consisting of eight MDBs had \\na commitment of USD 175 billion in grants and loans targeting sustainable transport \\nprojects in developing countries (SLOCAT, 2021). \\nMoreover, the African Development Bank, through its Sustainable Energy Fund for Africa \\n(SEFA), provided a technical assistance grant of USD 1 million to the Green Mobility \\nFacility for Africa (GMFA) (AfDB, 2023). The purpose of the grant was to support the \\nestablishment of a favourable environment for EVs, the applicable business models, \\nknowledge sharing, and guidelines for private sector participation in developing \\nbankable projects in the EV sector. Some of the countries that benefited from the grant \\ninclude Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and South Sudan \\n(AfDB, 2023). \\nEqually, the Global Facility to Decarbonise Transport (GFDT), a multi-donor trust, is \\nspearheading the development of an investment facility to unlock development and \\nclimate finance for low-carbon transport projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. The regional facility \\nwill assist countries in the region to harmonise policies and investment programmes to \\n$ 1,200\\nPublic climate finance\\ncommitted\\nClimate finance needs\\n(from other sources)\\nCost of\\nimplementing\\nNDCs\\nOther\\n$ 1,000\\n$ 800\\n$ 600\\n$ 400\\n$ 20\\n$ 0\\nWestern Africa\\nSouthern Africa\\nCentral Africa\\nNorthern Africa\\nEastern Africa\\nUSD Billion\\nFigure 40: Cost of implementing Nationally Determined Contributions in Africa (2020-2030), USD billions.\\nSource: Adapted from Guzmán, et al. (2022)\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n83\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nenhance electric buses, cars and two- and three-wheelers. By bringing more development \\nand climate financing into countries and cities in Sub-Saharan Africa, this new facility will \\nmake a vital contribution to support decarbonisation of transport across the region. It \\nwill also help to enhance transport accessibility for some of the region’s most vulnerable \\ncommunities, especially by supporting reforms to modernise public transport.\\n5.13.2   Grants and Subsidies\\nGrants and subsidies such as tax incentives can help early-stage business models to \\ndevelop. In East Africa, a few established EV companies have attracted larger investments \\nled by either development-finance institutions or strategic partners in their market. Asset \\nfinance companies, manufacturers looking to expand to Africa, and U.S. technology \\nfirms have succeeded in their pilot projects and fundraising by focusing on the specific \\naspects of the EV market. Electric vehicle companies that secured funding to scale their \\nbusinesses include Ampersand Company (operating in East Africa but primarily in \\nRwanda) which secured USD 9 million in debt from International Development Finance \\nCorporation, and ROAM in Kenya that secured a USD 7.5 million in equity and grants \\nfrom One Ventures, while Zembo in Uganda obtained USD 3.4 million from Toyota, \\nDOB Equity, and InfraCo. Moreover, development finance-partner organisations are \\nalso promoting the scaling up of e-mobility solutions in Africa. For instance, Siemens \\nFoundation is providing grant capital on a project-to-project basis, and has supported \\nmultiple e-mobility enterprises with grants for Research and Development in Ghana, \\nUganda, and Kenya (Siemens, 2023)\\n5.13.3   Carbon Markets\\nCarbon markets refer to trading systems in which carbon credits are sold and bought. \\nCarbon markets have emerged as significant tools for activating and scaling up the \\nuptake of EVs, as they offer a compelling mechanism to accelerate the transition towards \\ncleaner transportation by linking financial incentives with the reduction of carbon \\nemissions. Individuals or companies can use carbon markets to offset GHG emissions by \\npurchasing carbon credits from entities that reduce, remove, or avoid GHG emissions. \\nOne tradable credit equals one tonne of carbon dioxide or the equivalent amount of \\ndifferent GHG avoided, reduced, or sequestered (UNDP\\n, 2022). When a credit is used \\nto avoid, reduce, or sequester emissions, it becomes an offset and is no longer tradable. \\nThe Africa Carbon Markets Initiative (ACMI) was launched at the 27th UNFCCC Conference \\nof Parties (COP27) in Egypt in 2022. The initiative aims to drastically scale VCMs across \\nAfrica by: (1) unlocking the USD 6 billion in revenue by 2030 and more than USD 120 \\nbillion by 2050; (2) scaling the market to 300 million carbon credits retired yearly by 2030 \\nand 1.5 billion credits yearly by 2050; (3) supporting 30 million jobs by 2030 and more than \\n110 million jobs by 2050; and (4) sharing the revenue transparently and equitably with \\nlocal communities (ACMI, 2022). The launching of the initiative resulted in commitments \\nfrom seven African countries (Burundi, Gabon, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria \\nand Togo) to develop country carbon activation plans (Climate, 2023), while USD 200 \\nmillion was secured in advanced market commitments from international corporates. In \\n2022, Mauto, a leading electric two-wheeler company in Africa, signed a USD 5 million \\ntransaction agreement in the VCM with Aera and Myclimate. The agreement covers the \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n84\\nDecarbonisation efforts compete with existing\\nGovernments in Africa should actively foster strategic \\ntransport and oil industry regimes that benefit from\\ncollaborations,  robust advocacy, and innovation to\\nthe manufacture, sale, maintenance, and\\nadvance sustainable transport across the continent.\\ndeployment of fossil fuel-based vehicles. To\\nPartnering with industry, academia, and global civil\\nnavigate competing interests, it is essential to actively\\nsociety can enable governments to harness the\\nengage stakeholders from traditional transport and\\npower of advocacy and strategic collaborations in\\nfuel industries in crafting a shared vision for the future\\namplifying the call for the adoption of low-carbon\\nof transportation on the continent, while highlighting\\ntransport technologies and practices.\\nthe economic, environmental, and social benefits.\\nGovernments in Africa and other stakeholders should\\nimplement just transition principles to foster a holistic\\nand socially inclusive decarbonisation of transport. Just\\ntransition principles advocate for a shift towards a\\nsustainable economy that prioritises equity and\\naccess for all, including vulnerable groups and\\nmarginalised communities such as women, persons\\nwith disabilities and older persons, indigenous\\ncommunities, low-income populations, and residents\\nof rural areas.\\nInadequate financial frameworks hinder\\nGovernments in Africa should develop comprehensive\\ndecarbonisation efforts in Africa, limiting\\nfinancing and policy instruments to support the\\nthe continent’s ability to leverage transport\\nupgrade of power grid systems, the construction of\\ndecarbonisation as a catalyst for industrial growth\\nEV charging networks, and overall improve the public\\nand innovation. The scarcity of robust financial\\ntransport infrastructure. Innovative climate financing\\nstructures and investment may stem from multiple\\ninstruments can include infrastructure funding,\\nfactors, including African countries’ challenges in\\nblended finance, and green bonds, alongside\\ndeveloping comprehensive financial policies and\\ntaxes. This type of financing and policy instruments\\nremoval or reduction of emissions generated by Mauto, which plans to deploy more \\nthan 2 million e-motor bikes in Africa by 2030. To certify its achievements in social and \\nenvironmental commitments, Mauto intends to obtain the Sustainable Development \\nVerified Impact Standard (SD VISta) label by VERRA (Whitlock, 2022)\\nWhile carbon credits and carbon markets can be used to raise climate finance which \\ncan be invested in setting up the charging infrastructure and to subsidise EVs, they \\nare practically challenging to implement. There’s a risk that they can enable continued \\nemissions through offsets rather than direct reductions, potentially undermining long-\\nterm climate goals. Stringent regulations and oversight are essential to ensure carbon \\ncredits lead to verifiable, real emission reductions, and not just offsets. Additionally, \\nintegrating social and environmental justice considerations into carbon market \\nmechanisms can help ensure more equitable and effective outcomes.\\nIn addition to carbon credits, governments can also implement a carbon taxation regime \\nto finance decarbonisation efforts. During the 2022 Africa Climate Summit, more than 20 \\ncountries adopted the Nairobi Declaration, which called for a global tax on the use and \\ntrade of fossil fuels in Africa (African Union, 2023).\\n \\n 5.14          Findings   and   Recommendations\\nContinued on next page\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n85\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nframeworks such unclear guidelines and incentives\\ncan help attract private investment and mobilise\\nthat encourage private sector participation and\\ncapital for MRT and NMT infrastructure, encourage\\ninnovation to invest in MRT and NMT, incentives\\nthe acquisition of EVs, foreign investment, and\\nfor EV buyers, and the hesitation of investors, who\\ninclusive business models that foster participation\\nmay not fully recognise the opportunities within\\nof SMEs and start-ups in the EV business ecosystem.\\nthe continent’s evolving EV market. Therefore,\\nGovernments can also expand policy support\\naddressing these financial barriers and enhancing\\nto foster international cooperation, resource\\ninvestor confidence is crucial for unlocking the\\nmobilisation, and the development of sustainable\\ntransformative power of decarbonisation through\\nbusiness models for electric mobility, leveraging\\nelectrification in Africa.\\nexisting approaches such as the Green Climate Fund.\\nProgress towards decarbonised and sustainable\\nGovernments in Africa should establish a unified\\ntransportation can be achieved and accelerated\\nframework for decarbonised and sustainable transport\\nby adopting a common position on sustainable\\naligned with continental aspirations and global climate\\ntransport across Africa. While the African Union’s\\nchange targets. This framework can build on existing\\nClimate Change and Resilient Development Strategy\\nblueprints, including the African Union’s visionary\\nand Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 already\\npolicies, and agreements such as the CCRDSAP\\nprovides a comprehensive framework for climate\\n2022–2032, the 2023 Nairobi Declaration, Agenda\\naction, including in transport, a distinct strategy or\\n2063, Programme for Infrastructure Development in\\nposition dedicated to sustainable transport does\\nAfrica (PIDA), the African Renewable Energy Initiative,\\nnot currently exist. Adopting a common position on\\nthe Paris Agreement, and its Nationally Determined\\nsustainable transport across Africa does not imply a\\nContributions and national long-term climate\\none-size-fits-all policy. Instead, a common framework\\nstrategies of various African countries. A common\\nshould be based on shared principles that\\nposition on sustainable transport not only aligns\\nrecognises the diversity of national circumstances\\nwith overarching continental and global objectives\\nand allows for flexibility in implementation.\\nbut also leverages collective bargaining power in\\nnegotiations to secure technology transfers, financial\\ninvestments, and international support essential for\\nthe transition\\n\\n\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n86\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nCONCLUSION\\nThe transportation sector significantly contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, \\naccounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also a critical \\nenabler of \\nAfrica’s economic transformation, and is prominently featured in \\nAfrica’s \\nAgenda \\n2063. Given the urgent concerns over climate change, decarbonising transportation in \\nAfrica is crucial, especially as emissions are expected to increase rapidly under current \\ntrends. This study, conducted collaboratively by the NASAC and the IAP\\n, assessed the \\ncurrent status, challenges, and opportunities for decarbonisation of transport in Africa. \\nIt reviewed policies, institutional and technical capacities, strategies, technologies, \\nfinancing, social factors, and the necessary legal and regulatory frameworks. Through \\nthe working group that prepared this report, several recommendations for Governments \\nand other stakeholders in Africa have been proposed. The key recommendations in this \\nsection are intended to be illustrative rather than being exhaustive as comprehensive \\nlisting and discussion of issue specific recommendations are presented at the end of \\neach of the preceding chapters of the report. In summary, the study recommends:\\n•\\t\\nPromote local decarbonisation efforts to accelerate their adoption continent-wide.\\n•\\t\\nImplement the Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) Approach for \\nSustainable Transport.\\n•\\t\\nProvide incentives to industries to promote and support local manufacturing.\\n•\\t\\nEstablish research partnerships with industry and academia to investigate energy \\ndemands and expected impact of electric vehicles (EV) on the grid, and to evaluate \\nalternative energy sources and load shifting techniques.\\n•\\t\\nDevelop comprehensive financing and policy instruments to support the upgrade \\nof power grid systems, the construction of EV charging networks, and overall \\nimprovement of the public transport infrastructure.\\n•\\t\\nPrioritise the electrification of vehicle segments that provide the most immediate and \\nhighest decarbonisation benefits.\\n•\\t\\nImplement stricter rules and regulations that support emission reduction during the \\ntransition to decarbonising the transport sector.\\n•\\t\\nImplement Just Transition principles to foster a holistic and socially inclusive \\ndecarbonisation of transport.\\n•\\t\\nImprove existing transport systems and adopt sustainable land-use development.\\n•\\t\\nActively foster strategic collaborations, robust advocacy, and innovation to advance \\nsustainable transport across the continent.\\n•\\t\\nEstablish a unified framework for decarbonised and sustainable transport aligned \\nwith continental aspirations and global climate change targets.\\nCHAPTER SIX\\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\n87\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nThe expert working group emphasises that adopting a common position on sustainable \\nand decarbonised transport in Africa does not imply a one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, \\nAfrica can adopt a common framework that is based on shared principles that recognises \\nthe diversity of national circumstances and allows for flexibility in implementation. The \\nworking group further categorically states that decarbonisation is not synonymous \\nto electrification. While electrification can contribute to decarbonisation by replacing \\ncarbon-intensive energy sources with cleaner electricity, decarbonisation encompasses \\na broader set of strategies aimed at reducing overall carbon emissions across all sectors \\nof the economy.\\nThe findings and recommendations presented in this report underscore the need for \\nongoing research to explore more effective strategies and actions that can accelerate \\nthe transition to a net-zero carbon emission target by 2050, as stipulated in the Paris \\nAgreement. Although this study primarily focused on road transport, it has emphasized \\nthat decarbonising transport in Africa requires a holistic approach. This entails integrating \\nvarious modes of transport including rail, walking and cycling, and considering factors \\nsuch as urban planning, energy sources, technological innovations, policy frameworks, \\nand societal behavior. Only through a comprehensive, multi-dimensional strategy that \\naddresses these interconnected elements can meaningful progress be made toward \\nsustainable and efficient transport systems across the continent.\\n \\n\\n\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n88\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nAB Volvo, 2019. Stena gives Volvo bus batteries a second life. 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Transport Policy, Volume 133, pp. 223-233.\\n\\n\\n101\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nAppendix A:\\nNational aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicles in \\nselect African countries by 2030\\nCountries\\nCharging \\ninfrastructure Cost\\nAdvantage (USD)\\nCapital Cost\\nAdvantage (USD)\\nOperating Cost \\nAdvantage (USD)\\nSubtotal (USD)\\nExternality (USD)\\nCost Advantage \\n(Economic\\nAnalysis) (USD)\\nNet taxes\\nsubsidies (fiscal\\nwedge) (USD)\\nEconomic Cost \\nAdvantage plus\\nfiscal wedge (USD)\\nEgypt\\n-4107\\n-13010\\n15300\\n-1817\\n19019\\n17202\\n10165\\n8348\\nEthiopia\\n-1512\\n-4692\\n6920\\n716\\n1330\\n2046\\n11359\\n12075\\nGhana\\n-3017\\n-6241\\n10846\\n1588\\n2494\\n4082\\n9346\\n10934\\nNigeria\\n-4330\\n-6511\\n10850\\n9\\n1934\\n1943\\n-1112\\n-1103\\nRwanda\\n-2762\\n-5112\\n6356\\n-1518\\n1760\\n242\\n25110\\n23592\\nBuses\\nEgypt\\n-6036\\n-12107\\n27579\\n9437\\n38150\\n47587\\n8806\\n18243\\nEthiopia\\n-1545\\n-3375\\n6809\\n1890\\n1327\\n3217\\n10787\\n12676\\nGhana\\n-3675\\n-7738\\n13212\\n1800\\n3249\\n5048\\n11965\\n13765\\nNigeria\\n-2668\\n-6418\\n5222\\n-3863\\n890\\n-2973\\n-938\\n-4801\\nRwanda\\n-3054\\n-7116\\n5825\\n-4346\\n1790\\n-2556\\n24523\\n20178\\nFour Wheelers (motor vehicles)\\nEgypt\\n-567\\n-1100\\n880\\n-787\\n1416\\n629\\n1256\\n469\\nEthiopia\\n-142\\n-1173\\n376\\n-939\\n64\\n-875\\n1093\\n154\\nGhana\\n-232\\n-290\\n413\\n-110\\n80\\n-30\\n332\\n222\\nNigeria\\n-342\\n308\\n1043\\n1009\\n198\\n1206\\n29\\n1038\\nRwanda\\n-249\\n18\\n246\\n15\\n59\\n74\\n1268\\n1283\\nTwo-wheelers\\nEgypt\\n0\\n-202\\n265\\n63\\n203\\n266\\n93\\n156\\nEthiopia\\n0\\n-172\\n129\\n-43\\n23\\n-20\\n223\\n180\\nGhana\\n0\\n-71\\n290\\n219\\n56\\n275\\n220\\n439\\nNigeria\\n0\\n-12\\n254\\n243\\n47\\n290\\n-27\\n216\\nRwanda\\n0\\n-32\\n148\\n115\\n33\\n149\\n425\\n540\\nSource: Briceno-Garmendia et al. (2023).\\nAppendices\\n \\n\\n\\nN\\nA\\nS\\nA\\nC\\n•\\n \\nN\\nE\\nT\\nW\\nO\\nR\\nK\\n \\nO\\nF\\n \\nA\\nF\\nR\\nI\\nC\\nA\\nN\\n \\nS\\nC\\nI\\nE\\nN\\nC\\nE\\n \\nA\\nC\\nA\\nD\\nE\\nM\\nI\\nE\\nS\\n \\n•\\nthe interacademy partnership\\nSCIENCE\\nHEALTH\\nRESEARCH\\nDecarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\n102\\nAppendix B:\\nGuest Practitioners at Working Group workshop in Nairobi,\\nKenya and list of presentations \\nName\\nCountry\\nOrganisation\\nTitle of Presentation\\nProf. Winnie \\nMitullah \\nKenya\\nThe University of \\nNairobi\\nThe role of Non-Motorised Transport \\n(NMT) in Decarbonisation of \\nTransport in Africa\\nMr. Gideon \\nNeethling\\nSouth \\nAfrica\\nGolden Arrow \\nBus Service \\n(GABS)\\nThe potential and challenges for \\nlarge scale introduction of electric \\nbuses in South Africa.\\nProf. \\nAbubakar S. \\nSambo\\nNigeria \\nUsmanu \\nDanfodiyo \\nUniversity \\nSokoto\\nSustainable development of EVs in \\nNigeria: Charging stations, research \\nand development (R&D) and the way \\nforward in a situation of electricity \\ninadequacy\\nMr. Hilton \\nMusk\\nSouth \\nAfrica\\nRubicon\\nEV charging infrastructure: Installing \\n& operating an EV charging network \\nin South Africa.\\nMr. Samuel \\nKamunya\\nKenya\\nBasiGo\\nThe role of e-mobility start-ups and \\ninnovation in growth of e-mobility \\nand accelerating transition towards a \\ndecarbonisation of road transport in \\nAfrica.\\nGiliomee \\nJohan\\nSouth \\nAfrica\\nStellenbosch \\nUniversity \\nProvided additional inputs in chapter \\n2 and 3 of the report\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nDECARBONISATION OF \\nTRANSPORT IN AFRICA:\\nOpportunities, Challenges and Policy Options\\nThe transportation sector is a significant contributor of greenhouse gases, \\naccounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also \\na critical enabler of Africa’s economic transformation and features prominently \\nin the African Union’s Agenda 2063. With growing climate change \\nconcerns, it is critical to decarbonise transportation because future \\ncarbon emissions are expected to increase. For this reason, the \\nNetwork of Science Academies (NASAC) and InterAcademy \\nPartnership (IAP) appointed an expert working group to \\nconduct a study to assess the opportunities, challenges \\nand policy options for decarbonisation of transport \\nin Africa and prepare this report. This report also \\nexamines the necessary legal and regulatory \\nframeworks, policies, institutional and technical \\ncapacities, strategies, technologies, financing, \\nand social aspects that can contribute to the \\ndecarbonisation of transport in the continent. \\nThe report also included pertinent findings \\nand recommendations for a holistic transition \\nto decarbonised transportation, which African \\ngovernments and other stakeholders should \\ntake into account.\\n  \\nThis report can also be found on the NASAC \\nwebsite: www.nasaconline.org. \\n\\n\\nHUGH BARLOW\\nConsultant CCS Technology\\nSHAHRZAD S M SHAHI\\nConsultant CCS Technology\\nMATTHEW LOUGHREY\\nPrincipal Consultant CCS Technology\\nTECHNICAL REPORT\\nSTATE OF THE ART: \\nCCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n2\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCONTENTS \\nFOREWORD\\t\\n4\\nCAPTURE\\t\\n6\\n      AIR LIQUIDE\\t\\n8\\n      AKER CARBON CAPTURE\\t\\n18\\n      AXENS\\t\\n22\\n      B&W\\t\\n26\\n      CAPTURA\\t\\n30\\n      CARBONCAPT\\t\\n32\\n      CARBON CLEAN\\t\\n36\\n      CARBON ENGINEERING\\t\\n40\\n      C-CAPTURE\\t\\n44\\n      CAPSOL TECHNOLOGIES\\t\\n48\\n      CO2CRC\\t\\n52\\n      DELTA CLEAN TECH\\t\\n56\\n      ELESSENT CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES\\t\\n58\\n      FUELCELL ENERGY\\t\\n62\\n      HEIRLOOM\\t\\n66\\n      HUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE (HNCERI)\\t\\n68\\n      HONEYWELL\\t\\n72\\n      K2CO2\\t\\n76\\n      KC8CAPTURE\\t\\n78\\n      LINDE\\t\\n82\\n      NET POWER\\t\\n94\\n      NOVOZYMES\\t\\n98\\n      NUADA (FORMERLY MOF TECHNOLOGIES)\\t\\n102\\n      SHELL AND TECHNIP ENERGIES\\t\\n104\\n      SINOPEC NANJING CHEMICALS RESEARCH INSTITUTE\\t\\n108\\n      SUMITOMO SHI FW\\t\\n112\\n      TOSHIBA\\t\\n118\\n      SVANTE\\t\\n122\\nTRANSPORT\\t\\n124\\n      GHD\\t\\n126\\n      JFE STEEL\\t\\n130\\n      MAXTUBE GROUP\\t\\n134\\nSTORAGE\\t\\n138\\n    CMG\\t\\n140\\n    GETECH\\t\\n142\\n    HALLIBURTON\\t\\n146\\n    NSAI-PETRO\\t\\n158\\n    QUORUM SOFTWARE\\t\\n160\\nFULL VALUE CHAIN\\t\\n168\\n     ABB\\t\\n170\\n     ASPENTECH\\t\\n172\\n     BAKER HUGHES\\t\\n174\\n     CHART & HOWDEN\\t\\n200\\n     CHEVRON\\t\\n204\\n     ENI\\t\\n208\\n     JCCS\\t\\n212\\n     NOV\\t\\n216\\n     OPENGOSIM LTD\\t\\n220\\n     RITE\\t\\n222\\n     SAIPEM\\t\\n230\\n     SICK\\t\\n236\\n     SLB\\t\\n240\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n4\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nFOREWORD \\nThere is an urgent need for innovative, new technologies \\nto reduce greenhouse gas emissions to tackle climate \\nchange and meet net-zero targets.  Carbon Capture and \\nStorage (CCS) covers a range of technologies that will be \\ncrucial in supporting these global efforts. \\nThe uptake of CCS is growing at an unprecedented \\nrate.  While early CCS projects targeted easier to capture \\nemissions sources, projects further into the energy \\ntransition need to address harder to abate emissions \\nthat are more expensive and challenging to address. \\n \\nTechnological advancements are essential to improving \\nthe economics and ensuring the successful application of \\nCCS to these more challenging emissions sources.\\nThis year’s Technology Compendium expands on the \\ninaugural version in all categories with several new \\ntechnologies.  One of the key advancements is the \\ndevelopment of new and improved methods for capturing \\ncarbon dioxide, including several new technologies \\nutilizing calcium looping and metal organic frameworks \\n(MOFs). For transport and storage, new technologies \\nfocused on robust design and monitoring are supporting \\nthe need to provide safe and optimized transport and \\nstorage infrastructure.  This highlights the ongoing work \\nto develop technologies to improve energy efficiency, \\nreduce costs, and improve infrastructure performance for \\nfuture CCS projects. \\nThe year’s Technology Compendium continues to \\nshowcase the breadth and depth of commercially-\\navailable CCS technologies worldwide. We look forward \\nto seeing further growth and development of CCS \\ntechnologies in coming years as we continue to fight the \\nthreat of climate change.\\nMatt Loughrey \\nPrincipal – CCS Technologies \\nGlobal CCS Institute \\nJuly 2023\\nAcknowledgements\\nWe are grateful for the contributions and support of all the technology companies who have contributed to this \\npublication.\\nThank you to Hugh Barlow and Shahrzad Shahi for their invaluable editing and coordination of this report.\\nSpecial mentions also go to Yi Wu, Yasuo Murakami, Kazuko Miyashita, Erin Billeri, Spencer Schecht, Bruno Gerrits, \\nand Sarah Hardman of the Global CCS Institute for their efforts and support.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n6\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCAPTURE \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n8\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nThe first industrial deployment of this technology was made \\nin Port-Jerome, France (Cryocap™ H2), at the largest SMR \\nHydrogen production unit operated by Air Liquide. Since \\nits startup in 2015, the plant has captured 100 ktpa CO2 \\nfrom an existing SMR while boosting H2 production. The \\nplant has been designed for ease of scalability; wherein all \\nequipment in Port Jerome will be purely upscaled to larger \\nscale CCS projects. After 8 years of operation, the Port \\nJerome site demonstrated:\\n•\\t\\nProven robustness of design - no aging of key \\ncomponents over time\\n•\\t\\nVery high reliability: No H2 production interruption, CO2 \\navailability > 99%\\n•\\t\\nPerformances confirmed and stable over time\\n•\\t\\nImprovement thanks to continuous capitalization from \\noperation to design \\nPort Jerome is one of the 4 sites in Europe able to produce \\nHydrogen certified low carbon, and has been integrated as \\na pilot site for the project CertifHy, the first Guarantee of \\nOrigin (GO) platform for Green and Low-Carbon Hydrogen. \\nAll Cryocap™ products benefit from 8 years of return of \\noperational experience gained in Port Jerome.\\nAir Liquide has always been committed to innovation \\nby improving its vast portfolio of patented technologies \\nand customized solutions to meet and exceed customer \\nexpectations in terms of efficiency, safety, reliability and \\ncompetitiveness to achieve energy transition goals. As a \\ntop technology provider with a longstanding experience \\nin Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC), we \\ncover the entire project life-cycle: license engineering \\nservices / proprietary equipment, high-end engineering \\n& design capabilities, project management & execution \\nservices. In addition, we also offer efficient customer \\nservices through our worldwide set-up.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nThe entire Cryocap™ suite was designed to address the challenges experienced from traditional capture solutions. Our \\ncustomers value the following Cryocap™ features:\\n•\\t\\nMinimizes overall carbon footprint: the technologies are electrically-driven (negligible steam) which maximize the CO2 \\navoided by reduced indirect CO2 emissions, with high CO2 recovery (92 - 99%), and can be paired with renewable or \\nlow-carbon power supply\\n•\\t\\nHigh intrinsic process efficiency: the technology bricks are used in their optimum range\\n•\\t\\nSafety and no toxicity: solvent-free, and no toxic or flammable gases used\\n•\\t\\nMatch the end specifications and high CO2 product purity: all Cryocap™ produce either high pressure gaseous or liquid \\nCO2 at marginal extra cost and can meet the most stringent CO2 specifications (>99.9%v)\\n•\\t\\nFavor synergies and optimize space: 1-step capture and liquefaction for any stream containing >15% CO2 (dry basis), \\nvery compact solutions with flexible layout configuration and simplified infrastructure compared to steam-based \\nsolutions\\n•\\t\\nImprove productivity: for some applications (H2 and steel), installing our product improves the efficiency of the original \\nprocess or enable the co-production of valuable molecules (e.g. Cryocap™ H2 increase H2 production up to 20%)\\nCRYOCAPTMW (H2, FG, OXY, STEEL, NG)\\nAir \\nLiquide \\nhas \\nbeen \\ndesigning \\ngas \\nseparation \\ntechnologies for more than 100 years, and has leveraged \\nits industrial demonstration units on power plants, steel \\nblast furnaces, and H2 production plants to develop the \\nCryocap™ product line. Cryocap™ is an award-winning \\nproprietary technological innovation for CO2 capture that is \\nunique in the world, using a cryogenic process (involving \\nlow temperatures to separate gases). Cryocap™ can be \\nadapted to specific applications combining a variety of Air \\nLiquide technologies. Customers can reduce their CO₂ \\nemissions by up to 99% and have the possibility to valorize \\nother molecules contained in the feed gas (e.g. CO, H2, etc). \\nCryocap™ is a robust and pioneering technology available \\nto service customers looking to reduce the carbon footprint \\nof their production facilities.\\nTo date, Cryocap™ is the only full-scale cryogenic capture \\ntechnology with an industrial reference in operation in the \\nworld. Driven by innovation and the need to decarbonize \\ncarbon intensive processes, Cryocap™ reference examples \\ndate back to 2005 and the product line has since then \\nbeen selected for multiple engineering studies, pre-\\nFront End Engineering & Design (pre-FEED), FEED, and \\nimplementation across four continents for a diverse set of \\nindustries. To further showcase its innovative and efficient \\ndesign in CO2 capture, Cryocap™ has resulted in several \\npatent filings. It has also consistently been recognized by \\nUS and EU experts through several grant awards by EU \\nInnovation Fund and US Department of Energy (DOE) in \\n2021 and 2022.\\nOur portfolio of cryogenic technologies includes:\\n•\\t\\nCryocap™ H2 for hydrogen production: Steam Methane \\nReformer (SMR), AutoThermal Reforming (ATR), or \\nPartial Oxidation (POX)\\n•\\t\\nCryocap™ FG for flue gases (optimal: >15% CO2 dry \\nbasis)\\n•\\t\\nCryocap™ Oxy for oxy combustion\\n•\\t\\nCryocap™ Steel for steel production\\n•\\t\\nCryocap™ NG for acid natural gas fields\\n•\\t\\nCryocap™ XLL for large scale liquefaction (in a separate \\nsection)\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t cryocap@airliquide.com \\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.airliquide.com\\nAIR LIQUIDE\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCRYOCAP™ H2\\nBased on its extensive experience in hydrogen production units, Air Liquide has developed a technology capable of \\ncapturing the CO2 emitted during hydrogen production (by SMR or ATR or POX). This proprietary technology is the subject \\nof several patents and allows customers to make significant cost reductions. \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n10\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nOn top of capturing and liquefying the CO2 in one step, \\nit is the only technology that can reduce CO2 emissions \\nduring the production process while boosting hydrogen \\nproduction by 13 to 20%. It has the lowest cost on the \\nmarket for CO2 capture in hydrogen production units \\n(especially compared to activated MDEA), and can be \\nadapted to existing and future hydrogen production units.\\nThe technology uses cryogenic purification to separate \\nthe CO2 from Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) offgas, \\ncontaining typically 40-50%v CO2. The PSA offgas is \\ncompressed, dried and sent to a cryogenic unit, where \\nthe CO₂ is separated from the other components by a \\ncombination of partial condensation and distillation. A \\npure and pressurized CO₂ flow is produced from the cold \\nprocess. The non-condensed gases are recycled through \\na membrane system to recover H₂ and CO₂. Residual \\ngas is sent to the burners of the H₂ production plant. The \\nCO₂ product is compressed up to supercritical pressure \\nor liquefied and stored in liquid storage. Liquid CO₂ \\ncan also be directly withdrawn from the cold process at \\nmarginal costs. The CO₂ can be then liquefied and purified \\nto meet CO₂ specifications of local industrial markets \\n(agri-food, water treatment, etc.) or transport systems for \\nsequestration. Cryocap™ H₂ can be installed for greenfield \\nand brownfield H₂ plants. \\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\nCapacity: from 300 - 10,000 tpd\\n•\\t\\nHydrogen production: increase of 13 - 20%\\n•\\t\\nAvoided CO2 cost reduction: up to 40% compared to \\nMDEA\\n•\\t\\nOPEX + CAPEX:  30-50 €/tCO₂ captured \\n•\\t\\nGaseous or liquid CO2\\n•\\t\\nMore than 99% of CO₂ and H₂ recovery from syngas\\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nH₂ production  (SMR or ATR), POx, any syngas with \\n>15% CO2\\nReference / Project Examples:\\n•\\t\\n2012 - Industrial CCU EPC for 300 tpd in France\\n•\\t\\n2019 - Industrial CCS pre-FEED in EU (Air Liquide SMR)\\n•\\t\\n2020 - Industrial CCS FEED in Belgium (Air Liquide \\nSMR)\\n•\\t\\n2021 - Award by Dutch SDE++ for Porthos project and \\nby EU Innovation fund for Kairos@C project (both Air \\nLiquide SMR)\\n•\\t\\n2022 - Selection by US DOE for FEED in USA (Air \\nLiquide SMR)\\n•\\t\\n2022 - Industrial CCU EPC project in Grandpuits, \\nFrance (with TotalEnergies)\\nCRYOCAP™ FG\\nAir Liquide developed a dedicated capture technology \\nin order to address low-hanging fruits of the high-\\nconcentrated sources: industrial flue gases. Many high \\nCO2-emitting industries have concentrated sources of \\nCO2 emissions above 15%, such as hydrogen production \\nwith SMR, cement and lime production, blast furnaces in \\nhot metal production, and FCC in refineries. These high-\\nconcentrated sources are estimated to represent around \\n50% of the global industrial direct emissions. Additionally, \\nCryocap™ FG can also significantly abate NOx emissions \\nfrom flue gas and to deliver the on-spec liquid CO2 product \\nat its battery limits, thereby reducing the number of process \\nunits and interfaces, and increasing the level of overall \\noptimization and reliability.\\nCryocap™ FG is a separation process based on the \\ncombination of adsorption and cryogenic separation. \\nThe flue gas is first compressed, dried and sent to a PSA \\n(Pressure Swing Adsorption). The PSA pre-concentrates \\nthe CO₂ in the offgas. It is compressed then sent to a cold \\nprocess. There, the CO₂ is recovered by the combination \\nof partial condensation and distillation, which allow the \\nremoval of various elements such as O₂, Ar, N₂, NO and CO. \\nThe CO₂ product is compressed, condensed and pumped \\nup to supercritical pressure or directly produced as liquid. \\nThe pressurized nitrogen from the PSA is expanded to \\nrecover energy. \\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\nCapacity: 300 – 10,000 tpd\\n•\\t\\nPSA-assisted CO2 condensation\\n•\\t\\nCompressors, PSA and cryo process can be located in \\ntwo different plots\\n•\\t\\nSmart impurities management (high NOx)\\n•\\t\\n40 to 80 €/tCO₂ captured\\n•\\t\\nGaseous or liquid CO2\\n•\\t\\nCO2 capture rate: up to 98%\\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nFlue gases or off gases with CO2 content >= 15% (SMR, \\ncement/lime, steel blast furnace, refineries (FCC), \\nwaste incineration/biomass power plant, pulp & paper)\\nReference / Project Examples:\\n•\\t\\n2020 - Industrial CCS Engineering Study for 2,000 tpd \\nin EU (FCC)\\n•\\t\\n2021 - Industrial CCS Process Design Package + \\nLicense for 2400 tpd in EU (SMR)\\n•\\t\\n2021 - Selection by US DOE for a FEED on largest \\nsingle kiln for Holcim St. Genevieve plant in US (e.g. \\n10,000 tpd CO2)\\n•\\t\\n2022 - Two awards by EU Innovation Fund for FOIK \\ncryogenic capture on lime flue gas (Lhoist Réty) and \\ncement single line kiln (Lafarge Holcim Kujawy)\\n•\\t\\n2022 - Two selections by US DOE for FEED on Gulf \\nCoast SMR and a Direct Reduction Iron (DRI HBI) \\n(Arcelormittal, previously Voestalpine)\\nCRYOCAP™ OXY\\nCryocap™ Oxy uses oxy-fuel combustion exhaust as a \\nfeedstock. Its unique technological bricks include flue gas \\ndrying, dust filtration, and cryogenic purification. Through \\nthis technology, a high rate of CO2 recovery is achieved, \\nand can reduce atmospheric emissions from power plants \\nto almost zero (emissions of NOx, SOx, fine particles and \\nHg). \\nThe flue gas issued from the cement or lime or power plant \\nis first treated in a pre-treatment unit, which aims to cool \\nthe gas and remove the SOx, HF, HCl, most of the NOx, \\nand dust. Then, the gas is compressed and dried before \\nentering the cryogenic purification unit. In the cold process, \\nCO₂ is recovered by combination of partial condensation \\nand distillation, which allows the removal of the heavy \\ncompounds such as NOx and the light elements such as \\nO₂, Ar, N₂, NO and CO. The CO₂ product is compressed, \\ncondensed and pumped up to supercritical pressure or \\ndirectly produced under liquid state.\\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\nCapacity: 1,000 and 15,000 tpd\\n•\\t\\n30 - 50 €/tCO₂ captured\\n•\\t\\nEnergy savings through residual gas\\n•\\t\\nGaseous or liquid CO2\\n•\\t\\nEnriched flue gas above 60% CO2\\n•\\t\\nSmart impurities management (high NOx)\\n•\\t\\nCO2 capture rate: 90-98%\\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nCement/Lime\\n•\\t\\nPower plant\\n•\\t\\nAny applications with CO2 concentration >40%\\nReference / Project Examples:\\n•\\t\\n2008 - Demo CCS EP for 200 tpd in France (Total - \\noxyfuels)\\n•\\t\\n2010 - Pilot CCS EP for 80 tpd in Australia (Callide)\\n•\\t\\n2012 - Pilot CCS EPC for 200 tpd in Spain (CIUDEN)\\n•\\t\\n2014 - Industrial CCS FEED for 3500 tpd in US \\n(Futuregen)\\n•\\t\\n2015 - Industrial CCS FEED for 1500 tpd in France \\n(Lafarge - cement)\\n•\\t\\n2021 - Awarded by Innovation Fund for ~1MTPY \\n(EQIOM - cement)\\nCRYOCAP™ STEEL\\nThis solution was designed to specifically capture CO2 from \\nsteel making plants, with CO2 stream concentrations of 20-\\n50%. The gas is first compressed, dried and sent to a PSA \\n(Pressure Swing Adsorption). The PSA pre-concentrates \\nthe CO₂ in the offgas while producing a CO rich stream. \\nThe pre-concentrated CO₂ stream is compressed and \\nsent to a cold process. There, the CO₂ is recovered by \\ncombination of partial condensation and distillation, which \\nallows the removal of the light elements such as Ar, N₂, H2 \\nand CO₂. The CO₂ product can be produced as a gaseous \\nor liquid product. The pressurized CO-rich stream is either \\nrecycled to the blast furnace or used to produce fuels.\\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\nCapacity: from 300 - 5,000+ tpd\\n•\\t\\nCompact and flexible footprint: compressors, PSA and \\ncold-box can be located in three different plots\\n•\\t\\n25-60 €/t CO₂ captured\\n•\\t\\nGaseous or liquid CO2\\n•\\t\\nCO2 capture rate: 80 to 95%\\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nIron and Steel Production\\nReference / Project Examples:\\n•\\t\\n2005 - Pilot CCS EPC for 40 tpd (pre-concentration \\npart) in Sweden (MEFOS)\\n•\\t\\n2012 - Industrial CCS FEED for 3,600 tpd in France \\n(ULCOS)\\n•\\t\\n2019 - CCU for 800 tpd (pre-concentration part) in \\nBelgium (Steelanol)\\n2020 - CCU LCO2 Pre-FEED for 350 tpd in Korea\\nCRYOCAP™ NG\\nThe CO₂ rich natural gas is first dried and sent to a cold \\nprocess where the CO₂ is separated from the other \\ncomponents through a combination of partial condensation \\nand distillation. High CO₂ partial pressure favors the partial \\ncondensation of CO₂ and therefore, makes its separation \\nfrom natural gas even easier. The non-condensable gas \\nis enriched in methane and sent to a membrane for final \\npurification. The CO₂ purity of the product corresponds \\nto pipeline specifications, generally 1 - 10 mol%. The CO₂- \\nenriched permeate stream of the membrane is sent back \\nto the cold process. The CO₂ and heavy hydrocarbons \\ncondense in the cold process and are collected at \\nhigh pressure. NGL recovery is possible with almost no \\nadditional cost. Cryocap™ NG is tolerant to some content of \\nH₂S. Cryocap™ NG also allows for bulk removal of H₂S from \\nNG.\\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\nUp to 1,000,000 Nm3/h\\n•\\t\\nSeparation cost: less than 1 USD/MMBTU\\n•\\t\\nCapex savings: > 50% vs. amine absorption (at high \\nCO₂ content)\\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nNatural gas with high CO2 content (>35%)\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n12\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nFully referenced in all applicable scales and different applications\\n•\\t\\nProcess uses inexpensive, available and chemically stable solvent \\n•\\t\\nTechnology provides low operating costs and high availability  \\n•\\t\\nProcess configuration can be tailored to optimize CAPEX and OPEX figures\\nAMINE SOLUTIONS, RECTISOL\\nTM, AND RECTICAPTM\\nAir Liquide engineers solvent based technologies such \\nas amine to capture CO2 from synthesis gas or flue gas. \\nThrough long term partnerships with the key amine license \\nproviders, Air Liquide has installed 80+ units and benefits \\nfrom its long-term operational experience of amine units.\\nConsidered as the industrial base case, amine technology \\ncan deliver high purity gaseous CO2 (99+%) at low \\npressure, which can be combined with CryocapTM XLL. \\nFor CO2 capture on flue gases with low CO2 concentration \\n(below 10%), amine technology remains the most \\ncompetitive solution, provided the availability of large \\namounts of excess steam or high grade heat. Air Liquide is \\nalso offering proprietary technologies for CO2 capture from \\nsynthesis gas (RectisolTM, RecticapTM).\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gas-treatment@airliquide.com\\n\\t\\n(for Amine Wash)\\n\\t\\nhydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com\\n\\t\\n(for Rectisol and Recticap)\\nAIR LIQUIDE\\nDESCRIPTION\\nACID GAS REMOVAL – AMINE WASH\\nThe process configuration and solvent selection will be \\ntailored according to feedstock and sweet gas application. \\nAir Liquide can offer very energy-efficient processes \\nsuch as the BASF OASE® purple or OASE® yellow as well \\nas other proprietary or generic amines for pipeline or \\nliquefied natural gas specifications. This process presents \\nthe advantage of very low hydrocarbon co-absorption. \\nWith selective processes, deep H2S removal with low to \\nmoderate CO2 co-absorption can be achieved for pipeline \\nspecifications. Capacity is up to 1,500,000 Nm³/h per train.\\nCO2 REMOVAL FROM FLUE GAS (3-25% CO2) - AMINE \\nWASH\\nAir Liquide offers energy efficient solutions with highly \\nstable, low maintenance solvents based on proprietary \\nsecond generation amines. CO2 capture rates of up to 97% \\ncan be reached irrespective of the feed’s CO2 content, and \\nCO2 product specifications of up to >99.9%. Capacity Up \\nto 1,500,000 Nm³/h feed per train, up to 4,000 tpd CO2 \\nper train. Trace components such as particles and SOx are \\nhandled in the upstream pretreatment. \\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\n99.7% availability\\n•\\t\\nMax 16% O2 in flue gas\\n•\\t\\nRange: min 150 tpd CO2 - max 4000 tpd CO2\\n•\\t\\nCapture rate: 85 to 97%\\n•\\t\\nCO2 up to 2.5 bara w/o compression\\n•\\t\\nCO2  purity up to 99.9%\\n•\\t\\nParticles & SOx handled upstream of amine wash\\n•\\t\\nLow electrical power consumption \\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nFlue gases or off gasses from industrial sources with \\nCO2 content 3% to 25% - (SMR, cement/lime, steel \\nblast furnace, refineries (FCC), biomass power plant, \\npulp & paper)\\nReference / Project Examples:\\n•\\t\\n5 units in operation, 6 OASE Blue references from \\nBASF\\nCO2 REMOVAL FROM SYNGAS - AMINE WASH\\nAir Liquide offers highly energy-efficient processes such \\nas BASF OASE® white. The process configuration will \\nbe tailored according to treated gas requirements and \\nCO2 product specification as well as optimized CAPEX \\nand OPEX. The process can be heat-integrated with the \\nupstream gas generation. CO2 specifications in the treated \\ngas < 20 ppm are achievable, making this process ideal \\nfor CO2 removal upstream of any coldbox or ammonia \\nprocess. CO2 capture rates from syngas of >99% can be \\nachieved to produce a decarbonized hydrogen product. \\nSince the process has a very low co-absorption even at \\nhigher feed gas pressures, CO2 product specifications with \\nCO2 > 99% are achievable.\\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\n99.7% availability\\n•\\t\\nCapacity: from 100 - 3500 tpd CO2\\n•\\t\\nCapture rate up to 99.9% on feed gas\\n•\\t\\nSpec: up to 50ppm CO2 in treated gas\\n•\\t\\nCO2 at ~1.2 bara, purity of up to 99.3%\\n•\\t\\nLow electrical power consumption\\n•\\t\\nSolvent regeneration is done using heat, with possible \\nheat integration with existing hydrogen plant \\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nH2 production (SMR, POX, ATR)\\n•\\t\\nSyngas with~15% to 20% CO2. Oxo-syngas with 5% to \\n15% CO2\\nReference / Project Examples:\\n•\\t\\n30 OASE references, 80 amine wash units in total\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n14\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nRECTISOL\\n™ \\nHarmful acid gases contained in raw gases from any gasification are removed by absorption with a physical solvent (cold \\nmethanol). Rectisol™ is the leading process when it comes to the purification of gasification-based syngas for catalytic \\napplications (production of syngas, methanol, ammonia, or Fischer-Tropsch) as well as hydrogen and syngas for power \\nproduction. Using inexpensive solvent in combination with optimized heat integration, the Rectisol™ process has extremely \\nlow operating costs and high availability.\\nKey Figures\\n•\\t\\n50,000 - 1,000,000 Nm³/hr per train (feed gas)\\n•\\t\\nH2S + COS removal rate < 0.08 ppm\\n•\\t\\nCO2 removal rate up to 5-50 ppm\\n•\\t\\nSpecial setups for removal of mercaptans, metal \\ncarbonyls and BTX available\\n•\\t\\nAccumulation of all harmful contaminants within the \\nacid gas to be safely processed in a SRU\\n•\\t\\nAn additional compressor can be added to increase \\ncapture rate\\nMain Applications:\\n•\\t\\nH2, Methanol production, Sustainable Aviation Fuels\\nReference / Project Examples:\\n•\\t\\n+ 30 References\\nRECTICAP™\\nRecticap™ is an optimized Rectisol™ concept tailored for \\nenergy transition projects focused on ATR based low-\\ncarbon H2 to produce low cost low-carbon hydrogen in \\nlarge capacities (>300,000 kNm³/hr) at moderate to high \\npressures (>25 bar). In contrast to a Rectisol™, Recticap™ \\nremoves only CO₂ from the raw hydrogen/ syngas and \\nhas hence a simplified process setup with reduced capital \\nexpenditures. The solution allows up to 98% CO2 capture \\nfrom syngas. Dry CO2 capture-ready at >98.5% purity is \\nachievable.\\nRecticap Benefits\\n•\\t\\nOptimized solution for sulfur-free syngases\\n•\\t\\nTargeting large single train ATR based H2 application in \\nenergy transition projects\\n•\\t\\nProcess simplification due to clean syngas and CO2 \\ncapture only \\n•\\t\\nUp to 50% lower CAPEX and 25% lower OPEX for \\nsame syngas volumes than RectisolTM\\n•\\t\\nKnow-how from AL´s own operated plants and \\nRectisolTM demonstration unit\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n16\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nHSE-Friendly\\n•\\t\\nCustom plant: flexible design\\n•\\t\\nMoisture and other light compounds (O2, N2…) removal\\n•\\t\\nHigh compactness\\n•\\t\\nLow specific energy\\n•\\t\\nCost efficiency\\nCRYOCAPTM XLL (LARGE CO2 LIQUEFACTION)\\nAir Liquide has developed Cryocap\\nTM XLL, specifically \\ndesigned to liquefy large volumes of CO2. The solution \\nallows aggregation of CO2 from various emitters utilizing \\npossibly different types of carbon capture technologies. \\nOn top of liquefying CO2, Cryocap\\nTM XLL also allows the \\nremoval of moisture and other compounds (such as O2) \\nto meet CO2 sink specifications. The technology has been \\ndeveloped for large scale and is able to reduce specific \\npower for CO2 liquefaction by 40% compared to existing \\nsmall scale CO2 liquefier used for industrial merchant \\napplications. \\nThe technology is especially suited for CO2 industrial \\nhubs and basins where the CO2 needs to be transported \\nvia ships, trucks, or trains. Cryocap\\nTM XLL is a HSE-friendly \\nsolution that does not involve the use of any toxic or \\nflammable external refrigerant (such as propane). As a \\nsingle compressor is used for both the feed and the cycle, \\nit is also a very compact and cost effective solution.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t cryocap@airliquide.com  \\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.airliquide.com\\nAIR LIQUIDE\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe CryocapTM XLL process is proposed as an industrial \\nsolution to compress, liquefy, and purify the raw CO₂ \\nstream resulting from upstream units. The CO₂ feed gas \\nis compressed in the feed/recycle compressor, dried at an \\nintermediate pressure and then compressed again. The \\ncompressed gas is cooled down and then routed to the \\ncold process. In the cold process, the high-pressure, dry \\nCO₂ is cooled down and split into various streams. One \\nof these streams is purified by distillation in the Stripping \\nColumn to produce the liquid CO₂ product, which is routed \\nto the unit’s battery limits. The remaining streams are \\nexpanded to different levels and vaporized in the main heat \\nexchanger, providing the refrigeration load required for the \\nliquefaction of the CO₂. Once vaporized, these streams \\nare recycled at ambient temperature to the feed/recycle \\ncompressor. This configuration makes it possible to handle \\nthe compression of the feed gas and the refrigeration with \\na single compressor (so called self-refrigerated cycle).\\nKey Figures:\\n•\\t\\n800 to 10,000+ tpd\\n•\\t\\nCustom plant: flexible design\\n•\\t\\nLiquefies CO2 at ambient temperature\\n•\\t\\n5-25€/tonne CO₂ liquefied\\n•\\t\\nVery low OPEX: 30-130 kWh/tonne CO2\\n•\\t\\nHSE-friendly (CO2 cycle)\\nReference Examples:\\n•\\t\\nDesign for 4 x 7000 tpd in Belgium (Antwerp@C)\\n•\\t\\nFEED in Dunkirk, France (DARTAGNAN) - Awarded \\nCEF Funding\\nLONGSTANDING EXPERIENCE IN CO2 MANAGEMENT\\nAir Liquide has a longstanding experience in CO2 management, from capture, purification and liquefaction to storage and \\ntransport from various sources. Air Liquide can also upgrade the recovered CO2 and provide it to various markets, such as \\nthe agri-food industry (carbonation, preservation, and refrigerated transport), water treatment, chemicals…\\nLongstanding experience \\nin CO2 management\\nAir Liquide has a longstanding experience in CO2 management, from capture, \\npurification and liquefaction to storage and transport from various sources.  \\nAir Liquide can also upgrade the recovered CO2 and provide it to various markets, \\nsuch as the  agri-food industry (carbonation, preservation, and refrigerated \\ntransport), water treatment, chemicals…\\n1\\n2\\nCO2 EMISSIONS\\nCARBON CAPTURE\\n•  \\nIndustrial processes (metallurgy, cement \\nmanufacturing, ammonia and hydrogen \\nproduction, methanization, fermentation,...)\\n•  \\nHydrocarbons combustion\\n•  \\nBiomass combustion\\n•  \\nWaste incineration\\nComplexity and energy balance of carbon \\ncapture operations mainly depend on:\\n•  \\nElectricity and steam costs \\nand carbon footprint\\n•  \\nInlet CO2 stream characteristics\\n•  \\nExpected outlet CO2 conditions (P,T) \\nand purity\\nCO2\\nCO2 \\nrecovery\\nPurification \\n& liquefaction\\n3\\nUTILISATION & SEQUESTRATION\\n•  \\nSequestration in deep salineaquifers, \\nin depleted oil fields or in coal seams\\n• Mineralization in basaltic underground rocks\\n•  \\nSynthetic hydrocarbons\\n•  \\nChemicals, polymers\\n•  \\nBuilding materials\\n•  \\nGas for industrial uses\\n•  \\nAgri food\\n•  \\nEnhanced Oil Recovery\\nLiquid or \\ngaseous CO2\\nUtilisation\\nGeological \\nsequestration\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n18\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nPROPRIETARY AND PROVEN TECHNOLOGY\\nThe technology behind the company’s business has robust \\npatent protection and offers best-in-class Health, Safety \\nand Environment (HSE) characteristics, along with high \\nenergy efficiency. It can be applied to both existing and \\nnew build plants, and has extensive real-world validation, \\nwith 60,000 hours of operation to date across a range of \\ncarbon emitting industries. Aker Carbon Capture considers \\nresearch, innovation, and technology development to be \\nkey drivers of competitive advantage. The company has an \\nactive program focused on reducing costs, developing and \\nqualifying new carbon capture technologies, and improving \\ncarbon capture project economics. This includes capture \\nefficiency, further modularization, and the implementation \\nof digital capabilities.\\nThe ACC™ proprietary solvents were developed in an \\neight-year comprehensive R&D program (SOLVit) together \\nwith industry players and Norwegian research partners. \\nNumerous solvent mixtures were tested and compared \\nregarding energy consumption, robustness, toxicity, \\nmaterial compatibility, and – most importantly – HSE \\nperformance. The SOLVit program resulted in energy-\\nefficient solvents, with no negative environmental impact \\nor occupational hazards. This results in reduced solvent \\nconsumption, meaning reduced OPEX. Compared to \\ntraditional amines our proprietary amines also minimize \\ndegradation products, which can have a significant impact \\non corrosion and the need for maintenance”.\\nThe ACC™ capture technology including the ACC™ solvents \\nand ACC™ Emission System has been tested and verified \\non flue gases from gas-fired and coal-fired power plants, \\ncement kilns, waste-to-energy plants, hydrogen production \\nplants, char manufacture and smelting, with 60,000 hours \\nof operating experience from the US, Germany, Scotland, \\nSweden, Poland, and Norway. Based on the extensive \\ntesting, the ACC™ capture technology is qualified by DNV \\nGL according to DNV-RP-A203 Qualification Procedures \\nfor New Technology and DNV-RP-J201 Qualification \\nProcedures for CO2 Capture Technology.\\nEnergy \\noptimization \\nis \\ncritical \\nfor \\nthe \\nsuccessful \\nimplementation of carbon capture as it significantly reduces \\nthe energy consumption of the process. At Aker Carbon \\nCapture, energy optimization, heat integration, and waste \\nheat recovery are prioritized focus areas. Aker Carbon \\nCapture offers several highly effective solutions for energy \\noptimization, tailored to specific industrial applications \\nand site-specific conditions. The recommended solution \\nis based on the overall energy performance of the parent \\nand the capture plants. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nHighly energy-efficient capture process with innovative heat integration solutions. \\n•\\t\\nIncludes proprietary ACC™ advanced emission control system to prevent the formation of amine mist, which nearly \\neliminates the emissions of amine and amine degradation products. \\n•\\t\\nVerified via 60,000 hours of data for operating on flue gas from cement kilns, waste-to-energy plants, gas power \\nplants, hydrogen production, char production, smelting and refinery applications, through campaigns with our Mobile \\nTest Unit and at Technology Centre Mongstad. \\nADVANCED AKER CARBON CAPTURE (ACC™) \\nAker Carbon Capture is a pure-play carbon capture \\ncompany with solutions, services and technologies serving \\na range of industries. The company has proprietary and \\nfield-proven technology to enable carbon emission \\nreduction and removal in sectors such as cement, gas-to-\\npower, biomass and waste-to-energy, blue hydrogen, and \\nother hard-to-abate industries. Aker Carbon Capture’s \\nAdvanced Carbon Capture (ACC™) technology has \\nbeen continuously developed since 2005 and offered \\ncommercially since 2009. \\nThe company’s business model covers the sale of \\ncomplete carbon capture units, license models including \\nsupply of key equipment, aftermarket services and, \\ntogether with industrial partners, a full value chain Carbon \\nCapture as a Service model. In general, Aker Carbon \\nCapture’s plants include a high degree of modularity in \\ntheir designs, which is an important driver to reduce costs \\nand shorten delivery times. \\nWe deeply believe partnerships are crucial to grow the \\nCCUS industry, such as the unique partnership we have \\nwith Microsoft to pursue joint innovation and services to \\naccelerate the deployment of carbon capture. Aker Carbon \\nCapture’s overall purpose is to accelerate planet positive \\nby enabling carbon reduction and removal from industries \\nand energy solutions.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t ccus@akercarboncapture.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.akercarboncapture.com\\nAKER CARBON CAPTURE\\n•\\t\\nAker Carbon Capture’s ACC™ CO2 capture process, including CO2 liquefaction, intermediate storage and CO2 \\nexport has been qualified by DNV-GL according to DNV-RP-A203 Qualification Procedures for New Technology and \\nDNVRP-J201 Qualification Procedures for CO2 Capture Technology.\\n•\\t\\nIncludes extremely robust solvents for environmentally friendly operations. The proprietary ACC™ solvents are \\ncharacterized by low solvent degradation, which is associated with a low corrosion rate in the plant, low amine makeup \\nrequirement, low emissions of amine degradation products, low demand for amine reclamation, and thereby, resulting \\nin low production of reclaimer waste. \\nAker Carbon Capture’s Just Catch™\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n20\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nAker Carbon Capture’s Advanced Carbon Capture (ACC™)\\\"\\nTwence CCU (Copyright)\\nThe main unit operations of the ACC™ process include \\nthe Direct Contact Cooler (DCC), the absorber, and the \\ndesorber columns, the reboiler, the reclaimer, the energy \\nsaver, the flue gas fan, and a liquefaction unit with an \\noptional proprietary advance heat integration. \\nFlue gas from the client’s plant is extracted downstream \\nof any existing flue gas emission control units through the \\nflue gas fan. The flue gas is pre-treated in the DCC. The \\npurpose of the DCC is to cool the flue gas and to remove \\nany acid gases, such as SO2, HCl, and HF. Condensed \\nwater from the flue gas will exit the DCC as a bleed stream. \\nFlue gas from the DCC is routed to the CO2 absorber \\ndownstream of the booster fan. The CO2 absorber consists \\nof a CO2 absorption section in the lower part of the \\ncolumn and a water wash section with an emission control \\nsystem in the upper part of the column. In the absorption \\nsection, flue gas contacts the lean amine solvent in a \\ncountercurrent flow regime, absorbing CO2 from the \\nflue gas. Continuing to the upper part of the column, the \\nemission control system including the ACC™ Anti-Mist \\ndesign cools and cleans the CO2-lean flue gas of traces \\nof amines and potential amine degradation products, thus \\neffectively preventing emissions of amine and potential \\namine-degradation products in the form of aerosols. CO2-\\nlean flue gas is either emitted from the absorber stack or \\nreturned to the existing flue gas stack downstream of the \\nflue gas extraction point. \\nCO2-rich amine is drained from the absorber sump. The \\nrich amine solvent is regenerated using steam. The steam \\nis condensed in a reboiler and returned to the battery limits \\nas hot condensate. The increase in temperature during the \\nindirect heating of rich solvent with steam strips the CO2 \\nout of the solvent. The resulting lean amine is returned to \\nthe absorber for reuse in the CO2 capture process, while \\nthe CO2 exits the top of the desorber. The energy saver \\nconsists of a proprietary process that reduces the steam \\nconsumption in the reboiler.\\nCO2 may be compressed and e.g., fed into a regional \\nCO2 pipeline to be transported to permanent storage, or \\ncompressed and liquified for transport by ship or truck. The \\nACC proprietary technology solution enables internal heat \\nrecovery from compression that also reduces the overall \\nsteam requirement for the carbon capture plant. \\nTo maintain high solvent performance, a reclaimer \\nis included to intermittently remove impurities and \\ndegradation products from the amine solvent. A small \\namount of concentrated liquid waste is generated in the \\nreclaimer. This reclaimer waste needs to be disposed of \\nbatch-wise as chemical waste. Due to the low degradation \\nrate of the ACC™ solvents, along with a properly designed \\nDCC, the amount of reclaimer waste from the ACC™ \\nprocess is very low compared to standard plants operating \\nwith generic solvents such as MEA.\\nREFERENCE PROJECTS\\nTechnology Center Mongstad (TCM) \\nAker Carbon Capture designed and was awarded the EPC \\ndelivery of the carbon capture test facility plant at TCM. \\nThis full-scale CO2 capture plant captures CO2 from the \\ngas-fired combined heat and power plant and the catalytic \\ncracker at the Mongstad refinery in Norway. Different from \\ncompetitors, Aker Carbon Capture has not only tested our \\nACC™ technology at the TCM facility but designed and \\ndelivered the actual plant, which has been in continuous \\noperations since 2012. \\nCustomer: Statoil (now Equinor). \\nTwence CCU \\nThis first-of-a-kind project will enable the removal of CO2 \\nfrom flue gases at Twence’s waste-to-energy installation \\nfacility located at Hengelo, the Netherlands. The captured \\nand liquefied CO2 will be used primarily by greenhouses in \\nthe horticultural sector, where it will enhance crop growth. \\nThe delivery is planned to take place at the end of 2023. \\nCO2 capture capacity: 0.1 Mtpa \\nBrevik CCS\\nAker Carbon Capture has been working together with \\nHeidelberg Materials Sement Norge and partners \\nin developing a full-scale CO2 capture, conditioning, \\ncompression, heat integration, intermediate storage and \\nloading facility for their cement plant at Brevik in Norway. \\nCO2 is being captured from the flue gases of the cement \\nkiln using waste heat recovered from the cement plant \\nand the CO2 compression plant through a proprietary heat \\nintegration technology. The ACC™ capture plant will be \\nthe world’s first large-scale CO2 capture plant at a cement \\nplant, and is planned to be delivered in 2024. Brevik CCS \\nis part of the Norwegian Longship Project.\\nCO2 capture capacity: 0.4 Mtpa\\nØrsted Kalundborg Hub\\nAker Carbon Capture will deliver five Just Catch™ units, \\nwhich will be delivered to Ørsted’s wood chip-fired Asnæs \\nPower Station and the Avedøre Power Station’s straw-fired \\nboiler. Combined, these facilities will have an installed \\ndesign capture capacity of 500,000 tonnes CO2 per year. \\nExpected delivery will be in 2025.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n22\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nBENEFITS\\nCO2 removal using amine scrubbing is a well-known \\nprocess used since 1920 in natural gas treatment. Axens \\nand IFPEN have acquired over 60 years of experience \\nin CO2 removal from natural gas through the licencing of \\nAdvamine™ processes. \\nAlthough CO2 can be easily recovered from pressurized \\ngases with currently available technologies, its recovery \\nfrom low-pressure or flue gases leads to a significant \\nenergy penalty. Furthermore, most solvents currently used \\nin the oil and gas or chemical industries, will be severely \\ndegraded by the oxygen present in the flue gases. More \\nsuited technologies are therefore required for most CCS \\napplications. \\nTo address these challenges, Axens and IFPEN have been \\ninvolved in several R&D programs over the past years to \\ndevelop enhanced CO2 capture technologies. The DMX™ \\nprocess is an outcome of these developments.\\nThe DMX™ process is a CO2 capture process based on \\nabsorption using a demixing solvent. The DMX™ solvent \\nconsists of a mixture of two organic compounds in aqueous \\nsolution, which is demixing under certain conditions of \\ntemperature and CO2 partial pressure.\\nThe DMX™ solvent has a high cyclic capacity (4 times \\nmore than the MEA benchmark), whereas only the CO2-\\nrich phase needs to be regenerated. As it is very stable, \\nit may be regenerated at higher temperature than amine \\nsolvents such as MEA, which allows producing CO2 at \\nhigher pressure (up to 5 barg). Thanks to the properties of \\nDMX™ solvent, the DMX™ process has a great potential for \\nreducing the energy penalty and the cost of CO2 capture. \\nCompared to the first-generation absorption process using \\n30 wt.% MEA, the DMX™ process allows a 30% reduction \\nin energy penalty and the subsequent cost of the CO2 \\ncapture (main results from Octavius (ENEL) and Valorco \\n(coordinated by Arcelor Mittal and founded by ADEME) \\nprojects). The DMX™ solvent is also less corrosive than \\nMEA, and therefore, carbon steel may be used as the \\nprincipal material, which reduces the CapEx, as compared \\nto the first-generation solvents.\\nMain Benefits of Axens’ DMX™ process are the following. \\n•\\t\\nVersatile process applicable to multiple types of flue gases (for example: coal power stations, steel mill gas, FCC unit, \\nSteam Methane Reformer, waste incinerator, cement plant, district heating and also electricity from biomass). The \\nDMX™ process is well-adapted to CO2 capture on industrial smoke or industrial gas when the CO2 partial pressures are \\nlow to medium, typically below 1 bara.\\n•\\t\\nLow steam energy consumption\\n•\\t\\nThermally stable solvent with low degradation rate \\n•\\t\\nCO2 produced readily under pressure up to 5 bars for significant compression cost-savings \\n•\\t\\nHigh capture rate achievable (> 95%) and high purity of produced CO2 (> 99%)\\n•\\t\\n- 30% of CO2 capture cost compared to 1st generation amines\\nCONTACT\\nNadège Guernalec\\nEmail: \\t nadege.guernalec@axens.net\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.axens.net\\nSUMMARY\\nDMX™ PROCESS \\nAXENS\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n24\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe DMX™ process can be broken down into four main \\nsections.   \\nA CO2 absorption section (absorber): the conditioned gas \\nis washed in a counter-current absorber with the DMX™ \\nsolvent. The absorber is equipped with an intercooling \\nstage to enhance the absorption capacities of the solvent \\nand reduce the solvent circulation to its minimum. A water \\nwash section is installed at the top of absorber to limit the \\nsolvent losses with the treated flue gas. A DMX™ solvent \\ndemixing and settling section (decanter): the CO2-rich \\nsolvent recovered at the bottom of the absorber is pumped \\nand heated in the rich/lean solvent exchanger, leading to \\ndemixing of the latter. After decantation, three phases are \\nobtained:\\n•\\t\\nA liquid phase low in CO2 can be returned directly to \\nthe absorption section.\\n•\\t\\nA liquid phase rich in CO2 is directed to the \\nregeneration section.\\n•\\t\\nA gas phase rich in CO2\\nA regeneration section (regenerator): the CO2-rich phase \\ncoming from the settling section is thermally regenerated \\nby steam stripping effect (generated in situ with a reboiler \\noperating with medium-pressure steam) producing a \\ngaseous effluent rich in CO2 at the top of the column. The \\nregenerated heavy phase is sent to a regenerated solvent \\nhold up drum, before being recombined with the low CO2 \\nlight phase (from the settling section). It is then cooled \\ndown through rich/lean solvent exchanger and lean solvent \\ncooler before being returned to the absorption section. \\nThe gaseous CO2 streams recovered at the decanter \\nand regenerator overhead are cooled down to recover \\ncondensed water before being mixed and routed at battery \\nlimit under pressure.\\nAfter more than 10 years of development from laboratory \\nscale to global optimisation in the power and steel \\nindustries, the DMX™ process has passed a new milestone \\nwith its current demonstration at industrial scale, final \\nstep before commercialization end of 2023 by Axens. \\nOperational since April 2023 at ArcelorMittal's steel mill in \\nDunkirk, the unit is capturing the CO2 from blast furnace \\ngas at a capacity of 0.5t CO2/h. The first results obtained \\nare in line with the promises of the technology and \\nalready confirm the efficiency and energy performance \\nof DMX™ technology. A whole series of operational \\ntests are conducted with 24/7 operation of the unit. The \\ncapture rates obtained are greater than 90%. The pilot \\nalso produces very pure CO2 (> 99.5%) while energy \\nconsumption remains remarkably low.\\nThe demonstration unit was built and is operated as part \\nof the European H2020 \\\"3D\\\" project bringing together 11 \\nEuropean partners including ArcelorMittal, Axens, IFPEN \\nand TotalEnergies. This project also studies the full-\\nscale CO₂ capture, conditioning, transport and storage \\nof 1 Mtpa CO₂ from blast furnace gas contributing to \\nthe development of a CO₂ hub located in  Dunkirk and \\nconnected with the storage facilities like  those foreseen \\nwith the Northern Lights (or Longship).\\nAdditional information is available at the following web \\naddress: https://3d-ccus.com\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n26\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nBRIGHTLOOP™ CHEMICAL LOOPING\\nBabcock & Wilcox partnered with The Ohio State University \\nto develop our BrightLoop chemical looping technology, \\nwhich can use a variety of fuel stocks to produce \\nhydrogen, syngas, steam, liquid fuel or methanol, and/or \\npower while also producing a stream of concentrated CO2 \\nfor sequestration and storage or other uses. \\nThe patented BrightLoop process is based on the oxidation \\nand reduction of an iron-based oxygen carrier particle \\nand has the ability to capture a pure stream of hydrogen \\nand CO2 from gas and solid fuels – including biomass, \\ncoal, waste fuels, natural gas, biogas, petroleum coke \\n(petcoke) or others. In this process, fuel reacts with the \\noxygen-carrier particles in a reducer reactor (fuel reactor), \\nforming combustion byproducts, predominantly CO2, while \\nreducing the oxygen-carrier particles. The reduced oxygen-\\ncarrier particles then move to a partial oxidizer (hydrogen \\nreactor) where they react with steam to partially oxidize the \\nparticles and generate a stream of hydrogen.\\nThe oxygen-carrier particles are then transported to a \\ncombustor reactor (air reactor) where they are regenerated \\nwith air back to their original state. The fuel and hydrogen \\nreactors use moving bed technology while the air \\nreactor uses fluidized-bed technology, both well-proven \\ntechnologies with which B&W has extensive experience. \\nOther emissions can be controlled using B&W’s complete \\nsuite of environmental control technologies.\\nWe are confident our BrightLoop technology will play \\na major role in helping the world transition to a more \\nsustainable future, supporting the international goal of net-\\nzero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.\\nSOLVEBRIGHT™ POST-COMBUSTION CO2 SCRUBBING  \\nB&W’s \\nSolveBright \\nregenerable \\nsolvent \\nabsorption \\ntechnology scrubbing process came from decades \\nof decarbonization research and development. The \\nSolveBright carbon dioxide scrubbing system is a post-\\ncombustion carbon capture technology that captures \\nCO2 directly from flue gas in an absorber using a \\nregenerable solvent. The CO2-laden solvent is sent to a \\nregenerator where it is heated, and the CO2 is released \\nas a concentrated stream for compression and storage \\nor beneficial uses. The solvent is then recycled to the \\nabsorber for reuse.\\nWhile B&W’s solvent demonstrated superior performance \\ncompared to more than 100 competing solvents during \\nour extensive testing procedures at the National Carbon \\nCapture Center, a major advantage of the SolveBright \\nprocess is solvent flexibility, which allows customization of \\nan optimal CAPEX and OPEX solution for each application. \\nSolveBright can be used with a variety of solvents and \\nwe have the expertise and ability to use a wide range of \\npotential solvents. \\nB&W has extensive knowledge of combustion processes \\n– including many decades of experience with waste-\\nto-energy and biomass-to-energy plants – and thermal \\nmanagement associated with combined heat and power \\nsystems and can effectively integrate the carbon capture \\nsystem into an existing facility. This experience gives us the \\nability to optimally integrate the SolveBright solution with \\nvirtually any new or existing facility.\\nB&W’s solvent-based CO2 capture experience spans a \\nwide range of industries with various fuels and we can \\noffer total solution support -- from feasibility studies, pre-\\nFEED and pilot unit definition, to full-scale plants -- tailored \\nto the customer’s specific needs.\\nSUMMARY\\nCLIMATEBRIGHT™ DECARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGIES\\nThe ClimateBright™ suite of revolutionary hydrogen and \\ndecarbonization technologies from Babcock & Wilcox \\n(B&W) is designed to help customers in energy and \\nindustrial sectors aggressively combat greenhouse gas \\nemissions and climate change. ClimateBright technologies \\nfurther strengthen B&W’s commitment to clean energy \\nprogress and to helping customers worldwide address \\nthe most significant environmental challenges in industrial \\nprocesses and energy generation.\\nClimateBright has a wide range of clean energy solutions \\nto drive the energy transition through capture carbon and \\nproduction of hydrogen for industries including energy \\nproduction, food manufacturing, steel, cement, oil and gas, \\npharmaceutical, petrochemical, carbon black, and pulp \\nand paper. Our technologies build on B&W’s core talents in \\nsteam generation, combustion, and flue gas treatment, and \\neach addresses the emissions of CO2 from the combustion \\nof carbon-based fuels in a unique way:  \\n1.\\t\\nBrightLoop™ uses a chemical looping process around \\na ferrous oxygen carrier to separate the products \\nof combustion of a carbon-based fuel into separate \\nstreams of CO2 and oxygen depleted air, allowing for \\nthe capture of CO2.\\n2.\\t SolveBright™ is a post combustion capture process \\nusing regenerable solvents.\\n3.\\t OxyBright™ purifies the flue gas stream to near pure \\nCO2, simplifying its capture.\\n4.\\t BrightGen™ eliminates the generation of CO2 by \\nswitching to a non-carbon-based fuel.\\n5.\\t Flue gas pre-treatment for post-combustion CO2 \\ncapture.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t marketing@babcock.com \\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.babcock.com\\nBABCOCK & WILCOX\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n28\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nOXYBRIGHT™ OXY-FUEL COMBUSTION - ADVANCED \\nCARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY FOR STEAM \\nGENERATION\\nB&W’s oxy-combustion process can be used to generate \\nsteam and power using a variety of fuels, including \\ncoal, natural gas, biomass, oil and others. In the oxy-fuel \\nprocess, combustion air is replaced with nearly pure \\noxygen and recirculated CO2. Nitrogen that would normally \\nbe conveyed with the air through conventional air-fuel \\nfiring is excluded and the resulting flue gas consists of \\nnearly pure CO2. The non-recirculated flue gas leaving the \\nboiler is cleaned using conventional particulate and sulfur \\nremoval systems and sent to the compression purification \\nunit (CPU) where a high-purity CO2 stream is produced that \\nis suitable for transportation or other uses.\\nB&W provided oxy-fuel technology for use with coal \\non the U.S. Department of Energy’s FutureGen 2.0 \\ndemonstration project in Illinois, which was to be a retrofit \\nof a 167-megawatt coal-fired power plant. Although \\nconstruction began in 2014, the project was canceled in \\n2016 due to redirection of DOE funding support. B&W has \\ncontinued to develop oxy-fuel technology and it is ready \\nfor full-scale commercialization and deployment.\\nIn March 2022, B&W announced its OxyBright and \\nbiomass boiler-fired technologies would be part of the \\nworld’s largest net-negative CO2 biomass-to-energy facility \\nto be developed by Fidelis New Energy at the Port of \\nGreat Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Using B&W’s proprietary \\nBrightLoop™ technology, the plant will be designed to \\nturn biomass into low-carbon intensity hydrogen more \\nefficiently and affordably than any other processes, \\nspurring the production of 15 tons of it every day.\\nBRIGHTGEN™ HYDROGEN COMBUSTION\\nB&W’s BrightGen hydrogen combustion solution is \\ncurrently in operation at multiple refineries and industrial \\nfacilities around the world and is available to customers \\nseeking a powerful hydrogen combustion solution for utility \\nand industrial applications where efficient, zero-carbon \\ndioxide-emissions energy generation is a goal.\\nOur highly reliable utility, industrial and FM package \\nboilers can be manufactured or retrofitted with BrightGen \\ntechnology to safely burn hydrogen or hydrogen-blended \\nfuels for virtually any need, including power, heating and \\nsteam generation, and for industrial applications such as \\nrefineries and petrochemical facilities.\\nWhen considering the potential for fuel switching from a \\nsolid or gaseous fuel, and integrating hydrogen into the \\ncombustion process, B&W conducts a complete evaluation \\nof the entire boiler system. This includes all combustion \\nequipment such as burners, ignitors, flame scanners and \\nfuel trains.\\nOur BrightGen technology is currently in use in more than \\n60 industrial boilers around the world.\\nFLUE GAS PRE-TREATMENT FOR POST-COMBUSTION \\nCO2 CAPTURE\\nAcid gases degrade the solvents used in a post-\\ncombustion carbon capture system. B&W offers a \\ncomplete suite of environmental control technologies to \\ncontrol sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur trioxide (SO3) – which \\ncan form aerosols and cause loss of CO2 capture solvents \\n- hydrogen chloride (HCl), and hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the \\npre-capture flue gas stream, as well as technologies for \\nother pollutants such as metals and particulates.  Nitrogen \\noxides (NOx) are also detrimental for CO2 capture solvents \\nand can lead to hazardous degradation products in the \\nprocess. CO2 scrubbing may also improve when particulate \\nmatter is removed from the flue gas prior to the scrubbing \\nprocess.\\nB&W has many decades of experience in emissions control \\nsolutions, pioneering technologies that have helped \\ncustomers comply with stringent emissions regulations for \\nmore than 50 years.\\nOur solutions include:\\n•\\t\\nWet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) scrubbers\\n•\\t\\nWet gas scrubbers (WGS)\\n•\\t\\nSpray dryer absorbers (SDA)\\n•\\t\\nCirculating dry scrubbers (CDS)\\n•\\t\\nDry sorbent injection (DSI)\\n•\\t\\nWet and dry electrostatic precipitators (ESP)\\n•\\t\\nFabric filter baghouses\\n•\\t\\nDirect contact coolers (DCC)\\nSUMMARY\\nB&W has a broad range of unique and innovative \\ntechnologies and processes for carbon capture, hydrogen \\ngeneration and hydrogen combustion, including:\\n•\\t\\nCO2 Removal – Capture (OxyBright, SolveBright, \\nBrightLoop) Direct Carbon Removal CDR (DAC) \\n•\\t\\nCO2 Reduction – Efficiency improvements and fuel \\nmixing (CH4 + H2 – coal + biomass)\\n•\\t\\nCO2 Avoidance – Replacing carbon-intensive power \\ngeneration with renewables (green steam, LDES, \\nsolar) or fuel switching and combustion of hydrogen or \\nammonia – (BrightGen, electrolyzers, BrighLoop) \\n•\\t\\nCO2 Reuse – Capture carbon for beneficial use – \\nP2X (biogenic CO2), food & beverage use (OxyBright, \\nSolveBright, BrightLoop) \\n•\\t\\nCO2 Storage – Capture and store (OxyBright, \\nSolveBright, BrightLoop)  \\n•\\t\\nLow Carbon Intensity Hydrogen Generation – \\n(BrightLoop, electrolyzers)\\n•\\t\\nHydrogen Combustion (BrightGen)\\n•\\t\\nFlue \\nGas \\nPre-Treatment \\n(full \\nsuite \\nof \\nB&W \\nenvironmental technologies)\\nMore information on B&W’s ClimateBright suite of products \\nis available at www.babcock.com.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n30\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCaptura’s approach is to remove CO2 from the ocean to \\neffectively ‘make room’ for the ocean to then draw down \\nadditional CO2 from the atmosphere. The technology \\nfeatures a flow of seawater passing through the plant, \\nwhich is treated to remove its CO2 content before it is \\nreturned to the ocean. \\nWhen the decarbonized seawater is released back into \\nthe ocean, an equivalent quantity of atmospheric CO2 will \\nbe drawn down as the surface ocean and atmosphere re-\\nequilibrates. As wind and wave patterns facilitate mixing of \\nthe surface layer of the ocean, when plants are optimally \\nlocated, atmospheric CO2 is pulled down into the ocean to \\nreplace the same amount of CO2 that the Captura system \\noriginally removed. In this way, for every ton of CO2 Captura \\nsystems remove from seawater, the ocean removes a ton \\nof CO2 from the atmosphere. \\nThe Captura process begins by pulling a stream of filtered \\nseawater into the system. Around 0.5% of this water is \\ndiverted and pre-processed to purify it into brine. Captura’s \\nproprietary electrodialysis technology then dissociates the \\nsalt and water in the brine into an acid and alkali base. This \\nacid is added to the original flow of seawater, triggering \\na chemical reaction that draws the CO2 out. The process \\nis accelerated using a gas-liquid contactor and vacuum \\npump. The CO2 is captured as a gas stream, ready for \\nsubsequent sequestration or utilization. This leaves a flow \\nof acidic, decarbonized seawater in the system. The alkali \\nbase is re-introduced to neutralize the acidic seawater, \\nafter which it is returned to the ocean to subsequently \\ndraw down an equivalent quantity of atmospheric CO2.\\nCaptura is currently undergoing a rigorous piloting \\nprogram to prove out the technology, which consists \\nof three separate systems. The first one, an end-to-end \\ndemonstration capable of removing 1 ton of CO2/year, \\nis fully operational off the coast of Newport Beach, CA \\nat Caltech’s research hub, Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory. \\nThe next pilot, a 100-ton CO2/year system, has been \\nsuccessfully operating end-to-end in Captura’s labs and will \\nbe installed at AltaSea at the Port of Los Angeles to begin \\nocean field trials in summer of 2023. Lastly, a ~1,000-ton \\nCO2/year pilot is planned for 2024.  \\nCaptura’s technology has been third-party validated by \\nseveral prominent expert entities in the climate space, \\nincluding XPRIZE, U.S. Department of Energy’s APRA-E, \\nand Frontier Climate. In January 2023, Captura announced \\nits Series A financing, led by Equinor Ventures.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nLow Cost: Captura’s technology provides savings in capital and operation compared to many other carbon removal \\ntechnologies. No purpose-built air contactors or absorbents, lower energy requirement, widespread use of standard \\nindustrial equipment, lack of by-products requiring disposal and the ability to leverage off-peak renewable electricity \\ninherently lowers costs. \\n•\\t\\nScalability: Captura’s use of the ocean, which covers ~70% of the planet, means the technology is deployable \\nvirtually anywhere there is ocean globally. Captura does not require any precious or rare-Earth elements as inputs, \\navoiding supply chain constraints that affect a broad range of clean energy technologies. Large increases in scale of \\nour process only require minimal adjustments to our system rather than replications of multiple parts (as in modular \\napproaches), making capacity growth highly accessible.  \\n•\\t\\nOcean Health: Captura’s approach does not add anything, such as alkaline substances, to the ocean. Our process \\nreturns CO2-depleted seawater with a slightly lower acidity to the ocean, which is quickly dispersed. Both this effluent \\nand the placement of our technology in semi-enclosed areas, such as bays and coral reefs, can help to address ocean \\nacidification.\\n•\\t\\nUtilization: The Captura process produces a measurable and verifiable stream of CO2 to generate high-quality carbon \\ncredits. The CO2 can also be used in the production of low-carbon products. \\nDIRECT OCEAN CAPTURE\\nThe planet’s oceans are carbon removal powerhouses \\nworking hard to combat climate change, absorbing ~30% \\nof all emissions we release into the air. However, this \\ncomes at the cost of ocean acidification. As the added \\nCO2 concentration grows, seawater becomes increasingly \\nacidic, threatening the health of ocean life and marine \\necosystems. \\nCaptura has developed a Direct Ocean Capture approach \\nthat harnesses the carbon removal powers of oceans \\nwithout contributing to ocean acidification. \\nCaptura offers safe, scalable, and verifiable low-cost \\natmospheric carbon removal by leveraging the world’s \\nlargest, existing, natural and no-cost atmospheric CO2 \\nabsorber – the ocean. With minimal to no impacts on the \\nenvironment and using only renewable electricity and \\nseawater as inputs, Captura’s technology generates a \\nstream of CO2 that can then be sequestered or utilized to \\nmake low-carbon products.  \\nWith no purpose-built air contactors, no absorbents, and no \\nby-products, Captura’s solution enables large-scale carbon \\nremoval at a lower cost. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@capturacorp.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.capturacorp.com\\nCAPTURA\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n32\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCARBONCAPT process of CO2 capture is one of the Post \\nCombustion CCUS technologies.   \\n After dust precipitation in ESP or Bag Filter the flue gases \\ncome to CARBONCAPT plant for further treatment.\\nCARBONCAPT process involves chemical absorption of \\ngaseous CO2 by highly selective amine-based solvent and \\nexecuted in three principal stages:\\n1.\\t\\nFirst stage – COOLING of the flue gases by water. \\nAfter leaving the ESP flue gases are drawn up through \\nthe COOLING COLUMN (CC) for cooling it from 350-\\n370°C down to 65-70°C by water injection. The \\ndiameter and height of the CC as well as the amount \\nof nozzles depends upon the volume and temperature \\nof the flue gases, drawn through the CC.  \\n2.\\t Second stage - ABSORBING of CO2 by highly selective \\nabsorbing solvent. The cooled down flue gases are \\ndrawn up through ABSORBER COLUMN (AC). In the \\nAC the flue gases react with FLEXOL-CacboStrip \\nabsorbing solvent, thus the chemical absorption of CO2 \\nis taking place and the CO2-rich solvent is obtained. \\nThe diameter and height of AC and the amount of trays \\ndepends mostly upon the reactivity of the absorbing \\nsolvent, partial pressure of CO2 to be absorbed, and \\nthe solvent circulation factor.\\t There is a thumb rule: \\nthe lower the temperature of CO2 and the higher the \\npressure in the AC, the more effective process of CO2 \\nstripping is taking place, but in certain cases this rule \\nis not the case at all: the basic engineering should \\nbe developed and individual project calculation to be \\ndone for every CO2 capture unit.\\n3.\\t Third stage – DESORBING of CO2 from the CO2-rich \\nabsorbing solvent. The extraction of carbon dioxide \\nfrom the CO2-rich FLEXOL-CarboStrip solvent occurs \\nby increasing the solvent temperature. As a result \\nthe 95% gaseous CO2 returns to gaseous state and is \\ndrawn to a liquefaction station. The FLEXOL-CarboStrip \\nsolvent is cooled, regenerated and pumped back \\nto the top of the ABSORBING COLUMN for further \\ncirculation. \\nToday we offer two versions of CarbonCapt technology:\\nCarbonCapt HP (High Pressure) process with FLEXOL-\\nCarboStrip A4 (Advanced Amine Activated Absorbent) as a \\nsolvent, as well as CarbonCapt LP (Low Pressure) process, \\nwhere FLEXOL-CarboStrip A5 (Advanced Amino-Acid \\nActivated Absorbent) is used. Both versions are cost and \\nenergy effective and provide for low CAPEX and OPEX. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nProcess is well-proven in durable operation in multiple plants\\n•\\t\\nScalable and extremely cost effective at big capture projects\\n•\\t\\nEasy and predictable maintenance\\n•\\t\\nLow CAPEX and OPEX\\n•\\t\\nProvides for a very little impact on the environment\\nCARBONCAPT CHEMICAL ABSORPTION TECHNOLOGY\\nThe existing technologies of Carbon Capture are \\ncharacterized by high power and thermal energy \\nconsumption, but the selective chemical absorption of \\ngaseous CO2 prevail over the other technologies due to its \\nwell proven efficiency in a number of long-term operation \\nat the US and Canada power plants and today all the CCUS \\ncommunity, focused on chemical absorption processes \\nhave a challenge to make this technology less expensive, \\nand more accessible to the CO2 intensive sectors of the \\nglobal economy.\\nThe expected higher demand for cement and concrete \\nafter Covid19 Pandemic will evidently lead to a sharp \\ngrowth of CO2 emissions from the cement industry in \\nthe upcoming years. Today the urgent need for sufficient \\nreduction of CO2 emissions all around the world makes this \\ntechnology vital, if we want to provide green planet Earth \\nfor the next generations.\\nHere we present benefits and a brief description of \\nCARBONCAPT process, the Post combustion Carbon \\ndioxide Capture technology.\\nCONTACT\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.carboncapt.com\\nCARBONCAPT TECHNOLOGIES CO. LTD.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n34\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nIn the EDM the anions and cations are separated from \\nthe amine solution and concentrated in an aqueous \\n“brine” stream for disposal. Anion and cation selective \\nmembranes, divided by spacers, are installed between \\nanode and cathode end plates and operated in a “sheet \\nflow” order. \\nThe spacers designation is to ease the flow distribution \\nbetween the membranes and to direct amine and brine \\nto the relevant channels. The membranes are sequenced \\nin such a way, that the amine solution enters the channel \\nbetween an anion and cation permeable membrane, \\nthe anions move towards the anode through the anion \\npermeable membrane, and the cations move towards the \\ncathode through the cation permeable membrane.\\nOn the opposite side of the selective membranes the \\nions migrating from brine to the respective electrodes are \\nprecluded by alternating sequence of the membranes: the \\nanion, passing through the anion selective membrane into \\nbrine is also prevented from a solvent channel, the next \\ninstalled is a cation selective membrane, which will never \\nallow the intrusion of the anion. \\nOur Mobile ElectroDialysis Module is installed in a 40” \\ncontainer and can be easily transported for “Heat Stable \\nSalts withdrawal as a Service” function. For this purpose \\nwe use the following algorithm: our specialists will send \\nyou the questionnaire to be filled out with the detailed \\ndescription of the problem, process flowsheet, main \\nprocess parameters and type of the solvent, used at the \\namine CO2 capture unit. \\nWe will also request a sample of regenerated solvent \\nin order to analyze the approximate improvement of \\noperation. After the basic calculations are performed and \\nscope of works is defined we submit a price proposal to \\nthe Customer. After the offer is accepted we come to the \\nsite and connect our Mobile EDM module to the existing \\namine carbon capture plant as follows:\\n1.\\t\\nThe EDM module to be installed in the bypass line \\nof the regenerated solvent, pumped to the top of \\nAbsorber column,\\n2.\\t Solvent temperature at the EDM module inlet should \\nnot exceed 80°C\\n3.\\t Pressure is 2-5 kg/cm2\\n4.\\t Power supply and water source to be provided\\n5.\\t Needed plot of land is 60 m2\\ni.e. for 2 pcs 40” containers allocation.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nHigh efficiency of HSS, SO2 and carboxylic acids removal,\\n•\\t\\nModular design guarantees easy scaling up,\\n•\\t\\nMinimal environment friendly wastes,\\n•\\t\\nReasnable cost of «HSS Withdrawal as a Service»,\\n•\\t\\nDuration of amine solvent lifetime is prolonged.\\nCARBONCAPT MOBILE ELECTRODIALYSIS MODULE (EDM)\\nThe existing technologies of Post Combustion chemical \\nCarbon Capture widely use the different types of amine-\\nbased solvents.  These are various formulations, based \\non different types of amines, i.e. Monoethanolamine \\n(MEA), \\nDiethanolamine \\n(DEA), \\nMethyldiethanolamine \\n(MDEA) as a basic component and Piperazine (PP), used \\nas reaction activator. All these amine-based solvents are \\ndoomed to degrade, be lost and contaminated during the \\ncirculation and the most important problem here is Heat \\nStable Salts (HSS) formation. HSS usually exist as amine \\nsalts of ionic nature, such as acetate, chloride, formate, \\noxalate, thiosulphate, thiocyanate and similar. All of \\nthem are thermally stable and not dissociated during the \\nregeneration process. The HSS presence in the solvent \\nresults in the following:\\n•\\t\\nExcessive consumption of amine and loss of its activity \\ntowards CO2\\n•\\t\\nIncreased corrosion of equipment steel surfaces - HSS \\nact as corrosion accelerators\\n•\\t\\nFouling, due to salts deposition\\nCONTACT\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.carboncapt.com\\nCARBONCAPT TECHNOLOGIES CO. LTD.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n36\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCarbon Clean has amassed a deep understanding of \\nindustrial carbon capture technologies since its inception in \\n2009, working with commercial and academic partners to \\ntest and validate its solutions. Its proven technologies are \\ndelivering for industrial partners around the world and it \\nhas technology references across 49 sites.\\nCarbon Clean delivered the world’s first subsidy-free, fully \\ncommercial, industrial-scale carbon capture and utilization \\nplant at Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited in \\nIndia in October 2016. The plant is installed on a coal-fired \\nboiler, and is designed to capture 60,000 tonnes of CO2 \\nper year, which is then converted into soda ash (sodium \\ncarbonate) – an ingredient used in household products, \\nglass manufacturing, and paper production.\\nIn 2023, Carbon Clean announced its 50th commercial \\nproject – to deliver carbon capture equipment capable \\nof capturing 70,000 tonnes of biogenic CO2 per year for \\nØrsted’s FlagshipONE facility in Sweden, Europe’s largest \\ngreen methanol project. FlagshipONE will supply 50,000 \\ntonnes of eMethanol per year to the shipping industry, \\nwhich today accounts for around 3% of global carbon \\nemissions. \\nCarbon Clean is fully focused on making carbon capture \\nmore accessible to hard-to-abate industries. Its next \\ngeneration of standardized, fully modular carbon capture \\ntechnology, CycloneCC will be crucial to accelerating the \\nglobal deployment of CCUS. \\nCycloneCC will be pre-fabricated, enabling an on-site \\ninstallation period of eight weeks and so reducing costly \\noperational disruptions. Additionally, as a fully modular \\nsolution, units can be added in line with a company’s \\ndecarbonization ambitions and investment capacity, either \\nsolo or alongside other decarbonization solutions.\\nCarbon Clean is also working towards a Carbon Capture as \\na Service (CCaaS) offering, where customers pay a cost per \\ntonne of carbon. This will further de-risk the investment for \\ncompanies and ensure performance is optimized over the \\nlifetime of the technology, by drawing on Carbon Clean’s \\noperational expertize. \\nCYCLONECC \\nCarbon Clean has developed a fully modular technology, \\nCycloneCC, that is vital for scaling industrial carbon capture \\ndeployment to achieve global net zero targets. \\nCycloneCC addresses two major concerns from industries \\nconsidering carbon capture – cost and space. As a \\nmodular, pre-fabricated and skid-mounted carbon capture \\nsolution, CycloneCC reduces the overall cost of carbon \\ncapture by up to 50% and has a physical footprint that is \\nup to 50% smaller than conventional carbon capture units.\\nCycloneCC intensifies the traditional solvent capture \\nprocess through the combination of two process \\nintensification technologies:\\n•\\t\\nRotating packed beds (RPBs) process equipment \\ntechnology\\n•\\t\\nCarbon Clean’s proprietary amine-promoted buffer salt \\nsolvent technology (APBS-CDRMax®)\\nThe APBS-CDRMax® solvent is extremely effective in \\ncapturing CO2, and the RPBs provide a highly efficient \\nenvironment for the absorption of CO2 and solvent \\nregeneration.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nCycloneCC is a modular, pre-fabricated and skid-mounted carbon capture solution that will radically impact the economics \\nof carbon capture and industrial decarbonization. \\nCycloneCC’s benefits include:\\n•\\t\\nCompact and cost-effective: Process intensification delivers a reduction in the size of the mass transfer equipment by \\n10 times and up to a 50% reduction in the overall unit footprint, compared to conventional carbon capture units. The \\noverall cost of carbon capture is reduced by up to 50%, with no loss in performance.\\n•\\t\\nEasily scaled: CycloneCC is delivered in modular units that can be added over time to increase carbon capture \\ncapacity in line with a company’s decarbonization strategy.\\n•\\t\\nStandardized designs: Off-the-shelf, ready-made engineering designs for standard capacities and specifications \\ndeliver cost and delivery efficiencies. \\n•\\t\\nMinimal disruption: By using modular designs and shop-fabricated skids, site infrastructure requirements are \\nreduced, resulting in easier integration with existing industrial operations for minimal disruption and maximum cost-\\neffectiveness, and simpler plant maintenance. \\n•\\t\\nProven technology: Carbon Clean has over a decade of experience in designing, building, and operating industrial \\ncarbon capture systems and has technology references across 49 sites around the world. Its engineering excellence \\nand proven results are at the heart of CycloneCC.\\nCYCLONECC\\nCarbon Clean is a global leader in carbon capture solutions \\nfor essential hard-to-abate industries. The company’s \\ntechnology, significantly reduces the costs of carbon \\ncapture when compared to existing solutions.\\nCarbon Clean is an innovation leader in the carbon capture \\nsector, with over 80 active patent assets across 15 patent \\nfamilies covering over 30 countries. The company’s \\nstandardized, fully modular carbon capture technology, \\nCycloneCC will accelerate the global adoption of carbon \\ncapture in key industries that have few other available \\noptions to decarbonize.\\nThe size and cost of carbon capture technology have \\nhistorically \\nbeen \\nsignificant \\nbarriers \\nto \\nadoption. \\nCycloneCC overcomes these barriers; its overall footprint \\nis up to 50% smaller than a conventional plant and it can \\ncapture CO2 at a cost that is up to 50% less per tonne \\nthan conventional carbon capture systems. It achieves \\nthis through a combination of two proven process \\nintensification technologies – Carbon Clean’s advanced, \\nproprietary amine-promoted buffer salt solvent (APBS-\\nCDRMax®) and rotating packed beds (RPBs). \\nCycloneCC will be pre-fabricated in fully engineered \\nmodules and available in standard capacities. It has already \\nbeen fully tested at 1 tpd at Altrad Babcock’s Emissions \\nReduction Test Facility in Scotland and a number of 10 tpd \\ndemonstration units will be commissioned shortly with \\nselect industrial partners in the Middle East and North \\nAmerica. Commercialization of CycloneCC at 100 tpd is \\nalso underway in North America and Europe.\\nAs a compact and modular solution, CycloneCC is \\nparticularly suited for use with small to mid-size emission \\npoint sources and can be installed at multiple locations \\nacross a site.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@carbonclean.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.carbonclean.com \\nCARBON CLEAN\\n \\n2 \\nre technologies and \\nve their net zero \\noperating industrial \\nanies globally to \\nng solutions that will \\nse the sector – \\ncerns from industries \\nfication technologies: \\nAPBS-CDRMax®) and \\nventional carbon capture. \\narbon capture down to \\n ready to install and with \\nand \\n \\n \\nGCCSI - State of the Art: CCS Technologies 2022 \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n38\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nRPBs have been used in commercial applications since \\nthe 1960s, however, their use in the post-combustion CO₂ \\ncapture process is a new application. \\nThe RPB contains a disk of packing material which rotates \\nabout its axis. The centrifugal force generated through \\nthe rotational motion of the packed bed in an RPB is \\nsignificantly greater than the gravitational force seen in \\nconventional packed columns, making RPBs much more \\neffective in mass transfer operations.\\nThe liquid films and droplets created in the packing \\nmaterial are remarkably thinner, which increases the \\nsurface area to volume ratio of the liquid. This results in \\nfaster and higher mass transfer efficiency between the gas \\nand liquid phases.\\nThe mass transfer improvement allows the RPB to be up \\nto 10 times smaller than traditional columns to accomplish \\nthe same results. The combination of RPBs and APBS-\\nCDRMax® provides: \\n•\\t\\nSmaller equipment sizes at equivalent performance \\n– using RPBs in the absorber/stripper results in more \\nthan one order of magnitude reduction in equipment \\nsize \\n•\\t\\nBetter mass and heat transfer between the liquid and \\ngas phases through thinner liquid films produced by a \\ncentrifugal force\\n•\\t\\nMore intense turbulent flow relative to conventional \\ncolumns\\nThe APBS-CDRMax® solvent in the stripper RPB also \\nreduces heat requirements and improves efficiency of \\nheat transfer, collectively reducing the cost to regenerate \\nsolvents. Additionally, there are lower degradation and \\ncorrosion rates, improving solvent make-up and waste \\ndisposal, and a lower pump and cooling water duty.\\nFurther optimizations will be achieved through the use \\nof a digital twin solution, enabling CycloneCC units to be \\noperated remotely to deliver improved plant and energy \\nefficiency, as well as potentially reducing project execution \\ntime by 20-40%.\\nCarbon Clean’s CycloneCC technology development \\nprocess includes rigorous assessment of the technology \\nwith academic partners, as well as scaling and adapting \\nthe technology to industrial processes with commercial \\npartners.\\nCycloneCC has been successfully pilot tested at 1 tpd \\nat Altrad Babcock’s Emissions Reduction Test Facility in \\nScotland, and 10 tpd demonstration units will be operational \\nwith select industrial partners in the Middle East and North \\nAmerica in the coming months. Commercialization of \\nCycloneCC at 100 tpd is also underway in North America \\nand Europe.\\nThe radically smaller size and cost of CycloneCC offers \\nthe potential for industries to achieve far greater emission \\nreductions. Deployment of this technology can also grow \\nin line with a company’s decarbonization strategy. Lower \\noverall costs make it possible to incorporate CCUS into \\nexisting and future operations, enabling businesses to \\nscale over time to meet their targets and allowing them \\nto participate in the global reduction of carbon emissions \\nsooner.\\nAPBS-CDRMAX® SOLVENT\\nCarbon Clean’s APBS-CDRMax® solvent has been \\nformulated to optimize carbon capture performance. Its \\ninnovative, patented formulation of amines and salts – \\namine-promoted buffer salts – offers both the high kinetic \\nreactivity of an amine and the low regeneration energy of a \\nbuffer salt. The result is a unique, fast-acting, high-capacity \\ncarbon capture solvent that delivers higher performance in \\nany existing solvent-based carbon capture system.\\nThe solvent chemistry allows for rapid removal of carbon \\ndioxide from flue gases with CO₂ concentrations ranging \\nbetween 2.5-25 vol.% and produces CO₂ with a purity of \\n≥99.5 vol% on a dry basis, reducing regeneration energy \\nrequirements as well as greater stability and lower \\ncorrosivity. Comprehensive testing has validated the \\nbenefits that APBS-CDRMax® delivers including: \\n•\\t\\n20x less corrosion and 10x less degradation\\n•\\t\\n10-25% lower energy demand for the capture and \\nregeneration process\\n•\\t\\n5x longer solvent life and 86% less solvent make-up\\n•\\t\\nA higher performance efficiency with less foaming, \\nleading to 50% reduction in ongoing chemical \\nrequirement and waste disposal costs, reducing amine \\ncarryover and the need for anti-foaming additives\\n•\\t\\nA reduction in solvent emissions to parts per billions \\n(ppb) levels, which meets environmental regulatory \\nrequirements and facilitates approvals \\n \\n \\nGCCSI - State of the Art: CCS Technologies 2022 \\nCycloneCC 10 TPD RPB\\nCycloneCC 100 TPD visualisation showing its relative size compared to a conventional carbon capture plant\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n40\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nDAC technology captures CO2 by pulling in atmospheric \\nair. Then, through a series of chemical reactions, CO2 is \\nextracted from the air while returning the rest of the air to \\nthe environment. DAC is a different, and complementary, \\ntechnology to point-source carbon capture and storage \\nwhich removes CO2 from industrial flue gas instead of the \\natmosphere. Within hub or cluster CO2 storage projects, \\nDAC can bring important value by delivering CO2 capacity \\nwith relatively stable purity and supply.\\nCE’s DAC technology approach is focused on achieving \\nlarge, industrial scale at low-cost. To help achieve this, CE’s \\nsolution borrows existing and widely used equipment and \\nprocesses from other industries, innovating and integrating \\nthem to deliver a DAC system based on largely known \\nsupply chains, and reliable equipment costs. \\nOur process begins with an air contactor that is adapted \\nfrom industrial cooling towers to bring in high volumes \\nof air, which passes across thin plastic surfaces that \\nhave potassium hydroxide solution flowing over them. \\nThis commodity chemical binds with the carbon dioxide \\nmolecules, removing them from the air and trapping them \\nin the solution in the form of a potassium carbonate salt. \\nThe carbonate is then precipitated out of solution in the \\nform of calcium carbonate pellets in a pellet reactor.\\nIn the last major step of the process, the carbon dioxide-\\ncarrying pellets are moved from the pellet reactor to a \\ncalciner where they are heated to high temperatures \\ncausing them to break down and release the CO2 as \\na concentrated gas. To close the second loop in CE’s \\nprocess, the calcium oxide left from the calcination process \\nis mixed with water in the slaker to rehydrate it, and then \\nit is fed back into the pellet reactor, beginning the cycle \\nagain.\\nTo help minimize waste and consumables across CE’s \\nprocess, the DAC technology uses chemical reactions and \\nthis closed loop system to absorb CO2 from the air (see \\nbelow). \\nThere are a number of applications for atmospheric CO2 \\ncaptured through DAC, but CE is focused on delivering two \\ntypes of industrial solutions: \\n1.\\t\\nWhen paired with secure geologic storage, DAC can \\ndeliver the permanent and verifiable removal of CO2 \\nfrom the atmosphere. This provides a mechanism \\nto help difficult-to-decarbonize sectors, like aviation, \\naddress their emissions faster and at a lower cost \\nthan many existing mitigation solutions. In the future, \\nin a post net-zero world, these same facilities could \\nbe used to address legacy emissions, creating an \\nopportunity for climate restoration. \\n2.\\t AIR TO FUELSTM solutions can enable captured \\natmospheric CO2 to be combined with hydrogen \\nto produce low carbon intensity fuel that is drop-in \\ncompatible with existing vehicles and infrastructure. \\nDEPLOYMENT APPROACH\\nTo enable rapid and widespread deployment of DAC \\nsolutions, CE licenses its technology to development \\npartners around the globe so multiple plants can be \\nbuilt in parallel. Alongside regional partners, CE and our \\nglobal deployment partner 1PointFive – a subsidiary of \\nOccidental’s Low Carbon Ventures - bring a standardized \\n‘design one, build many’ approach to deployment. \\nThis approach combines the partners’ DAC technology, \\nlarge-scale \\ncarbon \\ndioxide \\nmanagement, \\nproject \\nexperience and extensive storage infrastructure. CE will \\nprovide the DAC technology and market support, while \\n1PointFive builds and deploys the DAC plants, leveraging \\nOccidental’s strong project engineering and delivery \\nexpertise. This helps support the rapid build-out of large-\\nscale facilities, as we work to duplicate near identical plants \\nadjusted for location specific considerations. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nKey features of CE’s DAC technology: \\n•\\t\\nScalable – Industrial facilities that use CE’s DAC technology can be built in one or more trains, each capable of \\ncapturing a megatonne of CO2 annually using known equipment with industrial precedent. \\n•\\t\\nStandardized design - Alongside partners, we bring a standardized ‘design one, build many’ approach to deployment, \\nworking to duplicate near identical plants adjusted for location specific considerations. This helps support the rapid \\nbuild-out of large-scale facilities.\\n•\\t\\nIndustrial precedent - At CE, we’ve built our DAC technology around industrial precedent by utilizing known equipment \\nand suppliers, and then innovating, adapting and integrating them to create our DAC system. This means our system \\ncan be built at industrial scales largely with existing supply chains. \\n•\\t\\nClosed chemical cycle - Our DAC technology captures CO2 from the air in a closed “chemical loop” that re-uses the \\nsame capture chemicals with minimal waste.\\nDIRECT AIR CAPTURE \\nDirect Air Capture (DAC) is a technology that captures \\ncarbon dioxide (CO2) directly from the atmosphere with \\nan engineered system. This is similar to how trees absorb \\nCO2 for photosynthesis, except DAC does it much faster, \\nwith a much smaller land footprint, and delivers the \\nCO2 in a concentrated, compressed form. The captured \\natmospheric CO2 can then be permanently and safely \\nstored in geologic reservoirs to deliver negative emissions, \\nor used to produce low carbon intensity products, such as \\ndiesel and aviation fuel that work in existing aircraft and \\ninfrastructure. \\nFor more than a decade, Carbon Engineering (CE) has \\npioneered a liquid sorbent-based DAC system, optimized \\nfor scale. Today, CE is working with partners to deploy \\nlarge-scale commercial facilities globally. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@carbonengineering.com \\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.carbonengineering.com \\nCARBON ENGINEERING LTD. \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n42\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCARBON ENGINEERING’S INNOVATION CENTRE\\nBuilt in 2021, CE’s Innovation Centre in Squamish, B.C. \\nprovides an environment where our engineers and \\ntechnicians conduct ongoing technology development, \\ntesting, and analysis. This center enables CE to continue \\noptimizing our DAC solution to drive down the cost of \\ncapture per tonne.\\nThe facility contains all the major components of large-\\nscale, commercial DAC facilities so engineers can test \\nand validate technology enhancements in an integrated \\nsystem. It includes an air contactor, pellet reactor, calciner, \\nand slaker, alongside an extensive laboratory facility. The \\nnext generation technologies developed here in Squamish \\nwill then be introduced to commercial facilities worldwide \\nto help drive down emissions and achieve net zero targets.\\nCOMMERCIAL FACILITIES UNDERWAY\\nThe first commercial facility to use CE’s DAC technology – \\nbeing developed by 1PointFive – is under construction in \\nthe United States. This first-of-its-kind facility is expected to \\nbe capable of extracting 500,000 tonnes of atmospheric \\nCO2 annually once complete. \\nLast year, CE announced front-end planning and \\nengineering had begun for DAC facilities at a second site \\nin the U.S., in Kleberg County, Texas. Using the design \\none, build many approach, the site is expected to provide \\naccess for the potential construction of multiple DAC \\nfacilities that would be capable of collectively removing up \\nto 30 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere \\nannually for dedicated sequestration.\\nThis work provides a blueprint for global projects, \\nsupporting the design of additional facilities already \\nprogressing in multiple markets around the world. Please \\ncontact CE if you are interested in licensing our technology \\nto build new, clean-infrastructure projects in your \\njurisdiction.\\nCarbon Engineering’s Innovation Centre and Research & Development Headquarters located in Squamish, Canada.\\nArtist rendering of the design of the first large-scale plant to use CE’s technology.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n44\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nNEXT-GENERATION INNOVATION\\nAn innovative UK cleantech company, we’ve been at the \\nforefront of developing carbon capture technology for over \\na decade. Our foundations are rooted in innovation, bright \\nideas, ingenuity, and dedicated people. \\nWe were founded in 2009 as a spin-out company from \\nthe University of Leeds when our Founder, Professor Chris \\nRayner, and his research team were working with CO2 to \\nfind new solutions to the carbon capture problem, building \\non his 20 years’ experience in the field. Their progressive \\nwork attracted investment and C-Capture was born.\\nOur proprietary, next generation technology is based \\non fundamentally different chemistry that is amine free. \\nC-Capture’s patented solvent-based technology captures \\ncarbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial emissions to help \\ncombat climate change.  It has distinct chemical properties \\nwhich mean it uses significantly less energy, has lower \\ncosts and environmental risks, and has a wider range \\nof industrial applications than traditional carbon capture \\ntechnologies.  \\nThe low cost of capture using C-Capture’s technology is \\nderived from the reduced energy demand of our process. \\nC-Capture’s solvent components are all highly thermally \\nstable, meaning that higher desorber temperatures can be \\nachieved, creating far greater CO2 pressures on its release, \\nand reducing the compression energy to prepare CO2 \\nproduct for transport and storage.\\nThe robust nature of C-Capture’s solvent makes it highly \\nresistant to oxidation and aging, making it suitable for \\nindustrial applications that traditional amine-based solvents \\ncannot address (without significant additional capital \\ninvestment, complexity, and risk), such as steel, cement, \\nwaste-to-energy, and refinery catalytic cracker off-gases. \\nThis resistance also leads to longer solvent life, further \\nreducing costs.\\nThe advantages of C-Capture’s patented technology \\nmean it has the potential to break through the barriers \\nthat are currently preventing the widespread adoption of \\ncarbon capture technology which in turn make a globally \\nsignificant contribution to mitigate the impacts of climate \\nchange.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nOur proprietary technology uses less energy and is lower cost than other commercially available technologies. It is \\nenvironmentally benign and extremely robust.\\n•\\t\\nA novel approach that is amine free, our solvent is inherently biodegradable, non-hazardous, and environmentally \\nbenign.\\n•\\t\\nOur process releases CO2 more readily than amine-based systems, resulting in a significantly lower parasitic energy \\ndemand. \\nNEXT GENERATION CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY\\nC-Capture’s proprietary next generation carbon capture \\ntechnology is a true innovation in the sector, and a potential \\ngamechanger for industries looking to decarbonize their \\nprocesses.\\nOur \\npatented \\nsolvent-based \\ntechnology \\nselectively \\nremoves carbon dioxide (CO2) from a mixed gas stream. \\nOur mission is to deploy it on industrial emissions using a \\npost-combustion capture approach.\\nBased on fundamentally different chemistry to other \\ncommercially available solutions, C-Capture’s carbon \\ncapture technology is amine free and environmentally \\nbenign. It also uses less energy and is lower cost.\\nWell suited to the large-scale capture of carbon dioxide \\nand extremely robust, C-Capture’s carbon capture \\ntechnology can be deployed on most processes requiring \\nCO2 separation from other gases. It is robust enough to \\nwithstand even the very challenging flue gases emitted by \\ndifficult-to-decarbonize industries including cement, steel, \\nglass, energy from waste, hydrogen production facilities, \\nand power stations.\\nThe advantages of our solution creates the potential for \\nour solvent to break through the barriers that are currently \\npreventing the widespread adoption of carbon capture and \\nstorage (CCS) technology to mitigate the impacts of climate \\nchange.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@c-capture.co.uk\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.c-capture.co.uk\\nC-CAPTURE\\n•\\t\\nSignificantly reduced process energy requirements (~1.8 GJ/tonne CO2) due to low steam requirements and reduced \\ncosts of compression due to higher CO2 release pressure.\\n•\\t\\nSuitable for use in difficult-to-decarbonize industries with a proven high tolerance to flue gas impurities, including O2, \\nparticulates, and acid gases such as NOx and SOx.\\n•\\t\\nHigh tolerance to impurities reduces the need for feed-gas pre-cleaning.\\n•\\t\\nSignificantly less corrosive than amine-based equivalents, reducing operations and maintenance costs.\\n•\\t\\nReduced solvent management costs due to high thermal, chemical, and oxidative stability, and low volatility, which \\nminimizes solvent losses per tonne of CO2 captured.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n46\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nINTERNATIONAL AWARD-WINNING CARBON CAPTURE \\nTECHNOLOGY\\nC-Capture’s next generation carbon capture technology \\nwas awarded the trophy in the ‘Energy’ category of the \\n2022 IChemE Global Awards. \\nThe international honours are widely considered as the \\nworld’s most prestigious chemical engineering awards and \\na global celebration of excellence in the field. The Energy \\naward recognizes excellence in efficient energy use or the \\ndevelopment of energy production methods that reduce \\nenergy intensity. Our technology was also a finalist in the \\nSustainability category which recognizes excellence in \\nsourcing and consuming materials, reducing waste, and/or \\noptimising the product life cycles.\\nBECCS – A WORLD FIRST\\nC-Capture’s technology was deployed to pilot the first \\nbioenergy carbon capture storage (BECCS) project of its \\nkind in Europe, at Drax Power Station, in North Yorkshire, \\nUK.\\nThe plant successfully proved that our proprietary solvent \\ncan isolate CO2 from the flue gases that are released when \\nbiomass is used to generate electricity. A major milestone \\nin carbon capture, this pilot was the first time in the world \\nthat CO2 had been captured from the combustion of a \\n100% biomass feedstock, and a major milestone on the \\nroad to achieving negative emissions through BECCS, \\nwhich is an important part of the raft of solutions required \\nto combat climate change.\\nDEMONSTRATING OUR TECHNOLOGY\\nC-Capture’s technology is already at Technology Readiness \\nLevel (TRL) of 7 and expected to reach 8 by the end of \\n2023.\\nOur work continues at the UK’s largest biomass power \\nstation \\nto \\ncontinue \\nour \\ncommercialization \\njourney. \\nC-Capture’s fully integrated pilot plant at Drax Power \\nStation was successfully commissioned at the end of 2022 \\nand builds on the experience gained from our previous \\nprototyping and pilots. \\nThe plant incorporates every unit operation and control \\nmechanism that will be present in a full commercial unit. It \\nhas been designed to capture between 1 and 5 tonnes of \\nCO2 a day. \\nCurrently operating on synthetic flue gas (air/CO2) each \\nelement of the process is being explored and tested in a \\nhighly controlled environment. This enables us to map \\nout a clearly defined operating envelope and provide the \\nhighest-quality data to customers on how our technology \\nwill work within their industry. These data also provide proof \\nof our key capture performance metrics, so we can deliver \\ntechnoeconomic evaluations of our technology for specific \\nindustry applications and projects.\\nWhen this scope testing is completed, the unit will be \\nmoved to Drax’s CCUS Innovation Area and operated on \\nbiomass-derived flue gas.\\nBy the end 2023 C-Capture will have one year of operation \\non the pilot unit at Drax along with extensive real-world flue \\ngas trials across key hard-to-abate industries. On the back \\nof this success, we are working to identify the location of \\nour first commercial demonstration unit which will showcase \\nour unique technology at an industrially relevant scale (50-\\n200 tonnes CO2 capture per day). \\nPROOF OF THE ROBUSTNESS OF OUR TECHNOLOGY\\nAlongside the current pilot unit at Drax, C-Capture is \\nbuilding and installing smaller test units – Carbon Capture \\nSolvent Compatibility Units (CCSCUs) – across several \\nhard-to-abate industries. The objective for these is to \\ndemonstrate the robustness of our technology within \\nspecific applications and provide proof of the exceptionally \\nlong lifetime of our solvent.\\nA fully automated and containerized, small scale carbon \\ncapture plant that runs on real flue gas, each CCSCU \\nreplicates the temperatures, pressures, and solvent \\ncomposition changes that would be found in full-scale \\ncapture cycle. By replicating the real-world process \\nconditions, but in a low resource intensity manner, we can \\nrapidly gather high quality data to quantify online solvent \\nloss and degradation rates within specific applications. \\nSince September 2022, the first of our CCSCUs has been \\ncarrying out a lifetime test on the biomass-derived flue gas \\nfrom Drax’s boilers. The results to date, combined with \\ndata previously gathered from laboratory testing, indicate \\nthat C-Capture’s innovative solvent technology is highly \\ncompatible with biomass flue gas. \\nACCELERATING \\nTHE \\nDEPLOYMENT \\nOF \\nCARBON \\nCAPTURE TECHNOLOGY \\nWe will demonstrate the compatibility of our technology \\nwithin several hard-to-abate industries as part of our \\npioneering XLR8 CCS project.\\nDuring 2023, C-Capture will deploy three more CCSCUs \\nto trial and assess the compatibility of our solvent with real-\\nworld flue gas across the cement, glass and energy from \\nwaste sectors.\\nThis multi-industry, multi-million-pound project, XLR8 CCS \\n– Accelerating the Deployment of a Low-Cost Carbon \\nCapture Solution for Hard-to-Abate Industries, is supported \\nby £1.7m in funding from the UK Government’s Net Zero \\nInnovation Portfolio (NZIP). The funding is part of the \\n£20 million Carbon Capture, Usage and Storage (CCUS) \\nInnovation 2.0 programme which is aimed at accelerating \\nthe deployment of next-generation CCUS technology in the \\nUK. \\nC-Capture’s XLR8 CCS project will demonstrate that a \\nlow-cost carbon capture solution is a reality for difficult-to-\\ndecarbonize industries in the race to net zero. A critical step \\nin the fight against climate change to de-risk future CCS \\nprojects and investments at commercial scale and deliver \\nthe cost reductions required to decarbonize all industry \\nsectors.\\nThe project will prove that C-Capture’s next generation \\ncarbon capture solvent is compatible with a wide variety \\nof harsh, real-world industrial emissions, which are major \\ncontributors to global carbon levels.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n48\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCAPSOLEOP® - SAFE, ENERGY EFFICIENT AND COST \\nCOMPETITIVE END-OF-PIPE CO2 CAPTURE\\nA simplified overview of the CapsolEoP® process is \\npresented in Figure 1. The CO2 rich flue gas is compressed \\nto around 5-8 bar (to achieve a partial CO2 pressure of 0.7 \\nbar) before it enters the bottom of the absorber, where the \\npressurized flue gas reacts with the downwards flowing \\nHPC solvent. The CO2 lean flue gas leaves the absorber \\ncolumn at the top. The CO2 rich solvent leaves the \\nabsorber at the bottom, is depressurized, and led to the \\ntop of the desorber, where the partial CO2 pressure is low, \\nforcing the solvent to release its high CO2 content to the \\nsteam flow. The pure CO2 leaves the top of the desorber, \\nfrom where it can be liquified and further processed. The \\nlean solvent is led back to the top section of the absorber, \\nand the cycle continues.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nCost competitive: The patented energy recirculation enables lowest carbon capture costs and flexibility to monetize \\nheat and/or electricity from the capture unit.\\n•\\t\\nSafe solvent, free of harmful emissions: The use of Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-\\ncarcinogenic and environmentally friendly.\\n•\\t\\nLow solvent degradation minimizes cost of solvent makeup.\\n•\\t\\nFlexible and scalable: A single CapsolEoP® unit can process flue gas from plants with emissions of up to maximum 2.5 \\nmillion tonnes of CO2 per year (with flue gas CO2 concentration of 20%). \\nCAPSOLEOP® AND CAPSOLGT®\\nCapsol Technologies has developed and offers safe, \\nenvironmentally friendly, energy-efficient and affordable \\ncarbon capture technologies for large scale emitters \\nlike Energy-from-Waste (EfW), biomass plants, cement \\nproducers, gas power stations, and other CO2 emitting \\nindustrial facilities utilising the safe and proven Hot \\nPotassium Carbonate (HPC) solvent.\\nHPC as an absorption solvent for CO2 is well-documented \\nand used in thousands of plants globally in multiple \\nindustries. However, until recently, the use of HPC for post-\\ncombustion capture of CO2 from flue gases was discarded \\nas a viable option due to the high energy demand (and \\nhence cost) required to pressurize the flue gas. To solve \\nthis, Capsol Technologies has developed the CapsolEoP® \\n(end-of-pipe) technology – a standalone, retrofit unit, with \\na patented energy recirculation process, which offers \\nlow capture cost and the flexibility to monetize heat and \\nelectricity in the capture process. \\nBuilding \\non \\nthe \\nCapsolEoP® \\ntechnology, \\nCapsol \\nTechnologies has recently developed an optimized carbon \\ncapture process for gas turbines - CapsolGT® - which \\ngenerate additional electricity while capturing 95%+ of the \\nCO2 from the exhaust gases of open cycle gas turbines, \\nintroducing carbon capture as a revenue source.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t tone.bekkestad@capsoltechnologies.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.capsoltechnologies.com\\nCAPSOL TECHNOLOGIES\\n•\\t\\nTwo or more units will operate in parallel for facilities with emissions of more than 2.5 Mtpa CO2\\n•\\t\\nCapsolGT® is optimized for 4-100 MWe turbines\\n•\\t\\nMinimal plant impact: The system can be run on electricity only. There is no external steam required. No modification \\nof the host plant is needed\\n•\\t\\nExperienced team: Technical and commercial experts from the Energy, Chemical and Oil & Gas industry, with 25+ \\nyears’ experience\\nFigure 1\\nFigure 2\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n50\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCapsolEoP® can be run on electricity only or use excess \\nsteam from the host plant, if available. Thus, a costly \\ninvestment in external steam production, or reconstruction \\nand balance of the host plant, is not required. \\nCapsolEoP® offers great flexibility – optimizing either for \\nminimum electricity consumption, or for maximum internal \\nheat generation, for example for district heating.\\nThe CapsolEoP® heat recirculation can efficiently produce \\n1.3 bar steam from water at 75° to 90 °C by heat pumping. In \\naddition, process waste heat (at temperatures above 75 °C) \\nfrom the host plant may be used in the CapsolEoP® process \\nto decrease the energy demand of the overall system \\n(when optimized for minimum electricity consumption). \\nAlternatively, the capture plant can be optimized to add \\nvaluable energy in the form of heat to a district heating \\nnetwork, with a minimal increase in electricity consumption. \\nThe CapsolEoP® solution can also commercially make \\nuse of the energy from the CO2 compressor intercoolers \\n(in the liquefaction plant) by integration into the energy \\nrecirculation. In addition, depending on the temperature, \\nthe energy in the flue gas entering the CapsolEoP® unit \\ncan also be used in the heat recirculation process. Whether \\nto optimize for lowest electricity consumption or maximum \\nheat into the district heating system is reviewed for each \\nspecific plant based on close dialogue with the plant \\nowner.\\nCAPSOLGT® - INTEGRATED CARBON CAPTURE FOR \\nGAS TURBINES\\nCapsolGT® - Capsol Technologies’ carbon capture solution \\nfor open cycle gas turbines, capturing 95%+ of the carbon \\ndioxide while enabling additional electricity generation, is \\na solution optimized for 4-100 MWe gas turbines that do \\nnot require turbine modifications, in addition to introducing \\ncarbon capture as a revenue source.\\nHighly efficient gas turbines provide low CO2 concentrated, \\nhot flue gas streams with temperatures typically around \\n500-600 °C. Before entering the core of the capture cycle, \\nthe flue gas heat is recovered, utilising the pressurized \\nclean gas absorber stream, to generate an overall surplus \\nof electricity. In comparison with a typical combined cycle \\ngas turbine plant (CCGT) with end-of-pipe carbon capture, \\nCapsolGT® provides a low cost, less complex and high \\ncapture rate alternative. The overall cooling demand is also \\nlower, and the plant is able to provide valuable heat 30 – \\n105 °C, if required.\\nThe solution can be applied to a variety of applications, \\nsuch as gas engines, diesel generators and other industrial \\nfacilities where hot waste heat streams could be utilized.\\nThe steam required for the process is exclusively \\ngenerated within the capture system, by the means of \\nelectricity. CapsolGT® avoids the costly investment into a \\nseparate steam boiler and additional end-of-pipe carbon \\ncapture system. With less equipment, lower external \\ncooling requirements and water neutrality, CapsolGT® \\nachieves higher overall plant efficiencies. CapsolGT® can \\noperate without additional supply of water, in fact, there is \\nthe possibility to accumulate significant amount of water \\nand waste heats, which can be utilized, for example for \\nexternal steam production or water supply. \\nCAPSOLGO® – EFFECTIVE DEMONSTRATION \\nCAMPAIGN TO ACCELERATE YOUR CARBON CAPTURE \\nPROJECT \\nCapsolGo® is the answer to the many challenges of \\nindustrial emitters, who consider investing into a full-scale \\ncarbon capture plant. CapsolGo® is a small-scale carbon \\ncapture demonstration unit for industrial facilities such as \\nEnergy-from-Waste and biomass power plants, as well \\nas cement factories. CapsolGo® consists of two, easily \\ndeployable shipping containers, stacked on top of each \\nother to minimize footprint, which are easy to install. The \\nonly infrastructure required is electricity, compressed \\nair, demineralized water, and of course, the flue gas. The \\ncaptured CO2 can be fed back to the flue gas stack, or it \\ncan be liquefied to demonstrate utilization options. \\nCapsolGo® is provided with an all-inclusive package: \\ntransport, \\ninstallation, \\ndeinstallation, \\noperation, \\nand \\nreporting by an independent party. CapsolGo® offers many \\nadvantages for industrial emitters, including:\\n1.\\t\\nThe opportunity to experience Capsol Technologies’ \\nenergy-efficient technology to verify the effectiveness \\nof our carbon capture technology before investing in a \\nfull-scale plant\\n2.\\t Experience the safe and environmentally friendly \\ncarbon capture solvent potassium carbonate (HPC). \\nAn increasing number of industrial facilities have heard \\nabout potassium carbonate and understand the many \\nadvantages of it, like lower capture and material costs, \\nin addition to being widely available and no risk of \\nharmful emissions. CapsolGo® provides a powerful tool \\nto demonstrate safe carbon capture to stakeholders\\n3.\\t During a CapsolGo® campaign, the plant’s specific \\nflue gas and operation is tested to define an optimal \\nsolvent blend for the full-scale carbon capture plant.\\n4.\\t Operation and maintenance teams can get familiar \\nwith Capsol’s technology and prepare for the full-\\nscale operation. The public, such as residents, can \\nexperience the environmentally friendly carbon \\ncapture solution live, in person.\\nWith an independent test report, plant owners will be able \\nto accelerate their decision processes towards the full-\\nscale plant and enhance the quality of their soft funding \\napplications.\\nWith a capture capacity of several hundred tonnes of CO2 \\nper year, CapsolGo® enables maximum insights about the \\ntechnology, while at the same time making it affordable.\\nCapsolGo® unit 1 at Filbornaverket, Helsingborg, Sweden.\\nCapsolGo® unit 2 at German EfW (Energy-from-Waste) plant.\\nFigure 3\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n52\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nHyCaps is a hybrid technology that combines mature solvent technology with membrane technology to overcome inherent \\nlimitations while retaining or enhancing their advantages – as shown in Figure 1. \\nFigure 1 - Combining two technologies efficiently in HyCaps.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nHyCaps is a hybrid technology that takes advantage of both the highly selective nature of solvent absorption technology \\nand the controlled flow regime of membrane technology. HyCaps provides the following benefits over conventional \\nsolvent absorption technology.\\n•\\t\\nHyCaps modules provide very high surface area to volume ratios. Consequently, the equipment size for carbon \\ncapture is significantly reduced compared to conventional solvent absorption columns.\\n•\\t\\nThe separation of the solvent and flue gas streams by the membrane, eliminates solvent foaming, flooding and \\nreduces liquid channeling, the major operating issues in solvent absorption in packed columns. Also, there is no need \\nfor solvent redistribution. \\n•\\t\\nThe HyCaps modules can be oriented in any direction without impacting the performance. Lower footprint, flexibility in \\norientation and its modular design enables HyCaps’ capture process to be easily accommodated into limited spaces, \\nmaking the technology ideally suited for retrofit applications as well as incorporation into new build designs. \\n•\\t\\nSolvent regeneration does not require reboiling/phase change, significantly reducing the solvent regeneration energy \\nas compared to the conventional absorption technology.\\n•\\t\\nUltimately, HyCaps is a very cost competitive technology with potential to reduce CO2 emissions in hard-to-abate \\nsector, oil & gas, onshore and offshore oil and gas platforms, ship-based processes, biogas upgradation and many \\nmore. \\nHYCAPS- HYBRID CAPTURE SOLUTION\\nOperating since 2003, CO2CRC is a world leader in carbon \\ncapture, utilization and storage (CCUS) research. CO2CRC \\nworks with national and international discipline leaders, \\nmanages interdisciplinary and inter-institutional research \\nprojects, has well-established, decade-long relationships, \\nstrong international brand recognition, and an outstanding \\nhealth and safety record. CO2CRC develops and trials next \\ngeneration low-emission technologies in commercially \\nrelevant, first-of-a-kind demonstrations.\\nCO2CRC Ltd. in collaboration with its research partners in \\nAustralia has developed a hybrid CO2 capture technology, \\nHyCaps. HyCaps combines solvent absorption and \\nmembrane separation in a single process, which exploits \\nthe advantages of both technologies to achieve efficient \\ncarbon capture. The HyCaps process has proven its ability \\nto be highly efficient at carbon capture with reduced \\nenergy requirements. HyCaps is modular, scalable and its \\nfootprint is substantially lower than the conventional amine \\nsolvent process for CO2 absorption, making it suitable \\nfor retrofitting existing plants thereby promoting faster \\nimplementation of carbon capture utilisation and storage \\n(CCUS).\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t Jaikant.pandit@CO2crc.com.au \\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.CO2crc.com.au\\nCO2CRC LTD.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n54\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCOST EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGY\\nInitial technoeconomic analysis done for the CO2 \\ncapture with 18% CO2 in the flue gas   indicates the cost \\neffectiveness of HyCaps technology. HyCaps modules \\nhas 5000-6000 m2 surface area per m3 of the volume \\nas compared to 500-800 m2/m3 for the conventional \\npacked columns. As a result, HyCaps modules have a \\nreduced equipment footprint by 70%. Significant reduction \\nin equipment size is also a factor in reduced CAPEX for \\nHyCaps. The avoidance of solvent boiling and lower \\noperating temperature results in a low energy demand for \\nregeneration, and the low quality heat/waste heat from the \\nplant can be utilized within the system, making the whole \\nregeneration a low OPEX process. When compared to \\nconventional solvent process the operating cost of HyCaps \\nis about 60% lower as shown in Figure 3. \\nThe development of the hybrid HyCaps represents a new \\napproach in carbon capture that has clear advantages in \\nterms of energy requirement and footprint, compared \\nto conventional technology. Critically, the technology, \\nproven at three different industrial pilot plants in Australia, \\nhas demonstrated the deployment readiness of HyCaps \\nto address carbon emissions from industrial sources \\nincluding the hard-to-abate sector. HyCaps is a modular, \\ncompact, and scalable technology that can be applied to \\npost combustion as well as pre combustion CO2 capture \\nprocesses. Due to its compact design, flexible orientation \\nand ease of installation, it is suitable to be retrofitted to any \\nindustry with limited space but not limited to hard-to-abate \\nsector, mobile process platforms like FPSO, and ship-based \\nprocesses.\\nTECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT\\nCO2CRC Ltd and its research partners have successfully \\ndemonstrated the potential of HyCaps technology for \\nboth post-combustion and pre-combustion carbon capture \\nscenarios. This novel technology represents over a decade \\nof laboratory research and three pilot plant industrial \\ntrials: The 30 wt% monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent was \\nchosen for pilot testing because of its well characterized \\nperformance and the industry standard for CO2 solvent \\nabsorption. Hence, the performance of the HyCaps pilot \\nplant could be directly correlated with conventional solvent \\nabsorption processes, with improvements in carbon \\ncapture efficiency and energy penalty directly correlated \\nto the HyCaps technology. In this process, the solvent \\nregeneration operating temperature ranged between 90 \\nto 102 °C, well below the solvent vaporization temperature \\nof 105 °C. Hence, the pilot plant proved that carbon capture \\nand solvent regeneration could occur without a bulk \\nsolvent phase change. \\nTo ensure rapid scale-up of HyCaps technology, the \\nmembrane based HyCaps modules chosen were based \\non commercially available membranes, which were \\noriginally developed for other gas separation applications. \\nTherefore, the technology can be rapidly adopted by \\nindustry and expanded without the need for membrane \\nmaterial development or the construction of sophisticated \\nmembrane fabrication facilities.\\nIt is also important to note that ongoing developments on \\neither the solvent or membrane systems can be transferred \\nseamlessly to the HyCaps module – a further benefit of the \\nsystem that will ensure its future relevance to the industry. \\nNEXT STEPS\\nWith three successful pilot demonstrations in different industrial environments, HyCaps has achieved a technology \\nreadiness level (TRL) 6. HyCaps is a cost competitive CO2 capture technology and is ready for scale up and large-scale \\ndemonstration. As a next step, CO2CRC is working on a scaled up design for the equipment and is looking for potential \\nfunding and collaboration opportunities to test and showcase HyCaps technology in different industrial applications and \\nenvironmental conditions.\\nFigure 3- Cost effectiveness of HyCaps compared to conventional solvent process for CO2 capture from flue gas having 18% CO2.\\nFigure 2 is a typical flow sheet of the HyCaps process. The \\nflowsheet is similar to that of conventional solvent CO2 \\ncapture systems but with the HyCaps module replacing the \\nconventional packed columns for absorption and solvent \\nregeneration. The process involves the transfer of CO2 from \\nthe gas mix through a hollow-fiber membrane, where it is \\nchemically absorbed into a solvent. In solvent regeneration \\nwith HyCaps, the physical separation of the solvent and \\ngas phases by the membrane enables carbon dioxide to \\nbe drawn from the enriched solvent phase into the gas \\nphase. This enables solvent regeneration to be achieved \\nat temperatures lower than conventional packed columns \\nand the solvent regeneration can be achieved without \\nvaporisation of the solvent. By avoiding vaporisation of the \\nsolvent, the HyCaps process reduces the energy demand \\nof the solvent regeneration significantly. \\nFigure 2 - HyCaps process undertaking carbon capture and solvent regeneration.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n56\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nSimplicity: LCDesign® process configuration is simplified compared to both the traditional amine system and advanced \\ntechnologies.\\n•\\t\\nScalability: LCDesign® can be scaled from 1 to 7,000 tpd or more. \\n•\\t\\nAffordability: LCDesign® is truly the most affordable carbon capture system in the market with the lowest CAPEX & \\nOPEX.\\n•\\t\\nIntegrability: LCdesign® can be fitted with a new or existing Pre-/Post- Combustion process. \\n•\\t\\nSuitability: LCDesign® can capture CO2 from any gas stream at wide CO2 content (from 2.5 to 70 volume %)\\n•\\t\\nPerformability: LCDesign® can be designed to capture CO2 at any recovery ratio (up to 99%) lower energy compared \\nto conventional solvent-based techniques. \\n•\\t\\nSolvent Availability: DeltaSolv® solvents are commercially available with no royalty fees.  \\n•\\t\\nEmission Reduction: LCDesign® reduces emissions to atmosphere to the minimum with DeltaWash™ technology. \\n•\\t\\nOperation Philosophy: LCDesign® requires a minimum operation attention and can be designed to be automated (no \\nneed for site staff 24/7) \\n•\\t\\nOperation flexibility: LCDesign® can be operated in a wide range of gas and liquid loads (30 to 120% design load) \\n•\\t\\nTeam Expertise: Delta Team are professionally trained and skilled carbon capture designers with experience in \\nConstruction, Commissioning, Operating and Troubleshooting Plant Operations.\\n•\\t\\nProject Execution: DELTA can work alongside the EPC Firms of your choice.\\n•\\t\\nMaturity: LCDesign® Technology Readiness Level (TRL) is 9 and it is Build Ready!\\nLCDESIGN®, DELTA RECLAIMER®, DELTSOLV® \\nDELTA CleanTech is globally recognized as a leading \\nprovider of technology for Pre- / Post- Combustion Carbon \\nCapture from industrial sources, enabling significant \\nand economical reduction of greenhouse gas emissions \\nsince 2004. DELTA’s goal is to deliver practical solutions \\nto reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help solve the \\nchallenges of energy security.\\nThrough its commercial relationships, DELTA implements \\nthe Best Commercial Technologies (BCT) in carbon capture \\nand utilization with leading EPC’s and Fabricators around \\nthe world. \\nDelta has developed its own proprietary technologies as \\nfollows;  \\n•\\t\\nLow-Cost Design Carbon Capture System, LCDesign®\\n•\\t\\nSolvent Purification & Recycling System, Delta \\nReclaimer®\\nThe collective experiences from over 100 Carbon Capture \\nProjects worldwide provides Delta a distinct advantage. \\nDelta has successfully designed carbon capture plants with \\ncapacity from 1 to 7,000 metric tonne of CO2 per day (tpd). \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t jallison@deltacleantech.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.deltacleantech.com\\nDELTA CLEANTECH\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n58\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nBELCO® WET SCRUBBING\\nBELCO® scrubbing is the leading technology used in \\noil refineries for cleaning flue gas from FCCUs that are \\ntypically operated uninterrupted for 5–7 year periods. \\nParticulate Matter (PM) (including mist and aerosols), SOx \\nand NOx are controlled in a single up-flow tower with a \\nstaged cleaning approach that supports optimizing system \\nconfigurations to meet specific application needs, while \\nminimizing flue gas pressure drop and system costs. \\nCommon acid gas buffering reagents (NaOH, NaCO3 and \\nMg(OH)2) are typically used for FCCU and other oil refinery \\napplications (fluid cokers, power boilers and fired heaters). \\nThe use of other reagents is also supported.\\nWith BELCO® scrubbing, hot-dirty flue gas is quenched/ \\nsaturated flowing into a horizontal inlet in the lower portion \\nof an up-flow tower. When NOx control is required, gas \\nthat is rich in ozone is injected into oxidized NOx for easily \\nscrubbed HNO3. Acid gases and coarser PM are removed \\nwith buffered water sprays as gas flows up through \\nthe vertical tower. Finer PM is removed with a unique \\nparticulate growth and buffered water spray filtration stage. \\nLiquid droplets are removed in a final stage at the top of \\nthe tower.\\nSUMMARY\\nHIGHLIGHTS\\n•\\t\\nProven scrubbing performance for severe service hot dirty flue gas applications\\n•\\t\\n500+ scrubbing installations with unique BELCO® and DynaWave® technologies\\n•\\t\\nRefinery FCCUs, boilers, heaters, fluid cokers and SRUs installations\\n•\\t\\nSulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, cement kilns, power plants, and incinerator installations\\n•\\t\\nCapable of meeting extremely low particulate matter, SOx and NOx concentrations \\n•\\t\\nRobust non-plugging scrubbing designs using open towers\\n•\\t\\nCompact plot space requirements \\n•\\t\\nMinimal energy and water usage\\n•\\t\\nBrink® brownian diffusion mist eliminators for clean flue gas applications and amine emissions reduction\\nELESSENT FLUE GAS PRE-CLEANING FOR CARBON CAPTURE UNITS (CCUS)\\nElessent Clean Technologies (Elessent) provides wet gas \\ncleaning systems for pre-cleaning and cooling hot dirty \\nflue gas streams ahead of carbon capture units (CCUs) for \\nCO2 reduction. Elessent’s BELCO® scrubbing technology \\nis in widespread use on refinery fluid catalytic cracking \\nunits (FCCUs), fluid cokers, boilers, and process heaters. \\nOur DynaWave® scrubbing technology is in use on many \\napplications that include refinery sulfur recovery units \\n(SRUs), sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, cement \\nkilns, power plants, incinerators and other applications \\nrequiring robust flue gas cleaning. Originally developed \\nand used to minimize flue gas atmospheric emissions, our \\nwet scrubbing technologies can meet the extremely low \\nflue gas contaminant concentrations specified by CCU \\nsuppliers for particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxides (SOx), \\nnitrogen oxides (NOx) and aerosols. Flue gas cooling to \\nmeet low moisture (H2O) content and low temperature \\nrequirements for some CCU technologies can also be \\nprovided. Where additional control of acid mists, aerosols \\nand/or fine particulate is required, for more meeting more \\nstringent cleaning requirements, Elessent can incorporate \\nthe use of wet electrostatic precipitators (WESPs) for dirty \\nflue gases or Brink® brownian diffusion fiber bed mist \\neliminators. Elessent’s Brink® mist eliminators are also well \\nsuited for controlling amine mist downstream of amine-\\nbased CO2 absorption units.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t ernie.levinski@elessentctcom\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.elessentct.com\\nELESSENT CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n60\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDYNAWAVE® WET SCRUBBING\\nDynaWave® scrubbing is widely used for gas cleaning on \\nrefinery SRUs, sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, \\ncement kilns, power plants, and incinerators. Cleaning \\nis provided using a unique reverse-jet technology within \\na single vessel. Systems are customized for specific \\napplication requirements for removal of PM, acid gases \\n(SOx, HCl, HBr, H2S, HCN, Br2, Cl2, I2, F2), NH3 and/or \\nNOx. The technology supports the use of a wide variety \\nof common acid gas buffering reagents, as well as \\nspecialized reagents that include caustic, soda ash, lime, \\nlimestone, zinc oxide, magnesium hydroxide, ammonia, \\nand hydrogen peroxide. Other reagents can be used in \\nspecial applications like Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) in cement \\nplants and Black Powder in zinc plants.\\nHot dirty gas flows down into the inlet barrel while buffered \\nliquid is sprayed upward into the barrel. Liquid collides with \\nthe down-flowing gas to create the “froth zone”, a region of \\nextreme turbulence with a high rate of mass transfer. Clean, \\nwater-saturated gas continues through the scrubber vessel \\nto mist removal devices. The liquid reverses direction and \\nreturns to the vessel sump for recycling back to the reverse \\njet nozzle.\\nBRINK® FIBER BED MIST ELIMINATORS\\nUsed in 5000+ facilities around the world, Brink® mist \\neliminators provide effective elimination of fine aerosol \\nmists, submicron oil smoke and soluble solids from a wide \\nrange of gas streams. Originally developed for use in \\nphosphoric acid plants, custom engineered systems are \\nused for a broad range of industries including everything \\nfrom sulfuric acid to asphalt manufacturing, plastic \\nextrusion, metalworking and many more. For CCUs, Brink® \\nmist eliminators may be used as part of our BELCO® and \\nDynaWave® wet scrubbing systems, or as a separate \\nsystem ahead of or after a CCU. \\nUsing Brownian diffusion principles, Brink® mist eliminators \\nconsist of thick layers of very fine fibers placed between \\ntwo concentric cylindrical screens or cages. Fiber beds \\nare placed within a collection vessel to allow for gas to be \\nconveyed through the devices. Mist and aerosols collect \\non the fiber bed and coalesce to form liquid films that drain \\ndown through and out of the filter by gravity. These devices \\noffer exceptional collection efficiency for meeting stringent \\nemission guarantees, and in cases where insoluble \\nparticulate content in the gas is low, they can achieve many \\nyears of trouble-free operation.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n62\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nA key advantage of fuel cell power generation over \\ncombustion heat engine systems is that fuel is converted \\nto power more directly through an electrochemical non-\\ncombustion reaction. This direct conversion is more \\nefficient and avoids the production of pollutants such as \\nNOX and particulates associated with combustion based \\npower generation. Fuel cells are electrochemical devices \\ncomprised of negative and positive electrodes that can \\nbe connected in a variety of series or parallel electrical \\nconfigurations to get the desired system voltage. The \\nnegative electrodes produce electrons, and the positive \\nelectrodes consume electrons, producing the electrical \\ncurrent. Chemical reactions at the electrodes drive the \\nelectron production and consumption. An electrolyte \\nlayer between the electrodes supports ion transfer from \\npositive to negative electrodes to maintain charge balance \\nas electrons are produced and consumed. In fuel cells the \\nchemicals that drive the power reaction are continuously \\nfed into the cells during power production. Typically, a \\nfuel flows through the negative electrodes (anodes) and \\nair flows through the positive electrodes (cathodes). The \\nfuel is often hydrogen, but in the case of carbonate fuel \\ncells methane (from natural gas or biogas) is used and \\nconverted to hydrogen inside the fuel cell.\\nIn carbonate fuel cells the electrochemical reactions are \\nsupported by an electrolyte layer in which carbonate ions \\nserve as the ion bridge that completes the electrical circuit. \\nDuring power generation the carbonate ion transfer results \\nin carbon dioxide being produced in the fuel electrodes \\nand consumed in the air electrodes. This carbon dioxide \\nflux is what is used for carbon capture. The cell and stack \\nstructure and electrochemical reactions are illustrated \\nbelow:\\nCarbonate stacks are made up of individual cell packages containing the fuel electrodes, air electrodes, and a porous \\nceramic matrix layer containing the carbonate ion electrolyte. The fuel electrodes in a carbonate stack also support the \\nreforming of methane to hydrogen, which is then consumed by the fuel cell reaction to make power. The reforming reaction \\nwill produce one molecule of carbon dioxide for each molecule of methane fuel. The fuel electrode reaction also produces \\nadditional carbon dioxide (four more molecules for each methane input), which is recycled back to the air electrodes, where \\nthe extra four molecules are consumed. The recycle system is part of the mechanical balance of plant of a carbonate fuel \\ncell powerplant. Extracting carbon dioxide from this recycle stream and replacing it with external carbon dioxide from a flue \\ngas is the key to the carbonate fuel cell carbon capture approach.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nCo-production of power during carbon capture, which provides an additional revenue stream to offset the cost of \\ncarbon capture.\\n•\\t\\nCo-production of clean water from the fuel cell reaction, which can be used to offset water requirements of the coal or \\ngas system that CO2 is being captured from.  \\n•\\t\\nNOX destruction. Reactions occurring on the carbonate electrode surfaces destroy NOX, so processing flue gas in \\na carbonate fuel cell system will destroy up to 70% of the NOX in the flue gas, reducing or eliminating capital and \\noperating costs for NOX destruction equipment.\\nFUEL CELL BASED CARBON CAPTURE SOLUTIONS\\nFuelCell Energy, Inc is a provider of power generation \\nand hydrogen solutions based on high temperature \\nelectrochemical technologies. One of those platforms, the \\nmolten carbonate fuel cell, offers a unique approach to \\ncapturing carbon dioxide from power generation or thermal \\nsources while simultaneously producing power. The \\ncompany has been offering power generation platforms \\nbased on the carbonate fuel cell technology commercially \\nsince 2003, and over 200 MW of systems are in operation \\naround the world. Carbonate fuel cells generate power \\nin electrochemical reactions that are supported by an \\nelectrolyte layer in which carbonate ions serve as the ion \\nbridge that completes the electrical circuit. A side effect \\nof this basic characteristic of the technology is that carbon \\ndioxide introduced at the air electrode is transferred \\nthrough the electrolyte layer to the fuel electrode, where \\nit is more highly concentrated and easy to remove. This \\nmeans that a carbonate electrochemical cell can be used \\nas a carbon purification membrane – transferring CO2 \\nfrom a dilute oxidant stream to a more concentrated fuel \\nexhaust stream. These cells are not developmental items – \\nthey are industrial scale components configured into large \\ncell-stacks in MW-scale fuel cell powerplant systems that \\nare commercially deployed around the world today, and \\nan effort is underway to optimize the cell configuration for \\ncarbon capture.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@fce.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.fuelcellenergy.com\\nFUELCELL ENERGY\\n•\\t\\nModular, can be deployed incrementally to manage capital outlay and changes in the cost of power, and to address a \\nwide scale of application sizes.\\n•\\t\\nWide range of applications, from industrial thermal sources as well as coal or natural gas power generation systems\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n64\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nUsing carbonate fuel cells for carbon capture involves adding additional process equipment to the powerplant mechanical \\nbalance of plant, as illustrated below. In a standard carbonate powerplant, CO2 produced at the anode is recycled back \\nto the cathode to provide the CO2 needed by the air electrodes. If the concentrated CO2 in the anode exhaust stream \\nis extracted from the system and not recycled back to the cathode, an external source of CO2 can support the cathode \\nreaction. This external source can be the exhaust from another powerplant or an industrial source. The dilute CO2 in the \\nexternal flue gas will be reacted at the fuel cell cathodes and transferred to the anode stream, from which it can be easily \\nseparated for sequestration or utilization.\\nThe size of the carbonate powerplant required to capture CO2 from a specific source depends on the size of the source \\nand the CO2 emission rate. A 2.8MW carbonate fuel cell powerplant during normal power operation is transferring about \\n3200 kg of CO2 per hour from the cathode to anode streams in the stack modules. In carbon capture mode, this system \\ncould capture and purify up to 2300 kg per hour of external CO2 in addition to the CO2 from the powerplant fuel input. The \\namount of capture at various fuel cell powerplant sizes is shown in this figure:\\nThe modular nature of the fuel cell system allows a wide \\nrange of system applications. Powerplants rated at single to \\ntens of MW output can be used for industrial applications, \\nsuch as capture from boilers, and are particularly attractive \\nin industries that use carbon dioxide, where on-site \\ncombined heat, power, and CO2 production can provide \\ncost, sustainability, and resiliency advantages.   Powerplants \\nrated at 100’s of MW can be used to capture CO2 from \\npetrochemical or large power generation systems. \\nThese large-scale carbonate carbon capture systems will \\nultimately be specially designed with larger scale balance \\nof plant systems than today’s commercial powerplant \\nproducts. In the near term, smaller scale capture systems \\nhave been configured based on the current generation of \\ncommercially available 1.4MW stack modules.   Large fuel \\ncell systems based on multiple powerplants have become \\ncommon in bulk power generation applications. The largest \\nsuch system so far is a 59 MW system using forty-two \\n1.4MW fuel cell modules located in Hwasung City, South \\nKorea, shown below.\\nAs FuelCell Energy develops early projects using currently \\navailable fuel cell equipment, the company is working with \\nExxonMobil in a joint development effort to optimize the \\nperformance of the fuel cells in carbon capture mode, and \\nto develop advanced stack module and system designs to \\naddress large scale carbon capture applications. \\nStandard System\\nCarbon Capture Modification\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n66\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nHeirloom was founded in 2020 by Shashank Samala, \\nthe former co-founder of industrial automation software \\nprovider Tempo, who grew up in southeast India where he \\nsaw first-hand how those contributing the least to climate \\nchange were most impacted by its effects.\\nWanting to scale a negative emissions technology that had \\nthe capability of scaling to sequester billions of tons of CO2 \\neach year, Shashank co-founded Heirloom in 2020 with Dr \\nNoah McQueen, a researcher in the lab of Professor Jen \\nWilcox at the University of Pennsylvania. \\nHeirloom’s technology uses the world’s second most \\nabundant material, limestone (calcium carbonate - \\nCaCO3) to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) directly from the \\natmosphere, and then permanently and safely stores that \\nCO2 so that it doesn’t return to the air. The company’s \\nmission is to remove 1 billion tons of carbon from the \\natmosphere by 2035, a figure which represents 20% of \\ntoday’s annual U.S. emissions and 10% of global carbon \\nremoval needed annually by 2050. \\nLimestone is made up of calcium oxide (CaO) and CO2. \\nWhen CO2 is removed from the limestone, the calcium \\noxide wants to return to its natural limestone state. It \\nbecomes “thirsty” for CO2 and acts like a sponge – \\npulling CO2 from the atmosphere. Heirloom’s technology \\naccelerates this natural property of limestone, reducing the \\ntime it takes to absorb CO2 from years to just three days.\\nThe process works by heating limestone mineral powder in \\na renewable-energy powered kiln to remove the CO2. The \\npowder is then spread onto vertically-stacked trays where \\nwell-trained algorithms inform how to treat the limestone to \\noptimize its ability to uptake CO2. The limestone powder \\nis looped through the system to continuously sponge \\nCO2 from the atmosphere - a cyclic process that not only \\nreduces costs but also reduces how much mineral must be \\nmined.\\nHeirloom is backed by some of the most well-known \\nclimate investors in the world, including Breakthrough \\nEnergy Ventures, Microsoft, Lower Carbon Capital, Prelude, \\nCarbon Direct, Ahren Innovation Capital, Marc Benioff’s \\nTime Ventures, Alexis Ohanian’s 776 and Breyer Capital. \\nThe company raised a $53 million Series A in 2022, and is \\ncurrently operating America’s only operational DAC facility. \\nHeirloom has sold carbon removal credits to Stripe, Klarna \\nand Shopify, and recently signed a deal with Microsoft to \\ndeliver permanent carbon removal credits in the coming \\nyears.\\nIn early 2023, Heirloom achieved a milestone by removing \\nCO2 from the atmosphere and permanently storing it \\nin concrete for the first time ever. This first-of-its-kind \\napplication is significant because concrete is currently the \\nonly permanent storage vehicle available for CO2 removed \\nfrom the atmosphere in the United States. Concrete \\nstorage of atmospheric CO2 will enable companies like \\nHeirloom to advance technologies and begin to scale \\nwithout waiting for other storage options – such as \\nunderground wells – to open up. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nHeirloom’s technology is designed to drive down the cost of CO2 removal to achieve gigaton scale quickly. A number of \\nfeatures drive this cost reduction, including:\\n•\\t\\nLow-cost inputs – Heirloom uses limestone to capture CO2 from the atmosphere. Making up four percent of the Earth’s \\nsurface and costing just $10-50 a ton, limestone is more abundant, far less expensive, and easier to source than the \\nengineered materials used by other DAC technologies.\\n•\\t\\nModular design – Heirloom’s carbon removal facilities are built for simple, mass manufacturing and have independent \\ncomponents and processes that can be optimized over time. \\n•\\t\\n\\t\\nPowered by data – Heirloom’s technology gathers millions of data points every month on parameters that govern how \\nquickly our technology can pull CO2 from the atmosphere.  This data enables us to continually train the algorithms that \\npower our automated facilities to optimize their uptake of CO2 – further increasing our output and reducing cost.\\nHEIRLOOM’S DIRECT AIR CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY \\nHeirloom’s Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology rapidly \\naccelerates the natural ability of limestone to absorb \\nCO2 from the air from a timespan of years to days. The \\ntechnology removes atmospheric CO2 in a way that is \\npermanent, low-cost and scalable. Founded in 2020 \\nby the world’s leading experts in CO2 removal and serial \\ndeep-tech entrepreneurs, Heirloom is currently operating \\none of a very small number of DAC facilities in the United \\nStates that is permanently storing CO2, and its customers \\nare the world’s biggest buyers of carbon removal including \\nMicrosoft, Stripe, Klarna, Shopify and more. Heirloom is \\nbacked by some of the world’s best climate investors \\nincluding Breakthrough Energy Ventures, Microsoft, Lower \\nCarbon Capital, Prelude, Carbon Direct, Ahren Innovation \\nCapital, Marc Benioff’s Time Ventures, Alexis Ohanian’s \\n776 and Breyer Capital.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t hello@heirloomcarbon.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.heirloomcarbon.com\\nHEIRLOOM\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n68\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCERI’S CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES\\nCERI has developed a broad spectrum of CO2 capture \\ntechnologies and systems built for the coal and gas-\\nfired power plants, waste-to-energy plants, steel plants \\nand refinery plants. We started R&D and engineering \\ndemonstration back in 2006. With over 16 years of \\nexperience, we expertise in providing engineering services \\nincluding the development of high-performance CO2 \\nsolvents, solvent recovery and purification technology, \\ncarbon capture process design and optimization, high-\\nefficiency equipment design, power plant integrated \\ndesign optimization, engineering design, construction, \\ncommissioning and operation. Those are not limited \\nto post-combustion CO2 capture, but can also apply to \\npre-combustion CO2 capture, CO2 utilization and CO2 \\nsequestration. \\nThe followings are CERI’s cutting edge commercial CO2 \\ncapture technologies:\\n•\\t\\nAdvanced Amine Absorbent. CERI has developed a \\nseries of commercial blended amines solvents named \\nHNC-1~HNC-5. The advanced amine, HNC-5 solvent \\nhas been validated for more than 20,000 hours in \\nShanghai Shidongkou 120,000 tonne/annum CO2 \\ncapture facility, with the solvent loss rate of 40% of \\nconventional amine and regeneration energy below \\n2.8 GJ/tCO2, reducing 20% CO2 capture cost.\\n•\\t\\nNext-generation \\nAmine \\nAbsorbent. \\nCERI \\nis \\ndeveloping the next generation HNC-6 solvent \\ntechnology incorporating higher cyclic loading faster \\nreaction kinetics, low energy consumption, low solvent \\ndegradation, low corrosivity with attractive technical \\nfeasibility (viscosity, wettability) and environmentally \\nbenign benefits in terms of low toxicity and volatility.\\n•\\t\\nSlurry-based CO2 Absorbent. CERI has developed \\npotassium carbonate slurry-based CO2 capture \\nabsorbent and process which is validated in the lab-\\nscale pilot plant. The regeneration energy is 2.6GJ/\\ntCO2, absorbent cost is 20% that of conventional \\namine and solvent loss cost is 22%~50% that of MEA. \\n•\\t\\nNext-generation Phase Change CO2 Absorbent. \\nCERI has developed phase-change CO2 absorbent \\nthat can realize the automatic phase separation of \\nrich liquid after CO2 absorption. The phase-change \\nCO2 absorbent was tested at the 1,000 tonne/annum \\nphase-change carbon capture industrial device in \\nHuaneng Changchun Thermal Power Plant. After \\nCO2 absorption, the self-concentrated biphasic CO2 \\nabsorbent can split into two liquid/liquid phase by itself. \\nAlmost all absorbed CO2 transfer into the rich phase \\n(more than 95%). Only the rich phase is transferred to \\nthe regeneration system for CO2 desorption. Results \\nshow a regeneration energy reduction up to 40% than \\nthe conventional amine MEA. \\nCERI is currently the leading CO2 capture technology \\nprovider in China, and has accumulated a wealth of \\nintellectual property achievements such as patents, \\nstandards, research and industrial papers through over \\n16 years of R&D and technology demonstration. We have \\nbeen awarded with top-tier prizes in China’s Electric \\nPower Science and Technology Award, National Energy \\nScience and Technology Award, Outstanding Contribution \\nAward in US CCUS Technology Award, United Nations \\nEnvironmental-Friendly Demonstration Project Award, etc.\\nWe have built a number of international and domestic \\nCO2 capture facilities, spanning from Beijing Gaobeidian \\ncoal-fired power 3,000 tonne/annum CO2 capture facility, \\nShanghai Shidongkou coal-fired power 120,000 tonne/\\nannum post combustion CO2 capture facility, Tianjin \\nGreenGen IGCC 100,000 tonne/annum pre-combustion \\nCO2 capture facility, Taiyuan steel plant 45,000 tonne/\\nannum industrial CO2 capture project, Zhejiang Pinghu \\nwaste-to-energy plant CO2 capture facility, to the future \\nAustralia Glencore’s Surat Basin 110,000 tonne/annum CCS \\nProject and Huaneng Longdong 1.5 million tonne/annum \\nCCUS project. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nBuilt up on R&D, we can realize the seamless connection from research, to engineering demonstration, and to \\ncommercial operation\\n•\\t\\nBroad spectrum of engineering capabilities from technology engineering design, equipment procurement, \\nconstruction, commissioning and operation \\n•\\t\\nExtensive experience and skills in commercial carbon capture technology, from the Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 \\ntonne/annum CO2 capture demonstration facility built in 2009, to the scale-up project of 1,500,000 tonne/ annum CCS \\nproject which is in construction in the Huaneng Zhengning Energy Base in west of China\\n•\\t\\nLeading the development of the international standard ISO/WD27927 “Key performance parameters and \\ncharacterization methods of absorption liquids for post-combustion CO2 capture”\\n•\\t\\nWe have established close collaboration with overseas academics and industries, from “China US Clean Energy \\nResearch Center”, “China Europe CCUS Technology Cooperation”, and “China Italy CCS Technology Cooperation”, \\nand “International Carbon Capture Testing Center Network Platform (ITCN)”\\nHUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE \\nChina Huaneng Clean Energy Research Institute (CERI) \\nhas developed a variety of high-performance carbon \\ncapture technologies such as the advanced amine \\nabsorbent, slurry-based CO2 capture absorbent, and \\nnext-generation phase change CO2 capture absorbent. \\nWe have established independent intellectual property \\nrights and a complete set of technology system for CO2 \\ncapture in coal/gas power plants, and technologies have \\nbeen demonstrated in multiple international and domestic \\ncarbon capture plants. CERI has built up the first-tier \\nresearch and development platforms, such as the “National \\nKey Laboratory of High-Efficiency Flexible Coal Power \\nGeneration and Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage”, \\n“Beijing Key Laboratory for Carbon Dioxide Capture and \\nTreatment” and the partner of “International Carbon \\nCapture Testing Center Network Platform (ITCN)”.\\nCERI has demonstrated its carbon capture technologies in \\nover 16 coal or gas fired power plants. We have validated \\nour commercial advanced amine technology for over \\n20,000 hours operation in the 120,000 tonne/annum post-\\ncombustion CO2 capture facility in Shanghai Shidongkou \\ncoal-fired power plant. We are constructing the world’s \\nlargest post-combustion CO2 capture and storage project \\n1,500,000 tonne/annum CO2 from Huaneng Zhengning \\nEnergy Base, a 10 GW multi-energy infrastructure in \\nthe west of China. We are exporting our CO2 capture \\ntechnology overseas to build the 110,000 tonne/annum \\nCO2 capture project retrofitting to Millmerran coal-fired \\npower plant in Queensland in Australia.\\nCERI can provide a broad spectrum of engineering services \\nincluding collaboration in R&D for CO2 capture solvent \\ndevelopment, process engineering design, high-efficiency \\nequipment design and procurement, plant debugging \\nand commissioning, catalyst design and synthesis for \\nCO2 utilization, engineering design for desulphurization \\n(deSOx), denitrification (deNOx), and CO2 storage in saline \\naquifers.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t hm_liu@qny.chng.com.cn\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.chng.com.cn/en\\nHUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH \\nINSTITUTE \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n70\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nHIGHLIGHTED CO2 CAPTURE PROJECTS DEVELOPED \\nBY CERI\\nCERI has been actively exploring high-efficiency, cost-\\neffective carbon capture technologies, and built a number \\nof projects, both in China and overseas. The timeline of \\nCERI carbon capture project development is shown in the \\ndiagram on the previous page. \\nIn July 2008, China’s first post-combustion CO2 capture \\nfacility, capturing 3,000 tonne/year CO2, commenced \\noperation in Huaneng Beijing Gaobeidian Power Plant. \\nThe facility is independently designed and constructed by \\nCERI. This project marks the first pilot test of CO2 capture \\ntechnology in coal-fired power in China.\\nIn 2009, CERI scaled up its engineering expertise to build \\na 120,000 CO2 capturing facility in Shanghai Shidongkou \\nNo.2 ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant. It is well \\nknown as a pioneer CCUS project in China, and it was \\nthe world’s largest post-combustion CO2 capture project \\nretrofitted to a coal-fired power plant at that time. The \\nenergy consumption of this CO2 capture facility was <2.8 \\nGJ/tonne CO2 at the capture ratio over 90%, a significant \\nimprovement over the first-generation amine solvent using \\nMEA. Today, Shidongkou Post-combustion Carbon Capture \\nProject has achieved over 22,000 operation hours, the \\nworld’s longest operating post-combustion capture plant.\\nThe project was the first one to show that the cost of post-\\ncombustion CO2 capture can be far below $100 back \\nin 2009. The construction was completed in less than 7 \\nmonths which showed the China speed of construction, a \\npathway for cost reduction in CAPEX.\\nIn 2013, CERI built China’s first gas-fired carbon capture \\npilot plant in Beijing, capturing 1,000 tonne/annum CO2. \\nThis facility became the key testing platform for the \\nvalidation of the capture technologies we developed in the \\nlab.\\nIn 2016, CERI started operation of the first pre-combustion \\nCO2 capture unit in China. This CO2 capture facility is the \\nworld’s largest and, capable of conducting experiments \\nunder flexible loads and operating conditions. \\nCCS PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT\\n1. Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 tonne/annum phase-\\nchange CO2 capture project.\\nThis project is to scale up CERI’s phase-change CO2 \\ncapture technology at 120,000 tonne/annum capacity, and \\nto complete industrial verification and reach a performance \\ntarget at ≤2.3GJ/tCO2 regenerated energy and ≤1.0kg/tCO2 \\nsolvent loss. The phase change CO2 capture technology \\nwas successfully demonstrated at the 1,000 tonne/annum \\nphase-change carbon capture pilot plant in Huaneng \\nChangchun Thermal Power Plant in 2020.\\nITEMS\\nSHANGHAI \\nSHIDONGKOU COAL-\\nFIRED POWER CO2 \\nCAPTURE FACILITY\\nIGCC PRE-\\nCOMBUSTION \\nCARBON CAPTURE \\nFACILITY\\nHAINAN \\nINTERNATIONAL \\nCO2 CAPTURE TEST \\nPLATFORM\\nHUANENG LONGDONG \\nENERGY BASE CCS \\nPROJECT\\nCapture \\nProcess\\nPost combustion\\nPre-Combustion\\nPost combustion\\nPost combustion\\nFeature\\nSupercritical coal-fired \\npower plant, CO2 12-\\n15% in flue gas\\nIGCC based full chain \\nCCS\\nNG combustion flue gas, \\nCO2 ~4% in flue gas\\nAdvanced ultra-supercritical \\ncoal-fired power plant, CO2 \\n10-14% in flue gas\\nScale\\n120,000tpa CO2\\n100,000tpa CO2 \\n(30MWth)\\n2,000tpa CO2\\n1,500,000tpa CO2\\nRegeneration \\nEnergy \\nconsumption\\n<2.8GJ/t CO2\\n<2.3GJ/t CO2\\n3.0GJ/tCO2\\n<2.3GJ/t CO2\\nCapture Ratio\\n>85%\\n-\\n>90%\\n>90%\\nCO2 Purity\\nFood Grade, >99.997%\\n-\\nIndustrial use\\nOthers\\nLargest PCC unit then, \\nhave been operating \\n10 years continually\\n-\\nOpen for international \\ncollaboration for \\ntechnology testing and \\nverification\\nWill be the world’s largest PCC \\nplant when built\\nCapture cost \\n300-400RMB/t CO2\\n-\\nReal NGCC flue gas \\ncondition\\nCaptured CO2 for EOR and \\ndedicated geological storage\\n2. Huaneng international CO2 capture test platform for \\nNatural Gas Combined Cycle power plant in Hainan \\nIsland, China \\nThe 2,000 tonne/annum international CO2 capture \\ntesting platform uses real flue gas from the Natural Gas \\nCombined Cycle (NGCC) power plant located in Yangpu, \\nHainan Island, China. Hainan has 30-day visa-free access \\nfor international visitors. This enables international \\ncollaboration for testing and validating carbon capture \\ntechnologies. Huaneng Clean Energy Research Institute is \\na partner of International Test Center Network, and the only \\none in China.\\n3. Glencore Surat Basin 110,000 tonne/annum CCS \\nProject in Queensland Australia\\nWe are developing the post-combustion CO2 capture \\nproject retrofitting to the Millmerran coal-fired power plant \\nin Queensland, Australia. The project can capture 110,000 \\ntonne/annum CO2. It will build a demonstration scale but \\nalso scalable post-combustion CO2 capture plant. Once \\nbuilt, it will be the first commercial post-combustion CO2 \\ncapture project in Australia, and first China post combustion \\nCO2 capture technology export overseas.\\n4. Huaneng Longdong 1,500,000 Tonne/Annum CCUS \\nProject \\nThis million-tonne scale CCUS project is in construction. \\nOnce built by 2024, this project will become China’s first \\nmillion-tonne carbon capture and storage facility in the \\npower sector, and the largest post-combustion CO2 capture \\nfacility in the world. This project deploys China Huaneng’s \\nnext-generation HNC series CO2 capture technology. CO2 \\nwill be captured from the slipstream of Unit 1 of the 2x1,000 \\nMW ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant, at the newly \\nbuild China Huaneng Longdong Energy Base in Northwest \\nChina. The CCUS project will reduce 1.5 million tonnes per \\nannum CO2 emission, at a regeneration heat duty below \\n2.3 GJ/tonne CO2, and CO2 capture cost is around RMB \\n220 per tonne CO2 captured (<USD $35). The captured \\nCO2 will be transported via pipeline in the supercritical \\nphase. Around 1 million tonne per annum CO2 will be \\nstored via dedicated geological storage in the nearby \\ngeological sites, and 0.5 million tonnes per annum CO2 will \\nbe sent to CNPC oil fields for enhanced oil recovery.\\nThe project will present a revolutionary low-cost \\ndecarbonization option for coal-fired power generation, \\nas well as a flexible operation model for the peak-load \\nregulating coal-fired power unit and CCS working along \\nwith the increasing penetration of renewable energy in \\npower generation. The Longdong Energy Base itself is a \\nmulti-energy infrastructure with 8 GW renewables and 2 \\nGW ultra-supercritical coal fired power.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n72\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nDESCRIPTION\\n•\\t\\nSignificant track record in Carbon Capture with vast technology portfolio\\n•\\t\\nHoneywell has a vast portfolio of carbon capture technologies that help support industry leaders to move towards a \\nlower carbon footprint. Out of experts can work with you to determine the best solution to meeting your CO2 emission \\ngoals\\nCHALLENGES FOR INDUSTRY LEADERS\\n•\\t\\nLegal, regulatory, and financial frameworks need to \\ncontinue progressing\\n•\\t\\nLarge scale projects remain a significant hurdle due to \\nenergy requirements\\n•\\t\\nFull ecosystem that embodies all elements of carbon \\ncapture to support fast-moving\\nCHEMICAL SOLVENTS\\nAmineGuard™ & Amine Guard FS Process\\nMEA based system that is mature, reliable, and easy \\nto operate, with >600 units licensed and in operation. \\nRemoves CO2 from natural gas, syngas, & blast furnace \\ngas. \\nBenfield™\\nInorganic solvent based system for pressurized gas \\nstreams (natural gas, syngas, ethylene oxide) >650 units in \\noperation.\\nAdvanced Solvent for Carbon Capture (ASCC)\\nSecond Generation amine based system targeting hard to \\nabate flue gases from power, steel, cement, natural gas, \\nindustrials, refining & petrochemical industries.\\nPHYSICAL SOLVENTS\\nSeparALL\\n™ Process\\nPhysical Solvent (non toxic & non flammable) for high \\npressure gasification streams selectively removes H2S/CO2 \\nutilizing Selexol™ solvent.\\nADSORBENTS\\nPolybed™ Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) System\\nA process that utilizes a series of pressurization and \\ndepressurization cycles with adsorbents and cycles \\nfor H2 purification and CO2 rejection (>1150 units, 3 \\noperating in CO2 application). PSAs are often paired with \\nother  separation technologies to optimize CO2 capture \\ncapabilities.\\nCRYOGENICS & MEMBRANES\\nSeparex™ Membrane Systems\\nHigh, partial-pressure CO₂ capture,  significant  experience \\nin onshore & offshore capturing and sequestering (>300 \\nunits) Requires minimal rotating equipment, no chemical \\nreagent replacement, and minimal maintenance, Designed \\nfor operational simplicity.\\nOrtloff CO₂ Fractionation\\nSolvent-free option, all-electric process (no steam required) \\nwith fewer subsystems and a smaller footprint than a \\nsolvent system, delivers CO₂ as a high purity liquid product.\\nTECHNOLOGY DELIVERY \\nHoneywell can provide technology as initial studies to \\ndefine best path forward, transfers the technology through \\nlicense, engineering, key mechanical equipment, solvent, \\nadsorbents, services and modular supply.\\nPRE COMBUSTION CARBON CAPTURE SOLUTIONS\\nHoneywell UOP has provided innovative hydrogen \\nprocessing solutions to refineries and other industries for \\nfive decades. Today, refineries can implement Honeywell \\nH2 Solutions at scale and low cost, achieving significant \\nsustainability impact. \\nHoneywell H2 Solutions include multiple carbon capture \\nflow schemes you can tailor to your requirements for \\nhydrogen yield, hydrogen purity, CO2 purity, steam use, or \\ncapital and operating cost needs.\\nReady today, Honeywell H2 Solutions is a suite of proven \\ncarbon capture technologies to help you meet stringent \\nemissions goals and gain fast, profitable entry into the \\ngrowing hydrogen economy.\\nThe fact is, hydrogen is a clean-burning fuel that can \\ndecarbonize hard-to-abate segments as long as it’s \\nproduced using a low-carbon route. Low-carbon hydrogen \\ncan be an economical solution for decarbonizing \\npetrochemical, \\nrefining, \\ntransportation, \\nand \\npower \\ngeneration businesses.\\nNAME OF TECHNOLOGY\\nA PATH TO CARBON NEUTRALITY STARTS TODAY\\nWith a global focus on combatting climate change, industry \\nleaders are aggressively seeking technology solutions that \\nlimit greenhouse gas emissions.\\nThis is especially critical for carbon-intensive industrial \\nmarkets \\nsuch \\nas \\npower, \\nsteel, \\ncement, \\nrefining, \\npetrochemicals, hydrogen and natural gas processing \\nwhere reducing environmental impact has been difficult.\\nThere are many avenues a company can take to meet \\nsustainability goals – and a drive towards carbon \\nneutrality is gaining prominence as a key driver of meeting \\ncommitments. While many companies are taking the first \\nsteps towards carbon neutrality with more energy-efficient \\nmachinery and processes, technology supporting these \\ninitiatives is continuously evolving and improving, and \\ncompanies need to keep up.\\nCARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR ROLE \\nIN SUSTAINABLE OPERATIONS\\nDeciding what sustainability initiatives to implement to \\nstart your company’s journey towards more environment-\\nfriendly processes can be daunting. From making \\ncommitments to plant a certain number of trees to \\nimplementing energy- efficient processes, there are \\nmultiple pathways leading towards more carbon-neutral \\noperations, some of which can be integrated immediately, \\nbut others require longer-term planning.\\nCarbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) is a key \\ntechnology for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. \\nAccording to the International Energy Agency, carbon \\ncapture capacity must increase more than 20 times to \\nenable the capture of 840 Mtpa CO2 by 2030 to meet \\nglobal emission goals.\\nIncorporating carbon capture technologies into production \\nis an effective path industrial companies can take to reduce \\ntheir environmental impact and prevent harmful emissions \\nfrom entering the atmosphere. However, carbon capture is \\na broad and complex field, requiring in-depth knowledge \\nof both the technology and industry to effectively execute.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t nathan.lozanoski@honeywell.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.pmt.honeywell.com\\nHONEYWELL\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n74\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nPROOF POINTS\\nWabash Valley Resources \\n•\\t\\nSelected to provide integration of modular MOLSIV, \\nModular Ortloff CO2 Fractionation System, & Modular \\nPSA\\n•\\t\\nDemonstrates large scale  commercially  viable  clean \\nH2 and CCUS  projects  under  current  US  regulatory \\nand policy framework\\nXOM Baytown\\n•\\t\\nHoneywell UOP’s carbon capture technology will be \\nintegrated into the design of ExxonMobil’s low-carbon \\nhydrogen production facility and enable it to capture \\nmore than 98% (1) of associated CO2 emissions.\\n•\\t\\nExxonMobil will deploy one of Honeywell’s carbon \\ncapture technologies – Honeywell’s CO2 Fractionation \\nand Hydrogen Purification System - at its integrated \\ncomplex in Baytown, Texas. This technology is \\nexpected to enable ExxonMobil to capture about \\n7 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, the \\nequivalent of the emission of 1.5 million of automobiles \\nfor one year (2).\\n•\\t\\nHigh purity H2 produced from Pressure Swing \\nAdsorption and PolysepTM Membrane Technologies\\n•\\t\\nExxonMobil’s H2 production project’s goal is to reduce, \\nby up to 30%, Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions at their \\nBaytown facility (3).\\nPRECOMBUSTION SOLUTIONS – OPTIMIZED \\nTHROUGH COMBINED PSA AND CRYOGENIC \\nFRACTIONATION TECHNOLOGY POLYBED™\\nPressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) System\\n•\\t\\nSelectively separates high purity Hydrogen from \\nsyngas streams to minimize carbon slip into the \\nproduct and maximize production rate.  PSAs selective \\nfor CO2 are also used within the optimized Pre-\\ncombustion flow scheme to minimize CO2 emissions \\nfrom the process\\n•\\t\\nField performance tests prove the performance of \\nPSA systems with an on-stream factor of 99.8+% and \\nspecified adsorbent life of more than 20 years.\\n•\\t\\nPSAs product streams from a Hydrogen Production \\nUnit can deliver Hydrogen with minimal pressure drop \\nand at a Hydrogen purity of up to 99.99% with the \\nability to provide lower concentrations as needed\\nOrtloff CO₂ Fractionation \\n•\\t\\nA solvent-free option, all-electric process (no steam \\nrequired) with fewer subsystems and a smaller \\nfootprint than a solvent system for\\n•\\t\\nProprietary Mixed Refrigerant and design minimizes \\nequipment count and size of this Cryogenic \\nFractionation system\\n•\\t\\nAbility to manage temperature at point of separation \\nwithin a tight range enables very effective first-pass \\nCO2 recovery\\nPOST-COMBUSTION ADVANCED SOLVENT \\nTECHNOLOGY UNLOCKS POTENTIAL\\nIn collaboration with the University of Texas, Honeywell is \\nproud to offer a new advanced solvent technology to lower \\nCO₂ emissions generated from combustion flue gases \\nin hard-to-abate industries, such as power, steel, cement, \\nrefining, petrochemical and other industrial plants.\\nUtilizing an advanced solvent, this point source CO₂ \\nremoval technology enables CO₂ to be captured at a lower \\ncost through greater efficiency using smaller equipment. \\nThis creates viable project economics today as countries \\nacross the globe progress to meet their sustainability \\ntargets (4). It can be retrofitted within existing plants or \\nincluded as part of a new installation.\\nPROOF POINTS\\n•\\t\\nOver 20 years of development at the University of \\nTexas at Austin\\n•\\t\\nPilot plant testing since 2006 with CO2 concentrations \\nfrom 4-20 vol%\\n•\\t\\nFlue gas flow rates of 350-600 CFM at pilot plant\\nDEMONSTRATION AT NATIONAL CARBON CAPTURE \\nCENTER\\n•\\t\\n0.5 MW coal fired flue gas, 1500 CFM flow with 8tpd \\nCO2 capture\\n•\\t\\nCO2 Concentrations tested @ 12% (2018), 4% (2019), & \\n4% (2023)\\n•\\t\\nSolvent performs well with oxygen up to 15 vol%\\n•\\t\\nThree campaigns completed with 8000+ hours of \\ntesting \\n1.\\t\\nCO2 equivalent emissions is a calculated value based on the combined carbon compounds emitted from the Hydrogen \\nproduction and Carbon Capture equipment plus the combined carbon compounds in the H2 product.\\n2.\\t Based on the EPA’s GHG equivalency calculator comparing nearly 7 million tons of CO2 per year with gasoline-\\npowered passenger vehicles on the road.\\n3.\\t Based on press release issued Feb 15, 2023, announcing HON H2 tech in Exxon Baytown facility. \\n4.\\t Lower cost of CO₂ capture based on comparing estimated capital and operating costs of this solution against other \\nconventional amine solvents in same applications. CO₂ pricing considers current policies of $50/ton tax credit (USA \\nper IRS Section 45Q for permanent storage) and $60/ton (UK and Europe – approximate averages from August 2021 \\nthrough country/regional Emission Trading Systems and as reported by IHS Markit).\\nMinimum Carbon Intensity \\nAdvanced Solvent Carbon Capture\\nAdvanced Solvent \\n/w high mass transfer rates \\n– Shorter Absorber \\n– 30% cost savings\\nHigh pressure stripper \\ndelivers CO2 at 5-6 barg, \\nreducing Compressor \\nCapex & Opex \\n-Enabled by low solvent \\ndegradation\\nPatented, Low \\nenergy heat \\nexchanger design \\n2.1+ GJ/t CO2\\nCO2 produced to meet project off-take requirements \\nand can act as a single unit operation for separation & \\nliquefaction Optimized Flow Scheme.\\n•\\t\\nLeverages PSA selectivity to produce Carbon-Free \\nHydrogen product and Hydrogen fuel streams\\n•\\t\\nFirst-pass CO2 recovery optimized for PSA tail gas \\nstream\\n•\\t\\nExhausts the CO2 at the CO2 Product stream, as any \\ncarbon molecules not captured in the first pass are \\nrecycled through the process to extinction\\n•\\t\\nFlexible design provides the ability to trade off Capital \\nand Operating costs with expected process emissions\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n76\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe K2-CO2 process comprises of a dry section and wet \\nsection connected in series.\\nThe dry section comprises of the Air Pollution Control \\nsystem and heat recovery stages to meet the heat needs \\nrequired by the carbon capture process. \\nThis section can utilize existing air pollution control \\nequipment (dedusting, deSOx, deNOx) on-site with the \\nintegration of heat recovery stages or can be provided as \\nnew equipment. It must be noted that the flue gas can exit \\nthe system by bypassing the wet section via an exhaust \\nstack to maintain continuous emission compliance in the \\nevent of an emergency or maintenance on the wet system. \\nThe wet section comprises of a deSOx process, CO2 \\nabsorption, and CO2 cooling and concentration.  \\nThe deSOx process provides further removal of \\ncontaminants and additional conditioning of the flue gas \\nstream to begin the CO2 recovery process. \\nThe absorption section, utilizing the well-known carbon \\ncapture technology of Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC), \\nabsorbs CO2 from the flue gas stream into the HPC \\nwater solution. The remaining flue gases, which have \\nalready been treated in the dry section, are emitted to the \\natmosphere.\\nThe CO2-rich HPC solution is then heated to release the \\nhighly concentrated CO2 product in a stripping process. \\nThe HPC solution is regenerated and injected into the \\nabsorber in a loop system, requiring no continuous make-\\nup of the solution. \\nThe CO2 is collected, conditioned, and sent for the chosen \\nuse or storage solution for the process. The captured CO2 \\ncan be sent to the conditioning plant, designed to deliver \\nthe desired CO2 quality, pressure and temperature for use \\nor storage: underground, for enhanced oil recovery or \\nmineralization.   \\nThe conditioning technology is adapted to the effective \\nneeds and can cover from simple storage/delivery in gas \\nphase to purification and liquefaction or compression to \\nsupercritical conditions.\\nThe K2-CO2 HPC process is a classic absorption/stripping \\nprocess but is operated at relatively low pressures (typically \\n0.5-5 barg) and integrates all possible heat recovery \\nstages. The process is designed to have zero external heat \\nneeds, making it less energy-intensive than other CCUS \\ntechnologies, including those utilizing a similar solvent or \\namine-based systems. It can be applied to a wide range of \\nindustrial processes such as glass, steel, biomass/waste \\nincineration.\\nHPC technology has been chosen against amines for \\nseveral reasons. These include that HPC solution is safe \\nfor people and the environment, non-volatile, stable, \\ninexpensive, and based on a readily and worldwide \\navailable basic component that is not provided by a \\npropriety source, manufacturer, or licensor.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nNo Upstream Process Modifications: Our systems integrate into existing processes without upstream modification of \\nconditions or fuel required and include Use and/or Storage, providing tailored solutions to the unique process and site.\\n•\\t\\nEnergy Efficient: Energy demands for heating/cooling and expansion/compression are minimized through energy re-\\nuse throughout the process. \\n•\\t\\nCost Effective: Minimal changes to combustion process, waste heat recovery, and solvent regeneration provide a cost-\\neffective solution for CCUS in small to medium size emitters. \\n•\\t\\nContinuous Compliance: Highly effective air pollution control technology is integrated for other flue gas pollutants.\\nINTEGRATION OF CO2 CAPTURE AND SEQUESTRATION OR USE\\nK2-CO2 delivers fully integrated turnkey Carbon Capture \\nUse & Sequestration (CCUS) solutions targeting small and \\nmedium scale industrial emitters. \\nOur portfolio includes turnkey solutions to satisfy from the \\nexit of combustion source to the exhaust stack including \\nCarbon Capture integrated with flue gas conditioning, \\nwaste heat recovery, and reuse or sequestration. \\nThese solutions integrate into an existing process without \\nimpacting the production, resulting in a reduction of \\nenvironmental emissions, overall energy impact, and CO2 \\nfootprint.\\nOur team leverages its extensive experience as industrial \\nflue gas treatment integrators to offer a safe, energy-\\nefficient, “bolt-on” carbon capture system utilizing Hot \\nPotassium Carbonate (HPC) solvent with the needed \\nconditioning for sequestration or reuse.  \\nThe HPC-solvent process for CO2 capture, licensed by \\nGiammarco Vetrocoke, is used globally in industries such \\nas chemical plants with high CO2 concentrations in the flue \\ngas: K2-CO2 has extended the usefulness to lower CO2 \\nconcentrations, making it suitable for most combustion-\\nderived flue gas.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@k2-CO2.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.k2-CO2.com\\nK2-CO2 \\n•\\t\\nSafe and Environmentally Friendly: Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) is a non-flammable, nontoxic, stable and \\ninexpensive solvent, eliminating the need for harmful and corrosive amine-based capture processes.\\n•\\t\\nTailor-made: CO2 is delivered at conditions defined by the downstream process, easily reaching Food & Beverage \\nquality if required\\nSchematic representation of K2-CO2 typical process with \\nindication of the main heat recovery stages; solution is always \\ncustomized in function of the flue gas characteristics.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n78\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe UNO MK 3 process consists of a catalytically enhanced \\nprecipitating potassium carbonate solvent technology \\nengineered to capture 90+ per cent of carbon dioxide (CO2) \\nemissions from heavy industry sources such as cement \\nplants, power stations (pre- and post-combustion) and \\nother large CO2 emitting industries. Following the invention \\nof the UNO MK 3 process within the Cooperative Research \\nCentre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC), the \\ntechnology has subsequently been developed over the \\nlast decade by KC8 Capture Technologies in conjunction \\nwith the University of Melbourne in Australia. \\nPotassium carbonate (K2CO3) has been used in solvent \\nabsorption processes in chemical industries for many \\nyears (i.e. the Benfield process). The patented UNO MK \\n3 process provides a unique update to this established \\ntechnology, making it highly efficient for CO2 capture at low \\npressure. The UNO MK 3 process contains the absorption \\nand regeneration stages of a standard solvent absorption \\nprocess. However, unlike a standard liquid-based solvent \\nsystem, a KHCO3 precipitate is allowed to form. Removing \\nthis constraint allows UNO MK 3 to be operated with \\nconcentrated solvent and greater solvent loadings. That, in \\nturn, allows for greater working capacities, lower circulation \\nrates and drives down energy requirements.\\nTo handle solid precipitation in the process, KC8 Capture \\nhas conducted extensive R&D to identify and adapt existing \\nprocess units to meet the challenging requirements. \\nCentral to this has been our patented refinement of \\nTurbulent Bed Contactor technology to not only facilitate \\nsuitable solids tolerance in the absorber unit, but also \\nprovide process intensification, resulting in reduced \\ncolumn height relative to conventional amine processes.\\nA key benefit of potassium carbonate-based solvents is the \\nsignificantly lower volatility compared with amine-based \\nsolvents. The volatile emissions from amine-based solvents \\ncan be significant and usually requires an additional water \\nwash sections as well as continuous solvent make-up. In \\ncontrast, the UNO MK 3 process neither requires a water \\nwash stage, nor complex reclamation sections to achieve \\neconomic viability. \\nThe UNO MK 3 process is capable of handling a wide \\nrange of applications, including both pre- and post-\\ncombustion electricity generation and other industrial \\nCO2 emitting processes. It is unaffected by the impurities \\nin a range of fuel source including black coal, brown coal, \\nnatural gas and emissions from cement, iron and steel and \\nother heavy industries. Due to its oxygen tolerance and low \\nvolatility, it is also highly applicable in capture from natural \\ngas turbines in either open or closed cycle flue gases. It \\nalso has the capacity to be applied either as a new build or \\nretrofit application. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nLower cost – achieving up to 50% reduction compared to the best amine equivalent due to major improvements in \\nboth CAPEX and OPEX expenditure\\n•\\t\\nLower energy usage - performing up to 15% less than the best amine technology principally due to reboiler energy \\nrequirements typically under 2.5 GJ/tonne CO2\\n•\\t\\nOxygen, SOx and NOx tolerant process - allowing diverse application portfolio including difficult to abate sectors such \\nas cement, steel and waste-to-energy\\n•\\t\\nLow cost, safe solvent with pre-existing supply capacity – with current potassium carbonate market orders of \\nmagnitude larger than forecast CO2 capture demand requirements\\n•\\t\\nSmall plant footprint - achieved through higher solvent loadings that lead to a process size reduction and patented \\nconcentric column design for larger operations. \\n•\\t\\nNo toxic by-products and low solvent volatility – eliminating need for toxic waste disposal, complex wash stages and \\nsolvent reclamation units\\n•\\t\\nSuperior environmental performance – particularly benefitting from environmentally benign solvent, lack of toxic by-\\nproducts and low solvent volatility\\n•\\t\\nLow impact retrofit integration – design options to provide minimal upstream process impact, or alternatively to \\nmaximize heat integration with existing systems to optimize process synergies\\n•\\t\\nOption to time shift energy demands – The increased loading capacity and solvent price point makes large scale \\nsolvent storage for time shifted regeneration economically viable in many situation\\nUNO MK 3\\nKC8 Capture Technologies is commercialising industry \\nleading carbon capture technology that provides an \\naffordable pathway to reduce greenhouse gas emissions \\nfrom the use of fossil fuels and heavy industries around the \\nworld.\\nOur revolutionary UNO MK 3 technology utilizes a novel \\nprecipitating potassium carbonate (K2CO3) solvent, enabled \\nthrough our patented solids tolerant absorber design. The \\nformation of potassium bicarbonate solids in the system \\nallows for greater solvent loading and lower circulating \\nsolvent volumes relative to both the Benfield process and \\nconventional amine systems.  \\nFurther benefits of the novel solvent include a process size \\nreduction, reducing both CAPEX cost and plant footprint, \\nand decreased reboiler energy usage. These, along with \\nother key advantages, allow for the UNO MK 3 technology \\nto be built and operated at up to 50% lower overall costs \\ncompared to the best existing amine based equivalent.   \\nAnother key advantage of the precipitating potassium \\ncarbonate solvent is its tolerance of oxygen, SOx and \\nNOx in the source flue gas. This opens up the technology \\napplication range to difficult to abate sectors such as \\ncement and steel, as well as energy sectors with additional \\nchallenges such as waste-to-energy and gas turbine-based \\npower generation.  \\nMajor environmental and safety benefits are also realized \\nwith the UNO MK 3 technology, with its environmentally \\nbenign and non-volatile solvent alongside the lack of toxic \\nby-product production proving to be of particular strategic \\nadvantage relative to its equivalent amine competitors. \\nThe solvent stability and non-volatility also reduces solvent \\nloss due to degradation and eliminates the need for wash \\nstages and reclamation units. \\nThe UNO MK 3 has already been demonstrated at the pilot \\nscale on industrial flue gasses, and two demonstration \\nscale facilities are in late stage design, both of which are \\nscheduled to begin operation in 2024. These will directly \\ndemonstrate the UNO MK 3 capabilities in both difficult \\nto abate industrial and power sectors in their respective \\nprojects. Planned FEED studies are also predicted to \\nconfirm current estimates that the technology can achieve \\ncarbon capture in the price range of $35-40 / tonne CO2. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t greg.ross@KC8capture.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.KC8capture.com\\nKC8 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n80\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nLooking ahead, KC8 has created a range of configurations \\nin relation to large scale single stream contacting systems. \\nThis includes a novel patented concentric single stream \\nabsorption and stripping combined column, which \\nuses concrete and/or geopolymers as the material of \\nconstruction. This enables larger column diameters \\nand improves CAPEX performance comparative to \\nconventional steel arrangements.  Applications in a single \\ntrain are now possible for large emission sources.\\nPilot plant testing of UNO MK 3 has been completed under \\nreal flue gas conditions at Hazelwood Power Station in \\nthe Latrobe Valley, Australia, and we are currently in the \\nprocess of implementing two demonstration facilities of the \\nUNO MK 3 technology.\\nThe first of these is a 10 - 15 tpd CO2 PACER demonstration \\nfacility being built in partnership with Cement Australia, with \\nthe plant processing clinker flue gas from a pre-existing \\nindustrial plant. Operations will be located at a Cement \\nAustralia facility in Gladstone, Australia, and are forecast to \\nbegin operations in Q1 2024.\\nThe second demonstration plant has been facilitated by \\nour success in the recent US DoE FleCCS project. During \\nthe first stage of this project, KC8 Capture demonstrated \\nthat the UNO MK3 in conjunction with pre-existing NGCC \\nand/or OCGT turbines can, based on independent \\neconomic analysis, be widely and profitably deployed in \\nfuture near-zero emission grids. Stage 2 involves a physical \\ndemonstration of the technology, which will be on a similar \\n5 - 10 tpd scale to the PACER project but will focus on \\nthe lower CO2 concentrations found in gas turbine flue \\ngas. This plant will be installed at the NCCC test centre in \\nAlabama, USA, with operations forecast to begin Q3 2024.\\nThese two projects will take KC8 Capture through to a \\nTRL of 7-8, at which point we will be ready to commence \\nconstruction of commercial scale facilities. Current \\nestimates are that typical applications at full scale will be \\nable to achieve CO2 capture costs of $35-40 /tonne. \\nFigure 1: Conventional dual absorption / stripping column \\nconfiguration\\nFigure 2: KC8 patented concentric absorption / stripping column\\nHOW OUR TECHNOLOGY WORKS\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n82\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCCUS is a critical component of a circular carbon economy. \\nLinde is a forerunner in this area with a portfolio of products \\nand solutions that helps its customers fulfill their net-zero \\nemission targets. Here are a few examples:\\n•\\t\\nHeidelberg Materials and Linde have established \\na joint venture to build and operate a state-of-the-\\nart carbon dioxide capture and liquefaction plant at \\nHeidelberg Materials’ Lengfurt, Germany, plant. CO2 \\nwill be separated directly from part of the exhaust gas \\nstream from the cement clinker kiln using an amine \\nscrubbing system specially developed for flue gases. \\nLinde will also supply equipment for purification and \\nliquefaction, tanks for intermediate storage of the \\nproduct, and loading facilities.\\n•\\t\\nGroundbreaking recently took place for a major \\ncarbon capture pilot project: the 10-megawatt project \\nat City Water, Light and Power (CWLP) in Springfield, \\nIllinois. The Linde/BASF Advanced Post-Combustion \\nCO2 Capture Technology used in this project is a major \\nstep in demonstrating how capture technologies can \\nbe successfully integrated into industrial facilities to \\nreduce CO2 emissions.\\n•\\t\\nLinde has signed a long-term agreement with \\nExxonMobil for the off-take of carbon dioxide \\nassociated \\nwith \\nLinde’s \\nnew \\nclean \\nhydrogen \\nproduction in Beaumont, Texas. Under the terms of the \\nagreement, ExxonMobil will transport and permanently \\nstore up to 2.2 million metric tons of carbon dioxide \\neach year from Linde’s hydrogen production facility, \\nequivalent to the emissions from nearly half a million \\ncars per year.\\n•\\t\\nLinde’s engagement in CCUS extends to fostering \\ninnovation. To this end, Linde has opened its first \\nR&D center for CCUS technologies in Saudi Arabia’s \\nDhahran Techno Valley. Aside from developing \\nsolutions, the center will offer training and education \\nfor professionals, customers, and universities.\\nTECHNOLOGIES FOR A LARGE VARIETY OF CARBON \\nINTENSITIES AND SOURCES\\nThe projects and innovative activities described above rely \\non our extensive portfolio of technologies and services \\nalong the whole CO₂ value chain. When deciding which \\nsolution to select, the company’s engineers first verify \\nwhich CO₂ concentrations need to be addressed – low, \\nmedium, or high (Figure 1). Linde provides solutions for \\nmany different CO₂ emitting industries. The technologies \\nare further divided into their suitability for the CO₂ source, \\nwhether it be flue gas, natural gas, syngas, or tail gas.\\nFigure 1: Overview of Linde’s tecnology portfolio along the CO2 value chain.\\n1 OASE® is a registered trademark of BASF SE\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nLinde’s offering relating to CCUS:\\n•\\t\\nEconomical and technical feasibility studies\\n•\\t\\nCO2 capture as a service (build, own, operate)\\n•\\t\\nFull engineering, procurement, construction (EPC) solution\\n•\\t\\nEPC services\\n•\\t\\nTraining of operational and maintenance personnel\\nCARBON MANAGEMENT AS A SERVICE\\nAs efforts to reduce greenhouse gases, such as carbon \\ndioxide (CO2), intensify, finding a reliable supplier who \\ncan navigate the complexity of large-scale, multi-year \\nprojects is essential for industries such as oil & gas, \\nchemicals, steel, cement, and power generation. Linde has \\nextensive, proven expertise in the treatment of CO2 along \\nits entire value chain, including its separation, purification, \\ncompression, and liquefaction. Furthermore, the company \\nhelps its customers explore all their options to store or \\npotentially reuse captured carbon in other processes. \\nLinde also covers carbon sequestration and collaborates \\nwith other companies around the globe.\\nProjects for managing carbon are performed in the \\nframework \\nof \\nan \\nEPC \\n(engineering, \\nprocurement, \\nconstruction) or as a BOO (build, own, operate). At the same \\ntime, Linde invests in own plants and aims to minimize CO2 \\nemissions in its own production and operations.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t ccus@linde.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.engineering.linde.com/CO2\\nLINDE\\nLinde provides services along the whole value chain\\nLogistics and \\napplication\\nConditioning\\nCapture and Processing\\nCO2 content in sources\\n<3%\\n>98%\\nMedium\\nHigh\\nLow\\nPower generation\\nOlefins production\\nIron and steel production\\nCement and lime production\\nSteam Methane Reformer (SMR) \\nflue gas\\nSMR syngas\\nGasification\\nPartial Oxidation (POX)\\nAuto Thermal Reforming (ATR)\\nDirect Reduced Iron (DRI) process\\nOxyfuel processes\\nChemicals production\\nNatural gas sweetening\\nLinde technologies cover a broad range of CO2 containing gas streams\\nSources\\nFlue gas\\nNatural gas\\nSyngas\\nTailgas\\nOASE® blue\\nAmine wash\\nHISORP® CC\\nHISELECT®\\nRectisol®\\nPressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)\\nCO2 Processing Unit (CPU)\\nCompression\\nand dehydration\\nLiquefaction\\nTank farms &\\nloading stations\\nLogistics and\\ndistribution\\nStorage (CCS)\\nIndustrial\\nSynthesis\\nFood and \\nbeverage\\nElectronics\\n1\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n84\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nFOR GAS STREAMS WITH LOW CO₂ CONTENT\\nOASE® blue technology for Post-Combustion CO2 \\nCapture (PCC)\\nPost Combustion CO2 Capture (PCC) is a mature option \\nto capture CO2 from flue gas streams and thus ensure \\ncompliance with increasingly strict emissions thresholds. \\nWith the OASE® blue technology, CO2 is removed from \\nthe flue gas through chemical scrubbing with an aqueous \\namine-based solvent (Figure 2). It can be implemented \\ndownstream \\nof \\nexisting \\nassets \\nwithout \\ninterfering \\nwith upstream processes. For new assets, advanced \\nplant integration concepts and optimized total costs of \\nownership can be accomplished.\\nThe optimal design of turnkey facilities using OASE® blue \\ntechnology has been jointly developed by BASF and Linde. \\nIt leverages BASF’s capabilities in high-performance gas \\ntreatment technologies and Linde’s strength and proven \\ntrack record in design and delivery of turnkey industrial \\nplants. This results in an optimal interplay of solvent, \\nprocess design, equipment, and plant integration.\\nThe technology can be applied to flue gases from various \\nsources, such as different types of power plants, gas \\nmotors, steam generators, cement plants, and furnaces, \\njust to name a few. It easily covers a spectrum from 3 to \\n25 vol% CO₂ content in the flue gas. The technology allows \\nfor CO2 capture rates higher than 95% and generates \\na CO2 product purity of 99.9 vol% (dry). This purity is in \\ncompliance with the CO2 product specification in most \\ncases. Therefore, a further purification step may not be \\nnecessary.\\nThis high-performance CO2 capture technology in \\ncombination with our solid track record in large-scale gas \\ntreatment plants ensure low risk in EPC projects.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nCompact footprint\\n•\\t\\nHigh CO2 capture rate even at low CO2 concentrations\\n•\\t\\n20% lower energy consumption and 20% lower \\ncirculation rate compared to MEA solution\\n•\\t\\nLow solvent degradation rate even at elevated \\noxygen content in flue gas, and therefore low solvent \\nconsumption rate\\n•\\t\\nDifferent options for energy and heat integration\\n•\\t\\nUnique emissions control technology for minimum \\nenvironmental impact\\n•\\t\\n> 500 OASE® gas treatment plants in operation for \\ndifferent applications\\n•\\t\\n> 65,000 hours of operational experience with OASE® \\nblue\\n•\\t\\nReference plants in Germany and the United States\\nFOR GAS STREAMS WITH LOW TO MEDIUM CO₂ \\nCONTENT \\nAmine wash\\nAmine wash processes are the standard for CO2 removal \\nfrom steam methane reforming (SMR)-based hydrogen, \\nsyngas, and ammonia plants. CO2 capture from syngas \\n(Figure 3) is a proven technology, which achieves a CO2 \\nrecovery rate of 99.9%. Further advantages include a low \\ninvestment and favorable operating costs. Amine wash \\nunits can be installed in various areas of a plant, from low- \\nto high-pressure applications. They are also suitable for \\nadvanced CO2 removal as well as simultaneous removal \\nof CO2 and sulfur. Amine wash units can also be combined \\nwith other Linde technologies, such as the Linde Ammonia \\nConcept (LAC™), or with cryogenic processes for carbon \\nmonoxide production.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nState-of-the-art process\\n•\\t\\nCompact design\\n•\\t\\nFavorable design for low-pressure and high-pressure \\napplications\\n•\\t\\nCompatible for CO₂ removal and/or sulfur removal\\nFigure 2: OASE® blue post-combustion CO2 capture (PCC) process\\nFlue gas\\nPre-conditioning\\nPower generation / SMR /\\nProduction of cement, lime,\\niron, steel and olefins\\nAbsorption\\nEmissions control\\nPower generation / SMR /\\nProduction of cement, lime,\\niron, steel and olefins\\nHeat\\nrecovery\\nRegeneration\\nReclaiming\\nproduct\\nOASE® is a registered trademark of BASF SE\\nFigure 3: Amine wash-based CO2 capture process from syngas\\nCO2 containing \\nsyngas\\nAmine-based\\nCO2 removal system\\nGaseous CO2\\n(wet)\\nCO2 capture \\nrate >99.9%\\nSMR / ATR / POX\\nTemperature Swing\\nAbsorption (TSA)\\nGaseous (dry)\\nCO2 product\\nto sequestration\\nLean\\nsyngas\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n86\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nHISORP® CC \\nHISORP® CC is a mature carbon capturing process based \\non adsorption and cryogenic separation technologies. It \\nfollows a toolbox approach for customizing the process \\nsetup on a case-to-case basis with the aim to minimize the \\ncarbon footprint of CO2-emitting industries. \\nHISORP® CC can be applied for pre- and post-combustion \\ncarbon capture from various CO2-emitting sources. One \\napplication is for blue hydrogen production plants (both \\nfor new builds and retrofits), such as SMR, autothermal \\nreforming (ATR), partial oxidation (POX), and gasification. \\nHere, the toolbox approach shows its advantages by \\noptimally combining separation technologies to minimize \\ncarbon intensity and maximize hydrogen production. To \\nproduce blue hydrogen, HISORP® CC can be applied in \\nthe syngas or the tail gas route of the hydrogen Pressure \\nSwing Adsorption (PSA) of existing SMRs and ATRs. \\nEspecially for newly built ATR and POX reactors, HISORP® \\nCC is used for carbon capture in the tail gas of the H2 PSA \\nwith advantages regarding reliability of H2 production \\nand specific energy consumption for CO2 removal. In \\naddition, for existing SMRs, post-combustion CO2 capture \\n(PCC) from the flue gas is often the preferred approach to \\nminimize carbon intensity. Furthermore, HISORP® CC can \\nbe applied for PCC from various other flue gases of hard-\\nto-abate CO2 sources, e.g., cement and lime production, \\nsteel production, and power generation. \\nHISORP® CC achieves overall CO2 capture rates of up to \\n99.7% and is flexible in regard to scale (covering all relevant \\nindustrial sizes), CO2 feed concentration, the state of the \\nCO2 export product (in gaseous, liquid, or supercritical \\nform), and all purity levels (e.g., industrial grade or high-\\npurity food & beverage grade).\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nCombines Linde’s inhouse adsorptive and cryogenic \\ntechnologies\\n•\\t\\nIndividual HISORP® CC concepts for different feed \\nstreams by using Linde’s toolbox \\n•\\t\\nFlexible in size and scale\\n•\\t\\nAll individual process units within the HISORP® \\nCC process are in operation and have technology \\nreadiness level 9\\n•\\t\\nHISORP® CC can be adapted to various CO2 product \\nrequirements (gaseous/liquid/supercritical CO2, purity \\ngrade for sequestration or utilization)\\n•\\t\\nPackaged unit design (pre-manufactured & workshop \\ntested) for minimized on site construction effort\\n•\\t\\nCO2 capture rate >99%\\n•\\t\\nNo steam required (only electrical power)\\n•\\t\\nNo consumption, handling, makeup, and disposal of \\nchemical washing agents\\n•\\t\\nNo hydrogen losses when applied for CO2 capture in \\nblue hydrogen production\\n•\\t\\nIncludes \\nsmart \\npre-treatment \\nfor \\ntrace-impurity \\nremoval from flue gases  \\nHISELECT® powered by Evonik membranes\\nThe HISELECT® membrane was originally developed \\nwith a focus on natural gas and process gas industries. \\nFor natural gas resources with sour and acid fractions, \\nmembranes are an excellent alternative to conventional \\namine wash systems for acid gas removal. Driven by partial \\npressure difference, the HISELECT® membrane works like \\na semi-permeable barrier and separates the feed gas into \\na low-pressure permeate, rich in the gas to be removed \\nor recovered (such as CO2), and a high-pressure retentate \\nwith a low content of these components. A typical setup \\nof a gas processing unit with membranes is shown in \\nFigure 5. HISELECT® membranes efficiently remove CO2 \\nfrom natural gas over a wide flow rate and concentration \\nrange. The membranes demonstrate high selectivity \\nfor CO2, irrespective of high hydrogen content (HHC) \\nand CO2 partial pressure. Additionally, strong resistance \\nto unsaturated hydrocarbons, mechanical robustness, \\nand high resistance to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) result in \\nlow maintenance requirements and a rapid return on \\ninvestment. Beside applications in natural gas sweetening, \\nHISELECT® membrane technology can also be applied in \\nhybrid solutions with pressure-swing or temperature-swing \\nadsorption units to efficiently remove CO2 or other gases \\nfrom process gases.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nLow CAPEX and OPEX with high operational flexibility\\n•\\t\\nHigh separation capacity and high selectivity for \\nmaximum recovery rates and high purities\\n•\\t\\nAbility to tailor membrane capacity and selectivity to \\ncustomer requirements\\n•\\t\\nHigh volume efficiency due to optimized packing of \\nhollow fiber membranes\\n•\\t\\nProduction flexibility with wide feed stream condition \\nrange and supporting temperatures up to 100°C and \\npressures up to 200 bar\\n•\\t\\nResistant to CO2 partial pressure of up to 50 bar\\n•\\t\\nRobust and stable performance over time under harsh \\noperating conditions, reducing need for overdesign\\n•\\t\\nReduced pre-treatment effort due to excellent \\nresistance to heavy hydrocarbons and plasticization\\n•\\t\\nMechanical resistance to process fluctuations during \\noperation\\nFigure 4: HISORP® CC: Mature toolbox approach to reduce CO2 emissions from various industries.\\nFigure 5: Typical process design of a gas processing unit with HISELECT® for natural gas acid removal\\nRaw NG\\nupstream\\nMembrane\\nseparation II\\nMembrane pre-treatment\\nMembrane\\nseparation I\\nCO2 removal\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n88\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nRectisol® wash unit\\nLinde’s Rectisol® wash unit is able to extract sour gas \\nfrom syngas. The solution uses proven technology that \\nis adjusted to the actual needs and requirements of plant \\noperators. Its application in syngas is indicated in Figure 6. \\nIt is flexible with respect to upstream syngas generation as \\nwell as gas specification for downstream applications.\\nRectisol® can either be used for selective removal of \\nCO2 and sulfur, or it can be designed for designated \\nCO2 capture. In case of selective removal of CO2 and \\nsulfur, about 99% of the CO2 can be captured sulfur-free, \\nwhich means that no additional desulfurization units are \\nrequired. Rectisol® can be integrated with other Linde gas \\nprocessing technologies (such as downstream PSA and \\ncryogenic processes). Nominal capacities can vary widely, \\nfrom small-scale plants (30,000 Nm3/h feed gas) up to high \\none-train capacity plants (2,000,000 Nm3/h feed gas).\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nState-of-the-art process\\n•\\t\\nUsed for the treatment of feed gas containing sulfur \\nand CO2\\n•\\t\\nWater- and sulfur-free CO2 product for further \\nprocessing\\n•\\t\\nEnriched H2S fraction can be realized within one \\nprocess\\n•\\t\\nEasy solvent handling (chemically stable, low cost, and \\nreadily available on the market)\\n•\\t\\nEnhanced trace component handling\\n•\\t\\nLow product losses (H2 and CO)\\nFOR GAS STREAMS WITH MEDIUM TO HIGH CO₂ \\nCONTENT\\nCO₂ PSA\\nLinde’s pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system is an \\ninnovative, efficient, and low CAPEX technology for the \\nrecovery of CO2 from process gas streams covering a wide \\nconcentration range, such as from process gases including \\nsyngas streams and iron and steel production off-gases, as \\nshown in Figure 7.\\nIn the case of syngas, PSA technology is used to recover \\nCO2 from upstream, high-pressure raw syngas streams \\nor low-pressure off-gas streams generated by SMR or \\ngasification processes. In many cases, PSA technology is \\na more cost-effective alternative to conventional washing \\nsystems due to its lower investment and operating costs.\\nIn the iron and steel industry, PSA technology can be \\nused to efficiently remove CO2 in direct reduction or \\nblast furnace off-gases. The process removes maximum \\namounts of CO2 yet leaves valuable gas components, \\nsuch as H2, CO, and CH4, in the gas stream for further \\nprocessing.\\nA CO2 PSA unit can achieve a product purity of up to 95 \\nvol%, with unit capacities ranging from a few thousand \\nNm3/h to around 300,000 Nm3/h.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nMature and robust purification technology\\n•\\t\\nNo electricity consumption\\n•\\t\\nNo steam required for regeneration (thereby no \\nadditional CO₂ generation)\\n•\\t\\nNo solvent is applied\\n•\\t\\nNo negative environmental impact due to the \\nemissions of solvent traces in exhausts or CO₂ product\\n•\\t\\nNo extra cost for solvent makeup and handling\\n•\\t\\nLow CAPEX and OPEX \\nFigure 6: Typical Rectisol® process design for CO2 capture from syngas\\nSMR / ATR / POX\\nCO2 + H2S / COS\\ncontaining syngas\\nRectisol® wash unit\\nCO2 removal system\\nLean syngas\\nGaseous CO2 (dry)\\nCO2 capture rate >99%\\nH2S / COS fraction to SRU\\nGaseous\\nCO2 product to\\nsequestration\\nFigure 7: Typical CO2 PSA process design for efficient capture of CO2 from process gases\\nLow / medium / high CO2\\nconcentration source\\nCO2 PSA\\nCO2 export\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n90\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCO₂ PROCESSING UNIT\\nLinde’s CO2 Processing Unit (CPU) is applied to purify CO2 \\n-containing gas streams to provide typical CO2 product \\nspecifications for a variety of industrial applications. \\nTypical CPU feed gas streams are CO2-rich gases \\ngenerated from CO2 capture processes, flue gases from \\noxy-fuel combustion processes, and CO2-rich off-gases \\nfrom chemical plants, such as ammonia, ethylene oxide, \\nmethanol, or ethanol plants. As shown in Figure 8, an \\nextended toolbox of processes and technologies allows for \\nthe removal of different trace components, such as sulfur- \\nor nitrogen-containing compounds, hydrocarbons, heavy \\nmetals, and air gases.\\nLinde initially developed and commercialized the CPU \\ntechnology to treat oxy-fuel flue gases at an oxy-fuel lignite-\\nfired power plant at Schwarze Pumpe, Germany. More \\nrecently, Linde’s CPU has been considered for oxy-fuel \\nprojects in the cement industry. Mature CO2 processing \\ntechnologies in combination with Linde’s track record \\nin large-scale gas-treatment plants ensure low-risk EPC \\nprojects for clients.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nMature and robust purification technology\\n•\\t\\nReference plant in Schwarze Pumpe, Germany, for \\ntreatment of oxy-fuel flue gases\\n•\\t\\nMultiple EPC and Linde operation references for \\nproduction of food-, chemical-, and electronics-grade \\nCO2\\n•\\t\\nStandardized and skid-mounted modules as well as \\nlarge-scale customized, stick-built solutions available\\nCO₂ COMPRESSION/DEHYDRATION\\nCO2 compression and dehydration (see Figure 9) are the \\nmost common process units in all CO2 plants. If the CO2 \\npurity already meets specification requirements after the \\nCO2 capture process, the downstream CO2 treatment \\nusually involves compression and dehydration. It is also a \\ntypical process unit for CPU and CO2 liquefaction plants.\\nDepending on the plant capacity, different types of \\ncompressors can be used, such as piston, screw, and turbo \\ncompressors. And depending on local costs for utilities, \\nelectrical or steam-driven compressors can be employed.\\nThe targeted CO2 product pressure is defined by the \\ndownstream application or distribution concept. Pressures \\nof up to a maximum of 215 bar have been realized.\\nCompressor stations not only compress the main CO2 \\nfeed gas stream, but can also be used to integrate and \\ncompress boil-off gases from storage tanks and other CO2- \\nrich vents from the plant.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nMature and robust technology\\n•\\t\\nVarious options for compressor type\\n•\\t\\nMultiple references for different scales worldwide\\nFigure 8: Typical CO2 Processing Unit (CPU) design\\nOxyfuel plant /\\nCO2 capture plant / \\nChemical plant\\nproduct\\nLiquefaction and\\nrectification with\\nrefrigeration unit\\nPurification\\ntoolbox II\\nPurification\\ntoolbox I\\nCompression\\nRaw CO2\\nFigure 9: Typical CO2 compression and drying process design\\nChemical plant /\\nCO2 capture plant\\nDrying\\nCO2 compression\\nRaw CO2\\nproduct\\nVent\\nBoil-off from\\nstorage\\nOther\\nrecycles\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n92\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCO2 LIQUEFACTION\\nCO2 liquefaction, as shown in Figure 10, can be an \\nadditional process step attached to a CO2 capture and \\nprocessing plant. For example, when CO2 is purified \\nby means of cryogenic separation (rectification), CO2 \\nliquefaction is involved. In addition, CO2 liquefaction might \\nbe required because of the CO2 logistics concept when \\ntransporting it via road trailers, trains, or ships.\\nLinde’s largest liquefaction plant, in operation since 2015, \\nis producing approximately 1,350 tons of CO2 per day. The \\nCO2 is used in enhanced methanol and urea production.\\nAdditional large-scale plant references can be found \\nin Norway and the United States for carbon capture \\nand storage (CCS) and food applications, respectively. \\nDepending on local needs, the integration concept, safety \\nconsiderations, and cost efficiency, different refrigerants \\ncan be considered for use in the refrigeration unit.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nMature and robust technology\\n•\\t\\nVarious options for refrigerants available\\n•\\t\\nExtended reference list at various product capacities\\n•\\t\\nStandardized and skid-mounted modules as well as \\nlarge-scale customized, stick-built solutions available\\nCO₂ TANK FARM AND LOADING STATIONS\\nLinde offers state-of-the-art tank farms to store liquid CO2. \\nA range of configurations are available. For example, \\nthe storage tanks can be spherical or cylindrical (vertical \\nor horizontal). Tank farms can be equipped with boil-off\\n \\ngas re-liquefaction as well as integration of gas return \\nlines. Moreover, an essential component of a tank farm \\nis a loading station. While most tank farms feature trailer \\nloading stations, Linde has also built train and ship loading \\nstations (see Figure 11). This covers the whole range of \\npotential distribution concepts.\\nHighlights\\n•\\t\\nExtended reference list at various product capacities\\n•\\t\\nHigh degree of standardization and skidded packages \\nto reduce CAPEX\\nFigure 10: Typical CO2 liquefaction process design\\nChemical plant /\\nCO2 capture plant /\\nCO2 processing units\\nRaw CO2\\nRectification\\nSub-cooler\\nRefrigeration unit\\nLiquefier\\nVent gas\\nVent gas\\ntreatment\\nLiquid CO2\\nto storage\\nFigure 11: CO2 tank farm and loading station\\nCO2 liquefier\\nLiquid CO2\\nBoil-off\\nliquefaction\\nStorage\\nDistribution\\nBoil-off to\\ncompression\\nGas return\\nlines\\nShip loading\\nTrain loading\\nTruck loading\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n94\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSECTION 1: TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT\\nNET Power has developed and optimized its technology \\nduring more than a decade of research, development, \\nand operational demonstration. From the very beginning, \\nthe NET Power Cycle was designed to overcome the \\nchallenges faced by both conventional and renewable \\nenergy technologies pursuing grid-scale decarbonization. \\nIt solves the energy \\\"trilemma\\\" by providing clean, \\naffordable, and dispatchable power. By meeting these \\nthree criteria, NET Power is able to integrate into existing \\ngrid infrastructure and markets while delivering additional \\nbenefits, such as capturing nearly all carbon emissions.\\nNET Power achieves this through its unique combination \\nof oxy-combustion of natural gas with a supercritical CO2 \\npower cycle. In the process, natural gas is burned using a \\nmixture of oxygen and CO2. The combustion produces CO2 \\nand water, which are added to the CO2 process stream \\nat high pressure. The high-pressure fluid flows through a \\nturboexpander, which produces power and condenses \\nwater from the process fluid while capturing the CO2. Most \\nCO2 returns to the process through compression and \\npumping, while a stream of continuously captured CO2 \\nis removed from the process at high purity and pressure \\nsuitable for permanent storage or utilization. The result: \\ncarbon emissions are contained during the process, so \\nthere's no need for costly post-combustion capture.\\nIn more detail, The NET Power Cycle can be broken into \\nseven steps: \\n1.\\t\\nAir Separation: The NET Power Cycle begins by \\npurifying and compressing atmospheric air into the \\nseparation systems. An insulated, specially engineered \\n“cold box” then separates the air into its component \\ngas molecules (including oxygen, argon, and nitrogen).\\n2.\\t Oxy-Combustion: The oxygen filtered out in the air \\nseparation unit (ASU) is combusted with natural gas \\nand recuperated supercritical carbon dioxide in a \\nseries of parallel, direct-fired combustors feeding \\nthe turbine-generator. The natural gas is burned in \\n99.5% pure oxygen and CO2 resulting in a stream of \\npredominantly steam and CO2.\\n3.\\t Turboexpander: The combustion process creates a \\nhigh-pressure CO2 working fluid that expands and \\nturns the turboexpander to generate electricity.\\n4.\\t \\t\\nHeat Exchanger: The turboexpander reduces the \\npressure of the CO2, which exhausts to a series of \\nrecuperative heat exchangers to cool.\\n5.\\t Water Separator: The byproducts of the oxy-\\ncombustion process are water and CO2. As the \\nworking fluid cools, it is routed through a condensed \\nwater circulation loop that condenses the water vapor \\nand separates the low-pressure, high purity CO2.\\n6.\\t Compressor: Some of the high purity CO2 is removed \\nand exported via pipeline for sequestration or \\nutilization, and the remaining CO2 is re-compressed \\nin adiabatic and isothermal processes, where process \\nheat and mass are recycled.\\n7.\\t\\nRecirculation: \\nRecycled \\nCO2 \\nis \\nreheated \\nand \\nrecirculated to be mixed with natural gas and oxygen \\nin the combustor, starting the cycle again.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nThe utility-scale NET Power system is being designed to achieve the following benefits:\\n•\\t\\nClean: Average Carbon Intensity (CI) of 58g CO2e/kWh and can capture CO2 at rates >97%, providing for 87% CO2 \\nemissions reduction in comparison to conventional Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) technology. No risk of NOx, \\nSOx, or particulate emissions.\\n•\\t\\nReliable: Provides 24/7 dispatchable, baseload power with a targeted capacity factor of 92.5%, power ramp rates of \\n10% to 15% per minute, and 0% to 100% load following capabilities while capturing all emissions.\\n•\\t\\nLow-Cost: Initial NET Power plants target a levelized cost of energy between $26-$55 $/MWh.\\n•\\t\\nUtilizes Existing Infrastructure: NET Power plants can leverage existing pipeline and electricity transmission networks \\nfor planning and operations.\\n“THE ENERGY TRIFECTA” - CLEAN, RELIABLE, & LOW-COST ENERGY FROM NATURAL GAS. \\nNET Power delivers the “energy trifecta” – clean, reliable, \\nand affordable energy from natural gas. \\nNET Power combines a semi-closed loop cycle that \\ninherently captures CO2 and produces power. The \\ncompany combines oxy-combustion and a supercritical \\nCO2 (sCO2) power cycle to deliver on-demand natural gas \\npower while capturing nearly all emissions. The CO2 from \\noxy-combustion is recirculated back to the combustor and \\na portion is exported for utilization or sequestration.\\nNET Power’s recent momentum is built upon more than \\na decade of milestones, including key investments, \\nconstruction and testing at a 50 MWth demonstration \\nfacility in La Porte, Texas, a slate of strategic engagements, \\nand the announcement of its first commercial facility in \\nWest Texas. In February 2022, NET Power formed a Joint \\nDevelopment Agreement with Baker Hughes to advance \\nthe design of key turbomachinery and equipment used in \\nthe NET Power Cycle. In June 2023, NET Power completed \\nits business combination with RICE Acquisition Corp II \\n(NYSE:RONI), making Net Power a publicly traded company \\n(NYSE:NPWR).\\nCONTACT\\nScott Martin, Chief Technology Officer\\nEmail: \\t netpower.media@netpower.com\\nNET POWER\\n•\\t\\nCompact Footprint: Less than 50% footprint of a similarly sized CCGT facility with post-combustion capture; further \\nenables use of brownfields sites.\\n•\\t\\nValue of Carbon: The NET Power Cycle inherently captures high-purity, pressurized CO2 for sequestration or utilization \\nin Enhanced Oil Recovery, eFuels, synthetic chemicals, and product integration.\\nFigure 1: The NET Power Process\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n96\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nFigure 2: NET Power’s La Porte Demonstration Facility\\nNET Power is developing a 300 MW Class utility-scale \\npower plant producing clean, dispatchable energy \\nalongside 850 Mtpa of high-pressure, high-purity CO2 \\nand 500 gallons of water per minute at a target net \\nefficiency approaching 50% for the first generation of \\nplants. Electricity output is designed to be ramped at a \\nrate of 10%-15% per minute with full carbon capture across \\nthe operating spectrum. Meanwhile, criteria pollutants are \\navoided and CO2 emissions are captured as an inherent \\nfeature of the cycle.\\nThis performance is possible by using pure oxygen \\ninstead of air in the combustion process; the byproducts \\nof combustion are primarily water and CO2. Rather than \\nintaking new air with each cycle and releasing emissions \\ninto the atmosphere like a traditional gas turbine, the cycle \\nextracts the remaining heat from the exhausted working \\nfluid and reintroduces a substantial portion of CO2 back \\ninto the turboexpander after removing the water. The \\nsemi-closed-loop cycle recirculates the vast majority of \\nthe combustion-derived CO2 as the working fluid used for \\npower generation in the turboexpander. In this way, CO2 \\nis inherently captured at high pressure as a fundamental \\nfeature of the cycle and not as an add-on process. \\nThe use of sCO2 as the working fluid offers two main \\nadvantages. First, CO2 has a higher specific heat than other \\ngases (e.g., air) due to its high molecular weight. Second, \\nsupercritical CO2 has the density and compressibility of \\na liquid while having gas-like viscosity. These physical \\nproperties enable NET Power facilities to use smaller \\nequipment when compared to similarly rated conventional \\npower plants. Its high-pressure operation also allows \\nfor significant power production at the turboexpander. \\nIn addition, the high density of a CO2 working fluid \\nallows pumping to replace centrifugal compression for \\npressurization, which further enhances cycle efficiency. \\nSmaller equipment requires a smaller footprint (3.24 to \\n5.38 ha for NET Power plant) and, therefore, land use for \\nthe plant is approximately 40 to 50% less in comparison \\nto similar output gas-fired power plants (7.5 to 11 ha for \\ncombined cycle gas turbine).\\nSECTION 2: DEMONSTRATION FACILITY\\nIn order to demonstrate the NET Power Cycle at scale, \\nthe company designed and built a test facility in La Porte, \\nTexas. The facility, commissioned in 2018, covers five acres \\nand has over 1,500 operational hours as of October 2022. \\nDuring testing, the test cycle underwent start-up, shutdown, \\nand transient/excursion tests at key operating points. This \\nincluded building CO2 inventory, shedding CO2 inventory, \\nverification of process chemistry, validation of control and \\nsafety systems, operations of pumps and compressors, \\nand testing of process stability and controllability. In late \\n2021, the facility achieved synchronization with the Texas \\nERCOT grid. \\nDuring this testing, the facility completed multiple 24-\\nhour test campaigns while further validating stop/\\nstart sequences, steady state operation, and ramping \\noperations, allowing for the refining of the plant control \\nsystem. The facility has also successfully exceeded \\nnumerous utility-scale plant specifications, including \\nturboexpander inlet temperature and balance of plant \\noperating pressures. In addition to achieving these \\nmilestones in technical validation, the plant informs the \\ndesign of NET Power's commercial product - the utility-\\nscale 300 MW Class plant. The NET Power test facility also \\ndrives further development of key intellectual property \\nand procedures, as well as enabling hands-on training for \\nfuture NET Power technical, operations, and maintenance \\npersonnel. \\nSECTION 3: JOINT DEVELOPMENT AGREEMENT (JDA)\\nNET Power formed a strategic partnership with Baker \\nHughes in February 2022 through a Joint Development \\nAgreement (JDA) supporting the technical and commercial \\ndeployment of NET Power’s technology. As part of the \\nagreement, Baker Hughes has invested cash equity into \\nNET Power and is partnering in the global development \\nand commercialization of NET Power technology. \\nAs part of this technical development program, Baker \\nHughes is leveraging its advanced technology capabilities \\nto develop supercritical CO2 turboexpanders and other \\ncritical pumping and compression technology for NET \\nPower facilities. Baker Hughes also brings a deep \\nexperience in systems integration and process knowledge, \\nwhich will help benefit NET Power's design and \\ndeployment. The structure of the JDA facilitates the sharing \\nof best practices and lessons learned, while also aligning \\ncommercial efforts globally through joint marketing of the \\ntechnology.\\nThe JDA program has entered its development stage in \\n2023. Testing on the first industrial-scale combustor and \\nturboexpander will begin in 2025 at La Porte in preparation \\nfor the first utility-scale deployment and commercial \\noperation of a full-scale NET Power facility.\\nSECTION 4: NEXT STEPS\\nIn November 2022, NET Power announced that its first \\nutility-scale plant will be built in West Texas. The new plant \\nwill capture CO2 at unit-wide rates above 97% and utilize \\nboth currently operating CO2 transport and subsurface \\ninfrastructure to store captured CO2. The project will be \\nsupported by a strategic consortium of partners consisting \\nof leading developers, power plant operators, CO2 \\ntransportation & storage experts, offtake specialists, and \\ntechnology providers. Additionally, NET Power intends to \\nleverage existing tax incentives, such as 45Q, and DOE \\nfunding opportunities like grants and loans, to support and \\nfurther de-risk the first project. The successful deployment \\nof NET Power's first utility-scale plant will pave the way for \\nother commercial projects already in development.\\nNET Power is currently engaged in discussions globally \\nwith companies and governments pursuing clean, \\nreliable, and low-cost power. Many global markets present \\nincredible opportunities, and NET Power is actively \\nidentifying these bright spots to ensure decision-makers \\nare aware of the technology’s immediate potential. \\nSeveral use cases present immediate hub opportunities. \\nPairing NET Power with Direct Air Capture (DAC) is one \\nexciting application. DAC deployments require significant \\namounts of reliable, low-cost, emissions-free power to \\nmaximize their negative emissions impact and economics. \\nDAC facilities require clean, baseload power generation \\nand are unable to quickly ramp in response to variable \\nrenewable energy (VRE) production. Alternatively, DAC \\nprojects are forced to rely on grid backup, storage, or grid \\npower itself to operate at high capacity factors, driving up \\ncosts and impacting overall carbon intensity. \\nNET Power has emerged as a leader in solving the major \\nchallenges of large-scale DAC deployment and can \\naccelerate the economic case for direct carbon removal. \\nNET Power is also exploring integration with chemical \\nproduction facilities that have both on-site power demand \\nand a utilization opportunity for the CO2 produced in the \\nCycle.\\nAnother application for NET Power’s technology is in \\nreplacing retiring baseload plants. Approximately 500 GW \\nof natural gas, coal, and nuclear retirement candidates \\nin the United States are within 40 miles of CO2 storage. \\nThis proximity, coupled with NET Power’s unique ability to \\nleverage brownfield facilities due to its compact footprint, \\nmeans an extraordinary number of brownfield sites can \\nbe repowered with clean, dispatchable, and low-cost \\nNET Power facilities. NET Power has received significant \\ninquiries from independent power producers and electric \\nutilities, especially in regions with high VRE production or \\nretiring baseload assets.\\nNET Power is uniquely positioned to deliver the energy \\ntrifecta of low-cost, reliable, and clean electricity and has \\nestablished the partnerships and pathways to deliver on \\nthis mission. NET Power has successfully demonstrated its \\ntechnology at the 50 MWth scale and will soon deliver its \\nfirst utility-scale 300 MW Class facility. The company, along \\nwith its commercial and technical partners, are accelerating \\nthe energy transition and the CCUS market.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n98\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nEnzymatic carbon capture is reliable\\n•\\t\\nRequires less equipment, lowering the risk of potential downtime\\n•\\t\\nInvolves no prototype equipment – everything is built at scale\\n•\\t\\nAvoids the risk of more stringent regulatory requirements \\nEnzymatic carbon capture is efficient\\n•\\t\\nYields high purity CO2 (≥ 99%)\\n•\\t\\nCan capture > 95% of CO2 in flue gas\\n•\\t\\nRuns on less costly, low-grade residual heat \\n•\\t\\nInvolves less equipment to build, operate and maintain\\n•\\t\\nTolerates flue gas contaminants (no pre-treatment necessary)\\nEnzymatic carbon capture is sustainable\\n•\\t\\nUses a non-toxic, biodegradable solvent\\n•\\t\\nProduces no toxic waste and forms no toxic aerosols\\n•\\t\\nSolvent relies on a renewable resources in the production \\nENZYMATIC CARBON CAPTURE\\nAmines enable you to capture carbon efficiently. But did \\nyou know there is an equally efficient solution for carbon \\ncapture that is truly sustainable? It also can cost less. By \\nreplacing amines with a powerful biocatalyst – enzymes \\n– you not only avoid the risks associated with toxic \\nchemicals. You can reap the rewards for decades.\\nEnzymatic carbon capture is a proven technology that can \\nmake your process more reliable, efficient and sustainable. \\nIf your plant – like many – produces waste heat, you have \\nan especially compelling reason to use biocatalysts.\\nNovozymes and Saipem (see separate listing) have joined \\nforces to deliver carbon capture solutions based on \\nenzyme (biocatalyst) technology. Novozymes is the world \\nleader in industrial enzymes and has unmatched expertise \\nin solving industrial challenges with biotechnology. Saipem \\nis a carbon capture process and equipment expert with \\nmore than 60 years of demonstrated expertise in EPC. \\nTogether we are changing the future of carbon capture. \\nTogether we can improve yours.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t KLSL@novozymes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.novozymes.com\\nNOVOZYMES\\nDESCRIPTION\\nARE AMINES WORTH THE RISK?\\nThe overall process of amine-based carbon capture is \\nsound. However, its dependence on toxic chemicals is \\nsteeped in uncertainty. \\nSome of the current risks you face with an amine-based \\nsystem:\\n•\\t\\nThe energy-intensive high temperatures required for \\nthe process are costly. Amines have a parasitic load \\n(energy penalty) of 20-30% for CO2 capture; experts \\nforecast that amine systems can get only 10-20% more \\nefficient.\\n•\\t\\nThe toxic degradation products generated need \\nadditional handling.\\n•\\t\\nMore – and more costly – equipment is required than \\nwith our biotech-enabled alternative. More equipment \\nequals higher maintenance costs and greater \\ndowntime risks.\\n•\\t\\nWorker health issues can arise.\\n•\\t\\nAmines, produced from the hazardous chemicals \\nethylene oxide and ammonia, strain Earth’s limited \\nresources. \\nLonger term, it also pays to consider these risks:\\n•\\t\\nRegulations are likely to change as the push to achieve \\nnet-zero emissions intensifies and more plants use \\namine-based carbon capture. \\n•\\t\\nMeeting the IPCC’s goal of capturing 1,000 million \\ntonnes CO2 in 2030 will require doubling amine MEA \\nproduction. What will regulators say to twice as many \\namines based on hazardous chemicals flooding the \\nmarket every year?\\n•\\t\\nWill you be allowed to keep using chemicals in the \\nsame way? Will you want to? Where will plants displace \\nmillions of tonnes of amines and other second-\\ngeneration solvents?\\n•\\t\\nPressures on processing and processing equipment \\nare likely to increase, putting more limits on your plant, \\nwastewater stream and sludge.\\nBIOTECHNOLOGY IS TRANSFORMING INDUSTRY \\nNovozymes already helps more than 30 different industries \\nboost efficiency and sustainability with enzymes (biological \\ncatalysts). Enzymes are proteins found everywhere in \\nnature. When one substance needs to be transformed into \\nanother, nature uses enzymes to speed up and control the \\nprocess.\\nFor example, our industrial enzymes have been enabling \\nlow-carbon fuel technologies and sustainable biorefining \\nfor decades. \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n100\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nREPLACE AMINES WITH BIOTECHNOLOGY\\nTo minimize the risk and maximize the value of carbon \\ncapture, forward-thinking businesses are considering \\nreplacing toxic amines with biocatalysts.\\nThis proven biotechnology, called enzymatic carbon \\ncapture, is powerful enough to meet the toughest industrial \\nchallenges. And it’s sustainable enough to stand up to the \\ntoughest scrutiny. \\nBIOCATALYSTS BENEFIT YOUR BUSINESS TODAY AND \\nTOMORROW\\nEnzymatic carbon capture delivers CO2 absorption capacity \\nand kinetics on par with amine solutions. It has a capture \\nefficiency of above 95% with CO2 purity of >99%.\\nBiocatalytic enzyme technology can strip CO2 at lower \\ntemperatures, saving valuable energy. Unlike the amine-\\nbased approach, enzymatic carbon capture does not \\nrequire costly, energy-consuming steam. Instead, it \\nconsumes a low level of the plant’s energy output, \\ntranslating into up to 20% lower energy costs if waste heat \\nis available.\\nYou also have less equipment to build, operate and \\nmaintain with enzymatic carbon capture and there’s \\nno prototype equipment – everything is built at scale, \\nsimplifying implementation.\\nThere are no worker health issues to handle and no need \\nto clean the wastewater when replacing solvent with a \\nbenign salt solution and biodegradable enzymes. No \\ntoxic degradation products or aerosols need handling or \\ncleaning. Operators face fewer risks.\\nONLY NOVOZYMES AND SAIPEM CAN DELIVER A \\nBIOLOGICAL SOLUTION THAT STANDS UP TO YOUR \\nTOUGHEST CHALLENGES\\nOur enzymatic carbon capture process is very similar to the \\nestablished post-combustion process – it simply replaces \\ntoxic amines with biocatalytic enzymes. And, it requires \\nless equipment.\\nThe novel catalyzed solvent solution offers strong \\nchemical stability, non-toxicity, non-volatility and low-grade \\ntemperature regeneration. \\nThe catalyst is an enzyme type used by all living organisms \\nto regulate CO2. Called carbonic anhydrase, this biocatalyst \\nis used in the absorber, along with carbonate. When the \\nflue gas passes through the absorber, the enzyme converts \\nthe CO2 to bicarbonate, binding it in the bicarbonate. When \\nthe circulating bicarbonate fluid reaches the stripper, it \\nmust be heated to only 75°C to release the CO2 – rather \\nthan the 100°C required for amine-based carbon capture.\\nEnzymatic CO2 regulation has been evolved by nature over \\nmillions of years. Highly efficient, the carbonic anhydrase \\nenzyme provides 1 million catalytic reactions per second \\nper molecule.\\nOur unique partnership combines Novozymes’ cutting-\\nedge enzyme expertise with Saipem’s unmatched carbon \\ncapture processes and equipment know-how. Saipem \\nsupplies the carbon capture process and equipment; we \\nsupply the enzymes that optimize the process.\\nWe bring our game-changing catalyzed solvent technology \\nand world-class project delivery capabilities. Thanks to our \\nglobal supply chain and technical expertise, we have a \\ntrack record of delivering reliable solutions to industry for \\nmore than 70 years.\\nYOU CAN START YOUR CARBON CAPTURE PROJECT \\nNOW\\nEnzymatic carbon capture offers the same level of maturity \\n(TRL-8) as advanced amine and other second-generation \\nsolvents but has much greater potential.\\nSaipem and Novozymes are offering both “CO2 Solutions \\nby Saipem” to the market and “Bluenzyme,” a standardized, \\nmodular turnkey solution that reduces implementation from \\n3 years to 1.5 years (see Saipem listing for details). \\nNow you can achieve your decarbonization goals with \\noperationally and environmentally sustainable technology. \\nEnzymatic carbon capture from Novozymes and Saipem \\nminimizes your risks and maximizes value.\\nNovozymes’ industrial enzymes are used at pulp and paper mills around the world to reduce the use of harsh chemicals such as \\nchlorine dioxide in pulp bleaching.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n102\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nA STEP-CHANGE IN INNOVATION\\nCarbon capture is central to any realistic plan for \\ndecarbonizing \\nhard-to-abate \\nsectors, \\naccording \\nto \\nthe International Energy Agency (IEA). However, the \\nIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states \\nthat “deployment of carbon capture lags severely behind \\nthe schedule required to meet global climate mitigation \\ntargets”. Traditional liquid amine systems are currently the \\ngo-to method for capturing CO2, however, the extreme \\namount of energy required to regenerate the solvents \\nresults in a cost barrier that has been prohibitive to the \\ntechnology’s widespread adoption. Nuada has developed \\na \\npatented, \\nultra-energy \\nefficient \\ncarbon \\ncapture \\ntechnology that overcomes these deployment barriers and \\nenables end-users in hard-to-abate industries to achieve \\ntheir Net Zero targets whilst minimizing the impact on their \\nbottom line.\\nNuada is building advanced filtration machines that utilize \\nground-breaking MOF solid sorbent materials and operate \\nvia vacuum swing adsorption (VPSA) - a mature already \\nscaled, gas separation technology. The technology enables \\nthe efficient separation of CO2 from process emissions via \\na “heatless” and solvent-free process. By using pressure \\nrather than heat, the energy requirements for carbon \\ncapture decrease by up to 80% versus the state-of-the-\\nart scrubbing solutions. This represents a step change in \\ninnovation that slash the operating costs that long held \\nback the mass adoption of carbon capture in hard-to-abate \\nindustries.\\nNuada’s technology is an end-of-pipe (EoP) solution \\ndesigned for point-source carbon capture. During the \\nprocess, the CO2-rich flue gas is conditioned and routed to \\nthe carbon capture unit where carbon dioxide is selectively \\ncaptured by the MOF filters. The lean flue gas returns to the \\nstack to be released into the atmosphere. Once the MOF \\nfilters are suitably saturated, they are regenerated by using \\nvacuum (instead of heat) and release the captured CO2 into \\na high-purity stream, ready for downstream operations. \\nDuring this regeneration, the CO2-rich feed gas is diverted \\nto another parallel column, yielding a continuous removal \\nprocess. \\nNUADA SCOUT – TAILORED PILOTING PROGRAMMES \\nNuada is offering tailored pilot programmes through Nuada \\nScout, a service that helps industrial emitters to assure \\ntheir decision-making on carbon capture investments \\nwith accurate field data. Nuada Scout is an end-to-end \\ntesting service that allows industrial emitters to experience \\nthe benefits of Nuada’s advanced carbon capture \\ntechnology through a short demonstration campaign. This \\ncomprehensive service includes transport, installation, \\noperation, testing, and decommissioning of a pilot plant \\nconfigured to site-specific flue gas. Nuada Scout provides \\na prefabricated, containerized plant for quick and accurate \\nin-field assessment of Nuada’s carbon capture technology. \\nThis ISO container carries the core unit operations needed \\nto evaluate carbon capture at a 1tpd (one tonne per day) \\nscale, with scope to bolt-on post-treatment packages for \\nfull chain CCUS (carbon capture, utilization, and storage) \\nassessments. The installation of this plant-in-a-box requires \\nlittle site preparation and minimal utility usage. All needed \\nto get started is the plant’s emissions plus an electrical \\nsupply. Emitters can benchmark Nuada’s ultra-energy \\nefficient technology using real infield data and verify the \\nbenefits through a short and tailored test programme. This \\nresource-efficient testing service provides the benefit to \\ngain critical operational insights and de-risk investment \\ndecisions when selecting the optimal technology for a \\nplant. \\nCAPTURING THE FUTURE\\nNuada has formed partnerships with the Global Cement \\nand Concrete Association (GCCA) and leading cement \\ncompanies such as Buzzi Unicem, Cementir Holding, \\nand Heidelberg Materials, to pilot test the technology \\nin their cement production sites. The first pilot plant \\nby Nuada will be operational during the summer of \\n2023, with trials starting from Buzzi Unicem’s cement \\nplant in Monselice, Italy. Additionally, Nuada is actively \\ndiscussing \\ndemonstration \\nopportunities \\nwith \\nother \\nsuitable sectors as steelmaking, waste-to-energy, and \\nblue hydrogen production, to verify the technology’s in-\\nfield performance and flexibility for treating various off-gas \\nstreams. Successful demonstrations would help establish \\nNuada’s presence in the CCUS market and expedite the \\ntechnology’s commercial deployment. Compared to other \\nnext-generation technologies, the scale-up route for Nuada \\nis less challenging since the manufacturing capabilities \\nand supply chains for VPSA systems are readily available \\nto facilitate rapid large-scale deployment. Moreover, \\nNuada has successfully scaled up the in-house sorbent \\nproduction, being already able to meet the material \\nrequirements of commercial-scale units.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nUltra-Energy Efficient: By using pressure instead of heat to separate CO2, the energy penalty is reduced by up to 80% \\ncompared to incumbent solutions. \\n•\\t\\nNo Complex Integration:  No steam is required; The machines are powered solely by electricity and can be easily \\nintegrated into existing processes. \\n•\\t\\nMature Process Technology: The manufacturing capabilities and supply chains already exist for rapid large-scale \\ndeployment, unlike other 2nd generation technologies. VPSA is a mature and proven separation technology that has \\nbeen industrially applied at scale for decades. \\n•\\t\\nFlexible Applications: The use of very selective MOF sorbents enables to treat a broad spectrum of off-gases and \\ncapture CO2 from multiple point sources. \\nTHE NEXT GENERATION OF CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY\\nNuada is a vertically integrated carbon capture company \\nthat strives to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors through \\nits \\nproprietary \\nnext-generation \\ntechnology. \\nNuada \\ndeploys filtration machines by combining advanced solid \\nadsorbents (Metal-Organic Frameworks or MOFs) with \\nproven vacuum swing technology (VPSA) to vacuum \\nCO2 out of industrial emissions through a “heatless” and \\nsolvent-free process. This represents a step change in \\ninnovation and yields an ultra-energy efficient system that \\nreduces the energy penalty by up to 80% compared to \\nincumbent solutions. Nuada has successfully demonstrated \\nits advanced CO2 capture technology at bench scale and is \\nnow piloting the technology to the field with the backing \\nof the Global Cement & Concrete Association (GCCA) \\nand leading cement companies. The first pilot plant will \\nbe installed and tested in Buzzi Unicem’s cement plant \\nin Monselice (Italy) in the summer of 2023, while Nuada \\nis actively discussing demonstration campaigns in other \\nsuitable sectors such as steel, waste-to-energy, and blue \\nhydrogen.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t contact@nuadaCO2.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.nuadaCO2.com\\nNUADA\\n•\\t\\nScalable: The modular nature of the technology provides the flexibility for capturing CO2 at different scales and de-\\nrisking carbon capture investments. \\n•\\t\\nMinimum environmental impact: The filters consist of stable solid sorbents with minimum environmental impact, \\nunlike solvents which can evaporate and release hazardous emissions. \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n104\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nThe CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System can capture up to 99% of CO2 from post-combustion streams and is proven for CCS \\nat a 1 Mtpa CO2-capture scale. It offers:\\n•\\t\\na high-purity CO2 stream suitable for sequestration or utilization projects;\\n•\\t\\na highly adaptable, standalone system suitable for retrofitting and greenfield developments across a wide variety of \\nindustrial applications, gas flow rates and CO2 concentrations;\\n•\\t\\nlow operating costs; \\n•\\t\\ncontinuous technological developments to reduce capture costs and energy requirements through extensive research \\nand development, targeted piloting and demonstration campaigns;\\n•\\t\\noptimum integration with wider plant energy, space and utilities provisions; \\n•\\t\\npilot plant performance verification for in-situ flue gases for every type of emitter;\\n•\\t\\nwide range of unit sizes, from small and mid-sized modular offerings through to large-scale bespoke designs;\\n•\\t\\nproject execution and construction management excellence. \\nCANSOLV™ CO2 CAPTURE SYSTEM\\nShell Catalysts & Technologies, in partnership with Technip \\nEnergies, offer a leading, amine-based, high-capacity post-\\ncombustion carbon capture technology, CANSOLV™ CO2 \\nCapture System, that is robust and proven, and has an \\nestablished record of performing cost-effectively in a range \\nof industries. Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System \\ncaptures up to 99% of the CO2 from post-combustion \\nstreams, for example, from power stations, waste-to-\\nenergy units, cement processing, chemical plants and \\nother industrial facilities.\\nAs a standalone, low-pressure, CO2 capture technology, \\nCANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System is well-suited for either \\nretrofitting to existing plants or including in greenfield \\ndevelopments. It uses a regenerable proprietary amine \\nto capture CO2 that is released as a pure stream, which \\nmakes the technology highly suitable for CCS projects. \\nFollowing technical and economic evaluations, capturing \\nCO2 from flue gas using the CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture \\nSystem may emerge as the preferred option because of \\nthe key features such as:\\n•\\t\\nCO2 purity: The high purity CO2 product enables CCS \\nor utilization downstream of the plant.\\n•\\t\\nAdaptability: \\nThe \\nstandalone \\nsystem \\nis \\nhighly \\nadaptable to retrofit scenarios and greenfield projects, \\na wide variety of industrial applications, gas flow rates \\nand CO2 concentrations. Units have been designed for \\nCO2 concentrations from 3.5 to 27% and treating gas \\nflow rates from 11,000 to 4,500,000 Nm3/h.\\n•\\t\\nAsset integrity: The system has been designed for \\nreliability through its high turndown capacity and \\nthe solvent’s resistance to oxidative and thermal \\ndegradation.\\nCONTACT\\nJustin Swain - justin.swain@shell.com\\nJulie Cranga - julie.cranga@technipenergies.com\\nwww.shell.com\\nwww.technipenergies.com\\nSHELL & TECHNIP ENERGIES ALLIANCE\\n•\\t\\nLow waste: The process uses a regenerable solvent, \\nso very little waste by-product is generated, which can \\nreduce project costs as the effluents are minimal.\\n•\\t\\nLow operating costs: The system offers cutting-edge \\nperformance. For example, its low parasitic energy \\nconsumption, fast kinetics and low volatility help to \\nreduce the cost of operation and amine consumption.\\n•\\t\\nTrack record: The technology is proven in large-scale \\nCCS applications, having captured more than 5 Mtpa \\nCO2 from a power station flue gas in Canada since its \\nstart-up in 2014.\\nTechnip Energies support integration of CANSOLV™ \\nCO2 Capture System into both new build and existing \\nplants. With a strong focus on optimum heat and energy \\nintegration, intelligent use of space and tie-ins, enhanced \\nconstructability and construction methodologies and \\nproject management excellence, Technip Energies ensure \\nthe best possible application of CANSOLV™ System for \\neach facility. \\nShell Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies \\nhave been working as an alliance since 2012, developing \\ncontinuous \\ntechnology \\nimprovements \\nto \\nenhance \\nperformance and reduce both capital and operational \\nexpenditure. We have been working in partnership to \\ndeliver a wide range of carbon capture unit sizes and \\nofferings, to meet the needs of every emitter. Our pilot \\nplant facilities offer in-situ testing and performance \\nverification for all types of flue gas, whereas our small to \\nmid-scale modular and containerized units deliver cost \\nand schedule enhancements and project execution risk \\nreduction in comparison with conventional bespoke \\napproaches. Our robust, large-scale bespoke designs have \\nbeen proven to cater to the most complex of projects and \\nworld first applications.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n106\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nPROCESS DESCRIPTION\\nFigure 1 shows the CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System. The \\nkey steps are:\\n1.\\t\\nFeed gas is quenched and saturated in a circulated \\nwater pre-scrubber.\\n2.\\t Gas contacts the lean amine solution in a counter-\\ncurrent mass transfer, packed absorption column.\\n3.\\t CO2 is absorbed and the treated gas exits to \\natmosphere.\\n4.\\t Midway along the column, partially loaded amine is \\nremoved from the tower, cooled and reintroduced \\nover a layer of mass-transfer packing.\\n5.\\t CO2-rich amine from the absorption column is pumped \\nthrough a lean–rich amine heat exchanger and then \\non to the regeneration column.\\n6.\\t Rising, low-pressure saturated steam in the column \\nregenerates the lean amine solution. CO2 is recovered \\nas a pure, water-saturated product.\\n7.\\t\\nLean amine is pumped from the stripper reboiler to the \\nabsorption column for reuse in capturing CO2.\\n8.\\t The CO2 is directed to by-product management \\nsystems.\\n9.\\t Energy is recovered through a system such as a \\nmechanical vapour recompression compressor and/\\nor a condensate flash, which helps to reduce the net \\nreboiler duty requirements for amine regeneration.\\nPROOF POINT: SASKPOWER 1 MTPA CCS PROJECT\\nBecause of tighter regulations, SaskPower needed to \\nreduce CO2 and SO2 emissions at its Boundary Dam power \\nstation in Saskatchewan, Canada, which is a significant \\nsource of power for the region. After carefully evaluating \\na range of technical options, SaskPower chose to add \\na CANSOLV™ SO2–CO2 Integrated Capture System for \\ncombined carbon capture and flue-gas desulphurization. \\nIt opted to do this for a 150-MW unit that was due for \\nrefurbishment. This involved adding a 55-m-tall CO2 \\nabsorber, a 40-m-tall CO2 stripper, a 31-m tall SO2 absorber \\nand a 17-m-tall SO2 stripper. In 2014, the power station \\nbecame the first in the world to successfully use CCS at \\nscale. The plant has been in operation now for over 7 years \\nwith the capacity to capture up to 1 Mtpa CO2, thereby \\nhelping SaskPower to meet strict Canadian regulations \\non CO2 emissions from coal-fired power stations and \\nthus retain its licence to operate. The CO2 is compressed, \\ntransported through pipelines and permanently stored in \\ndeep geological formations as part of an enhanced-oil-\\nrecovery operation. The captured SO2 is converted to 60 \\nt/d of a marketable sulphuric acid that can be used as a \\nfeedstock for the local fertiliser industry. The learnings from \\nthis still-operating, first-of-a-kind deployment continue to \\nhelp develop Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 capture system and \\npromote and develop CCS projects globally.\\nPROOF POINT: POLARIS CCS PROJECT\\nShell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System has been selected \\nfor the proposed Polaris CCS project, one of a series of \\nlow-carbon opportunities being explored to decarbonize \\nthe Scotford complex, Alberta, Canada, to create one \\nof Shell’s proposed five global energy and chemicals \\nparks. The initial phase is expected to start operations in \\nabout the middle of the current decade, subject to a final \\ninvestment decision by Shell, which is expected in 2023. \\nPolaris would have storage capacity of about 300 million \\ntonnes of CO2 over the life of the project. When fully built, \\nPolaris would contribute to the region becoming a blue \\nhydrogen hub.\\nPROOF \\nPOINT: \\nHAFSLUND \\nOSLO \\nCELSIO \\nCCS \\nPROJECT\\nShell Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies are \\nsupporting Hafslund Oslo Celsio to build the world’s first \\ncarbon capture facility on a waste-to-energy plant as part \\nof a full value chain, with transportation and permanent \\nstorage. The carbon capture plant at the waste to energy \\nfacility in Oslo will reduce the city of Oslo’s fossil CO2 \\nemissions by 17%. As their partner from initial concept \\nthrough to construction, Shell Catalysts & Technologies \\nand Technip Energies are assisting Hafslund Oslo Celsio \\nto turn their ambition into commercial reality. With the \\nopening ceremony on site in September 2022 and laying \\nthe initial groundwork for the commercial plant, Shell \\nCatalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies are now \\ncontinuing their joint journey to final project delivery and \\noperation by 2026. \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n108\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY FOR LOW PARTIAL \\nPRESSURE FLUE GAS\\nNRICI started the research on CO2 capture technology for \\nlow partial pressure flue gas as early as 1980s. With MEA \\nsolvent as the main body, in response to the problems of \\ncorrosion and degradation of flue gas carbon capture \\nunits in the industry at that time, NRICI has developed the \\ncorresponding corrosion inhibitor and antioxidant system \\nand formed the first generation of flue gas carbon capture \\nsolvent and technology, which was successfully applied \\nin the flue gas CO2 recovery unit of natural gas boiler in \\nGuizhou Chitianhua Group in 1999. After that, it has been \\napplied in Huaneng Beijing Thermal Power Plant 3000 t/ \\na CO2 recovery unit and Huaneng Shanghai Shidongkou \\nPower Plant 120,000 t/ a flue gas carbon capture unit, \\nwhich has promoted the development of CCUS in China.\\nBy 2015, NRICI successfully screened a high-efficiency and \\nlow-energy capture solvent MA-1 after basic research, lab \\nscale test and 5Nm3/h test research. After industrialized \\npilot study on 40,000 t/a CO2 capture unit in Shengli Power \\nPlant, it successfully carried out industrialized application \\nin Sichuan Vinylon Plant, and the results showed that, \\ncompared with the original MEA method, the solvent \\ncirculation volume decreases by 34.7%, the regeneration \\nenergy consumption decreases by 41.8%, the consumption \\nof circulating water is reduced by 200 t/h, and the cost \\nis significantly reduced under the condition that the \\nproduction requirements are met.\\nBy 2020, NRICI continued to optimize the solvent and \\ntechnology, and successfully developed a new high-\\nefficiency and low-energy capture solvent MA-2. According \\nto the results of the small-scale and pilot-scale test study, \\nthe comprehensive performance of this solvent is better \\nthan other existing absorption systems on the market, and \\nfinally applied to the largest coal-fired power plant flue gas \\ncarbon capture unit in operation in China - Guohua Jinjie \\nPower Plant 150,000 t/a flue\\ngas carbon capture unit. The application result s howed \\nthat under the optimized test conditions, the capture rate \\nis 96%, the regeneration energy consumption is <2.4GJ/\\ntCO2, and the operating loss is ~1.0kg/tCO2, and the overall \\nlevel reaches the international advanced level.\\nNCMA DECARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGY\\nNRICI started research on polyamine decarbonisation \\ntechnology \\nfrom \\nthe \\n1980s \\nand \\ndeveloped \\nthe \\nNCMA decarbonisation technology in 2003. Through \\nproprietary decarbonization solvents, flexible process \\nflow and precisely matched process parameters, NCMA \\ndecarbonisation technology is able to achieve customized \\nrequirements for CO2 content in purified gas, down \\nto meeting the requirements for CO2 in the feed gas \\nto deep-cooled separation systems such as LNG, and \\noutperforms similar products in the industry in terms of \\ncorrosion and foaming. NRICI’s NCMA decarbonisation \\ntechnology has been successfully applied to more than \\na hundred decarbonisation units from different gas \\nsources, extensively proving its fine balance between \\ndecarbonisation performance and energy saving and \\nconsumption reduction. Typical applications include the \\nnatural gas decarbonisation unit at Songnan gas field, \\nthe synthesis gas decarbonisation unit at Chongqing \\nFuyuan fertiliser plant, the drygas decarbonisation and \\ndesulphurisation unit at Wuhan Petrochemical refinery, and \\nthe blast furnace gas decarbonisation unit at Xinjiang Bayi \\nSteel.\\nCATALYTIC HOT CARBONATE DECARBONIZATION \\nTECHNOLOGY\\nDepending on the type of reaction cycle gas, the current \\nNRICI catalytichotcarbonate decarbonisation technology \\nis mainly applied to two gas sources, the Fischer-Tropsch \\nreaction cycle gas and the EOEG cycle gas.\\nIn \\nthe \\narea \\nof \\nFischer-Tropsch \\nrecirculating \\ngas \\ndecarbonisation, NRICI started the development of a pilot \\nprocess package as early as 2005, and has now formed a \\nmonopoly in the field of recirculating gas decarbonisation \\nfor coal-to-oil projects in China. Typical application cases \\ninclude Shaanxi Future Energy’s 1 million t/a and Shenhua \\nNingxia Coal’s 2 x 2 million t/a coal-to-oil circulating gas \\ndecarbonisation plant.\\nIn the field of EOEG recirculating gas decarbonisation, \\nNRICI has successfully reduced the CO2 molar fraction \\nof the reactor inlet gas from 4.45% to below 2% after \\na domestic modification at Sinopec Tianjin Branch in \\n2009. Subsequently, it has been successfully applied in \\nPetroChina Xinjiang Dushanzi Petrochemical and Sinopec \\nMaoming Branch. The application results show that th \\ntechnology has achieved better performance indicators \\nthan overseas introduced technologies\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nRich experience in carbon capture engineering, able to skillfully solve various problems encountered during the \\noperation of industrial carbon capture units.\\n•\\t\\nWell established testing and analysis facilities, able to carry out various small- scale and pilot- scale test studies in the \\nfield of carbon capture and utilization \\n•\\t\\nContinuous R&D capability, able to continuously optimize and improve the existing carbon capture solvents, \\nprocesses and equipment.\\n•\\t\\nAdvanced technology user, overall at a domestic leading international advanced level in the field of carbon capture \\ntechnology.\\n•\\t\\nCustomised Technology solutions, provide the best technical solutions to obtain the most economical and efficient \\ncarbon capture products according to customer needs.\\nNAME OF TECHNOLOGY\\nSINOPEC Nanjing Research Institute of Chemical Industry \\nCo., Ltd. (NRICI) was founded in 1958, formerly known as \\nNanjing Chemical Industrial Institute of the Ministry of \\nChemical Industry, is a technology enterprise specialized in \\nthe research, development, design and production of the \\nchemical products.\\nNRICI has long been committed to the research and \\ndevelopment of CO2 capture and utilization technology.\\nPresently, 3 types of CO2 capture technologies have \\nachieved mature industrial applications, including CO2 \\ncapture technology for low partial pressure flue gas, \\nNCMA decarbonization technology, catalytic hot carbonate \\ndecarbonization technology. Besides, NRICI is developing \\nnew carbon capture and utilization technologies, such \\nas new solvents, membrane separation, chemical and \\nmineralization utilization, etc.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t guobs.nhgs@sinopec.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.sinopec.com\\nSINOPEC NANJING RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF \\nCHEMICAL INDUSTRY CO. , LTD\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n110\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nNEW CO2 CAPTURE SOLVENTS\\nIn addition to traditional amine solvents, NRICI has also \\ncarried out research and development of new CO2 \\ncapture solvents such as ionic liquids, amino acid salts \\nand phase change absorbent. As CO2 capture solvents \\nwith the potential to replace amine solvents for large-scale \\nindustrialisation in the future, ionic liquids, amino acid salts \\nand phase change absorbent have significant advantages \\nin a reas such as loss, stability and energy consumption. At \\npresent, the ionic liquid flue gas carbon capture technology \\nhas completed a 50Nm3/h pilot test, while the amino acid \\nsalt and phase change absorber have completed a 3Nm3/h \\nenlarge test, and a pilot test of 50Nm3/h phase change \\nabsorbent for flue gas CO2 capture is underway. In the \\nfuture, NRICI will continue to optimise and improve the \\nformulation and process in order to realise the industrial \\napplication of the new CO2 capture solvent as soon as \\npossible.\\nADSORPTION METHOD\\nThe adsorption method of CO2 capture technology can \\neffectively overcome the problems of easy volatility, \\nhigh energy consumption and corrosiveness of the \\nabsorption method, which is one of the main research \\ndirections of CO2 capture technology at present. NRICI, \\nin cooperation with Sichuan University, has jointly \\ncarried out the development of amine-loaded porous \\nadsorbent decarbonisation technology. 1 Nm3/h solid \\namine adsorption for CO2 capture has been completed, \\nand the developed adsorbent has an adsorption capacity \\n>160mgCO2/g after 50 adsorption and desorption cycles, \\nand the total energy consumption is about 2.39 GJ/tCO2. \\nIn addition, NRICI together with Nanjing Normal University, \\nhas carried out research on integrated CO adsorption-\\ncatalytic conversion technology. Smallscale test has shown \\nthat the preferred bifunctional adsorbent has a CO2 capture \\nefficiency greater than 90%, a CO2 conversion rate greater \\nthan 80% and a selectivity greater than 95%.\\nMEMBRANE SEPARATION METHOD\\nMembrane separation is a promising method for capturing \\nCO2 from flue gas due to its simplicity, low investment \\nin equipment, low energy consumption, flexibility in \\noperation and small footprint. NRICI, together with Tianjin \\nUniversity and Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, \\nCAS, based on national key R&D projects, has carried \\nout a 30Nm3 /h pilot test and a 50,000Nm3 /d industrial \\ndemonstration research. Among them, the 50,000Nm3 /d \\nindustrial demonstration is the first in China for membrane \\nseparation with independent intellectual property rights. \\nThe demonstration results showed that the CO2 purity \\nis >95% and CO2 recovery rate is >80% after three-stage \\nmembrane separation, which has reached the international \\nadvanced level.\\nFigure 1: 50Nm3/h ionic liquid pilot test\\nFigure 3: 50000Nm3/d membrane separation demonstration\\nFigure 2: 3Nm3/h phase change absorber enlarge test\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n112\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nOXYFUEL\\nOxyfuel is a mature and robust technology based on \\ncommercially proven components. When used in plants \\nfiring carbon neutral fuels, including biomass, residues, and \\nwaste, Oxyfuel leads to overall negative carbon emissions \\nor the production of biogenic and sustainably sourced CO2 \\nfor further synthesis.\\nThe technology was demonstrated at a 30 MWth facility \\nin the Fundacion Ciudad de la Energia (CIUDEN), Spain \\nduring the 2010s, accumulating thousands of operational \\nhours under various conditions.. Subsequently, commercial \\ndevelopment with partners led to the completion of FEED \\nactivities and development of a readily available 300 MWe \\nOxyfuel power plant design. SFW’s engineering and R&D \\nexperts have continued to develop the solution and adapt \\ninnovations into the delivery of new carbon capture plant \\ndesigns.\\nOxyfuel applied in circulating fluidized beds (CFBs) \\nallows capturing carbon and taking full advantage of the \\nefficient circulation and management of solids and gases. \\nBeside the fuel flexibility, CFBs hydrodynamics enable \\ndifferent fluidizing gas regimes, switching between air and \\noxyfuel mode or different oxygen enrichment levels while \\nmaintaining elevated performance of energy generation.\\nOxyfuel can be applied as a retrofit in existing CFB plants \\nor as part of a new build project. In both scenarios, the \\nefficient energy generation leads to lower emissions per \\nunit of energy and can increase the gross production of \\nenergy from the power plant or industrial boiler.\\nThe technology allows sector coupling and industrial \\nsynergy, whereas by-product oxygen from hydrogen \\nelectrolysis can be utilized reducing production costs for \\nboth capturing carbon and the further synthesis of green \\nchemicals, fuels and materials.\\nFEATURED PROJECT: \\n30 MWTH OXYFUEL PLANT IN PONFERRADA, SPAIN\\nSFW realized a carbon capture demonstration plant in \\ncooperation with Endesa and CIUDEN during 2009-2017 \\n(see picture left). SFW’s ongoing project development \\nactivities in close collaboration with industrial partners aims \\nfor commercial operation starting from 2026 for Oxyfuel \\nfired biomass and energy from waste plants.\\n•\\t\\nNo additional OPEX related to solvent procurement \\nand waste disposal\\n•\\t\\nCan be applied as part of a post-combustion capture \\nsolution such as Calcium looping (CaL)\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nWide applicability to solid, gas and liquid fuels \\n•\\t\\nIncreases operational flexibility compared to air-fired units \\n•\\t\\nMore efficient energy generation, higher fuel capacity in similar sized air-fired units\\n•\\t\\nLow energy penalty of 1.7 GJ/tCO2, mainly consumed in oxygen production and CO2 compression\\n•\\t\\nEnables sector coupling and oxygen synergy with green H2 synthesis plants, further reducing the energy penalty\\n•\\t\\nNew builds for optimized Oxyfuel performance reduce equipment sizing\\nOXYFUEL SOLUTIONS\\nSFW’s Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) technology can \\nbe operated in an oxygen-rich environment allowing the \\nhighly efficient recovery of heat and power. This produces \\na concentrated CO2 stream readily available for capture \\npurposes rather than the typical flue gas emitted. \\nBy replacing air in typical energy generation units with \\noxygen and recirculated CO2 rich gas, capturing emissions \\nbecomes part of the integrated energy production step. \\nThis leads to significant reduction in energy penalty \\ntypically required with capturing CO2  from diluted flue gas.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.shi-fw.com\\nSUMITOMO SHI FW \\nSchematic of SFW fluidized bed solutions. Source (Sumitomo \\nSHI FW)\\nGas composition and heat flux ratio in SFW fluidized bed solution \\nin both Air fired and Oxyfuel operation. Source (Sumitomo SHI \\nFW)\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n114\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCALCIUM LOOPING\\nCalcium looping or CaL utilizes a natural and non-toxic \\nsorbent, calcium, to capture and release high purity CO2. \\nThe energy required to capture CO2 is supplied via the \\noxyfuel calcination of sustainably sourced bio-residues and \\nwaste. \\nCaL creates added value for industrial plant operators in \\nthe form of circular economy applications, decarbonizing \\nenergy \\ngeneration \\nand \\nenabling \\nsector \\ncoupling \\nopportunities. In essence, CaL addresses scope 1, 2 \\nand 3 emissions. CaL is supplied either as a tail-end \\nconfiguration, capturing CO2 and producing energy and \\nlime, or as an integrated configuration in which the capture \\nsystem exchanges material and heat streams with existing \\nindustrial units. \\nAs such, CaL can be integrated to any industrial emission \\nsource, especially those with an existing lime cycle in \\noperation such as cement, steel, and pulp and paper. The \\nsorbent purged from the capture system, a mixture of lime \\nand valuable minerals, is a viable feedstock, for the green \\nmanufacturing of construction materials.\\nLike oxyfuel, CaL provides synergy with green hydrogen \\nplants, whereas cheap and available by-product oxygen \\nis utilized for the carbon capture purposes. This leads to \\nreductions in capture costs and the efficient synthesis of \\ncarbon negative fuels and materials.\\nCaL is a multiproduct technology which drives project \\nfeasbility due to numerous potential revenue streams, such \\nas, excess electricity, high quality heat, waste gate fees, \\ncarbon removal credits, calcined lime and hydrogen or \\nnitrogen from the oxygen production plant.\\nCalcium Looping has been tested and demonstrated since \\n2012 under industrial operating conditions at the La Pareda \\npower plant, Spain. Sumitomo SHI FW has supplied the \\ndemonstration unit and continued to support innovation \\nwith our technical advisory services\\nFEATURED PROJECTS: \\n1.7 MW CaL demo plant in LaPareda, Spain \\nSupplied and commissioned by Sumitomo SHI FW in \\n2012, the plant (see picture left) demonstrated a capture \\nefficiency of over 90%. The plant has continued to operate \\nflexibly for over 5000 hours under different process \\nconditions to optimize the technology.\\nCaLby2030 project for hard to abate sectors\\nSumitomo SHI FW will design and engineer three \\nintegrated CaL pilot plants to be operated in relevant \\nindustrial environment across Europe. The demonstration \\ncampaigns will be carried out with the aim of exceeding \\n90% CO2 capture rates and even approaching 99% in \\nspecific configurations. The demonstrated results will be \\nthen scaled up to generate concepts and basic designs \\nfor the commercial carbon capture projects for Thomas \\nZement’s integrated cement plant in Karsdorf, Germany, \\nAlleima’s Sandviken steelworks plant in Sweden, Hunosa’s \\nLaPareda power plant in Spain and IREN’s waste to energy \\nplants in Italy.\\nHERCCULES project for WtE plants\\nSFW will engineer a CaL carbon capture plant to be \\ninstalled at the Milan Silla-2 waste-to-energy plant, \\nowned and managed by a2a Ambiente, a member of the \\na2a group. The plant is one of the largest Italian waste \\nmanagement facilities that handles around 550 000 \\ntons of municipal solid waste and non-hazardous special \\nwaste per year. The pilot plant will operate for up to 4000 \\nhours and the project will conclude with the design and \\ndevelopment of FOAK commercial size facility.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nAdded value in the form of revenue streams from green electricity and lime\\n•\\t\\nCO2 capture efficiency higher than 90%\\n•\\t\\nLower energy penalty than from other post combustion capture technologies\\n•\\t\\nCaptures other acid gases present in flue gas\\n•\\t\\nFluidized bed can handle challenging flue gas conditions (higher temperature and level of impurities compared to \\nliquid solvent solutions such as amine scrubbing)\\n•\\t\\nCommercially available, scalable, and cost-effective components\\n•\\t\\nCan be integrated to emission source in cement, steel and other carbon intensive industry\\n•\\t\\nSector coupling and oxygen synergy with green H2 synthesis plants\\nCALCIUM LOOPING\\nSFW’s Calcium Looping (CaL) is a scalable and retrofittable \\npost combustion CO2 capture technology based on \\nCirculating Fluidised Bed reactors (CFBs). The technology \\nis built on SFW’s experience of delivering over 500 CFB \\ncommercial units. \\nIt is a cost- and environmentally effective and highly \\nadaptable solution for capturing carbon emissions from \\nmultiple industries. With Calcium Looping technology, we \\nat SFW serve the energy from waste, cement, steel, pulp & \\npaper and metallurgical industries.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.shi-fw.com\\nSUMITOMO SHI FW (SFW)\\nSector coupling opportunity and material flows enabled by CaL \\ncapture system (Source: HERCCULES project)\\nCaL industrial cases examined in the CaLby2030 project \\n(Source: CaLby2030 project)\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n116\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nHOT POTASSIUM CARBONATE, HPC\\nSFW’s Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) capture technology \\nstarts with the cooling and compression of flue gas to \\nenhance CO2 absorption. The capture system removes \\nCO2 and regenerates the solvent via the following \\nreversible reaction:\\nK2CO3 + CO2 + H2O ↔ 2KHCO3.\\nExpanding the CO2 depleted flue gases over an expander, \\nrecovers a large part of the compression energy. The heat \\nrecuperated from the flue gas and product CO2 streams \\nis used internally in the capture system and the remaining \\nheat can be exported to an available district heating \\nnetwork. \\nThe SFW HPC plant is aimed at producing biogenic CO2 \\nfrom retrofitting biomass and waste to energy plants with \\ncarbon capture, creating potentially negative emissions or \\nproviding biogenic carbon for e-fuel synthesis. \\nThe carbon capture plant can also be delivered as part of \\na new build wasteWOIMA® waste-to-energy plant, or be \\nretrofitted to any other CO2 emitting source. \\n•\\t\\nThe HPC process gives a high capture rate over 90% \\nand produces a CO2 product and yields a high purity \\nCO2 product suitable for compression purposes. \\n•\\t\\nThe HPC process can be powered by electricity, or \\na combination of steam and electricity, giving more \\nflexibility. \\n•\\t\\nThe Full Electric Capsol EoP® technology claims for \\na low energy consumption between 0.7 and 1.5 GJ/\\nton CO2 captured and minimizes the disturbance of \\nexisting operations at the site during construction.\\n•\\t\\nThe heat recovered from the HPC process can be \\nrecovered in district heating\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nHPC is a well-proven carbon capture process with hundreds of references and decades of operational experience in \\nthe chemical and Oil & Gas industries.\\n•\\t\\nPotassium carbonate is a widely and freely available material that is tolerant to oxygen, non-toxic, non-volatile, and \\nnon-carcinogenic.\\n•\\t\\nThis makes the HPC solvent low-cost with low make-up need, reducing the solvent management cost of the carbon \\ncapture plant. \\n•\\t\\nIt further ensures that the HPC solvent does not pose risks to environment and health, facilitating simpler permitting.\\nHOT POTASSIUM CARBONATE\\nSFW’s liquid solvent based carbon capture solution is \\nbased on the well-proven Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) \\nprocess, enabling capture rates of over 90% from industrial \\nstacks. HPC is a widely available, low-cost, safe, and \\nenvironmentally friendly solvent.\\nThe \\nSFW \\nHPC \\nsolution \\nincludes \\nthe \\nproprietary \\nCapsol EoP® End-Of-Pipe technology for lower energy \\nconsumption in the process than comparable post-\\ncombustion capture technologies. The solutions can be \\npowered with electricity only or a combination of power \\nand steam, giving more flexibility in implementation.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.shi-fw.com\\nSUMITOMO SHI FW \\nSchematic of HPC solution (Source: Capsol Technologies AS)\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n118\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nTOSHIBA’S CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION FLOW\\nToshiba has focused on continuing research and development activities for post-combustion CO2 capture technology \\nand possess its own pilot plant for testing and development of high-performance amine-based solvents, efficient process \\ndesign conditions, degradation evaluations and applied it to various commercial plants.\\nToshiba has developed the high-performance amine solvents (TS-1), and most efficient amine emission mitigation \\ntechnology which uses spray type washing system to minimize amine emissions levels which are safe for human and \\naquatic life in surrounding atmosphere. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nSignificantly low recovery energy demand resulting in low steam consumption\\n•\\t\\nLow solvent degradation and low amine loss resulting in longer service life\\n•\\t\\nPossess extensive experience with integrated utilities, operations and maintenance of carbon capture plant with coal/\\nbiomass /incineration (WtE) plant.\\n•\\t\\nApplicable to both existing and new builds power plants and providing CO2 purity in excess of 99.9%.\\n•\\t\\nAdapting to customer’s demand for both full and partial CO2 capture. \\n•\\t\\nPossess own pilot plant to carry out in-house research & development activities.\\nAMINE-BASED POST-COMBUSTION CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY\\nAmine-based post-combustion CO2 capture is a promising \\ntechnique that can be employed at large scale to various \\nflue gases safely in order to ensure a substantial reduction \\nin CO2 emissions from man-made sources of CO2 such as \\nthe power generation industry, cement industry, iron, and \\nsteel industry and so on. Based on this understanding, \\nToshiba has focused on developing post-combustion CO2 \\ncapture technology since 2007 and has designed and \\nconstructed a 10- tpd CO2 scale pilot plant at Mikawa city, \\nJapan in September 2009 which accomplished more than \\n13,000 hours of operation at present with live flue gases \\nfrom biomass/coal-fired thermal power plant. Through the \\nlong operation of its own pilot plant in Mikawa, Toshiba \\ndemonstrated high reliability and stable operation under a \\nwide range of process conditions which eventually allowed \\nToshiba to deploy its proven CO2 capture technology at a \\ncommercial scale at Saga Incineration plant (10 tpd CO2 \\nscale) and Demonstration plant of 600 tpd CO2 scale in \\nJapan. Toshiba also developed and employed its own \\nproprietary amine-based aqueous solution and efficient \\nprocess techniques in aforesaid commercial projects which \\nhave shown significant reduction in CO2 recovery energy, \\nless degradation of solvent, and lower amine emissions. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t keisuke1.hasegawa@toshiba.co.jp\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.global.toshiba/ww/company/energy.html\\nTOSHIBA ENERGY SYSTEMS & SOLUTIONS \\nCORPORATION\\nPicture of Mikawa pilot plant\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n120\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSAGA CCU PLANT 10  TPD CO2 \\n•\\t\\nWorld’s first commercial-use CCU system constructed \\nin a waste incineration plant.\\n•\\t\\nCO2 offtake primarily used for algae cultivation \\nand also used for cucumber cultivation as a smart \\nagriculture.\\n•\\t\\nAccomplished long hours of operation (more than 6 \\nyears) of capturing CO2 from live flue gases from waste \\nincineration plant having variable CO2 concentrations.\\n•\\t\\nDemonstrated \\neasy \\nintegration \\ntechniques \\nof \\noperating CO2 capture plant with waste incineration \\nplant.\\n•\\t\\nPossess know-how of stable plant operation and real- \\ntime performance data including solvent degradation.\\n•\\t\\nPossess experience working as a partner to Saga city \\nincineration plant and can act as an important partner \\nto guide on integrated plant operation.\\nSpecification\\n•\\t\\nLocation: Saga City, Saga City Waste incineration (WtE) \\nplant\\n•\\t\\nCommenced Operation: September 2016\\n•\\t\\nSource Gas: Flue gas from Waste incineration (WtE) \\nplant\\n•\\t\\nCaptured CO2: 10 tpd CO2\\n•\\t\\nCapture rate: > 90%\\n•\\t\\nCO2 Purity: > 99.9%\\n \\nCO2 CAPTURE DEMONSTRATION PLANT 600 TPD CO2 \\nOF MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT, JAPAN\\n•\\t\\nWorld’s first BECCS ready project integrated with 100% \\nBiomass based thermal power plant.\\n•\\t\\nThis plant captures 600 tpd CO2 from the flue gas of \\nthe Mikawa Power Plant (more than 50% of its total \\nemissions) and is integrated with this power plant \\nwith turbine extraction steam feeding the energy for \\ndesorbing CO2 at the stripper.\\n•\\t\\nCO2 capture plant applied with Toshiba proprietary \\nsolvent TS-1 with CO2 concentration as 15vol% in dry \\nbasis \\n•\\t\\nDemonstrated integrated operation of CO2 capture \\nplant with 100% Biomass based thermal power plant.\\n•\\t\\nThis Demonstration Plant applied with Toshiba novel \\ntechnology Spray type washing system that has shown \\ndrastic effect of suppressing total amine emission to \\nthe atmosphere.\\n•\\t\\nToshiba is also the Steam turbine system supplier and \\nhas immense experience of steam turbine operation. \\nThus, we can integrate CO2 capture plant with thermal \\npower plant and have experience of integration of \\nlarge size CO2 capture plant in this Ministry of the \\nEnvironment project \\nSpecification\\n•\\t\\nLocation : Omuta City, Fukuoka Inside Mikawa Thermal \\nPower Plant\\n•\\t\\n(Property of SIGMA POWER Ariake Co.Ltd.)\\n•\\t\\nCommenced Operation : October 2020\\n•\\t\\nSource Gas : Flue gas from biomass fired thermal \\npower plant\\n•\\t\\nCaptured CO2 : 600 tpd CO2\\n•\\t\\nSolvent : Toshiba solvent-1 (TS-1)\\n•\\t\\nCO2 in flue gas : 15 vol.% in dry base\\n•\\t\\nCapture rate : > 90%\\nTHE FUTURE OF AMINE SOLVENT TECHNOLOGY \\nDEVELOPMENT\\nToshiba currently involves in developing the next \\ngeneration of amine solvents that achieves low energy \\nlevels similar to TS-1, while also having characteristics of \\nbetter stability (resistance to degradation) and low amine \\nemission.\\nAfter conducting long-term testing, we plan to supply it to \\nthe market for our customers.\\nSpecifically, regarding lower amine emissions, Toshiba \\nintends to offer a pathbreaking technology with very low \\namine emission by combining Toshiba’s proprietary spray \\ntechnology with the low amine emission next-generation \\nsolvent.\\nMIKAWA PILOT PLANT 10 TPD CO2 \\nTested \\nin-house \\ndeveloped \\namine \\nbased \\nsolvent \\nperformance (CO2 capture amount, CO2 capture rate, \\nCO2 recovery energy, etc.) against CO2 gas concentration \\nranging from 4 to 30 vol %.\\n•\\t\\nEvaluated \\nsystem \\nimprovement \\nwith \\nvarious \\ncomponents.\\n•\\t\\nDemonstrated more than 13,000 hours of operation \\non a live flue gas of biomass/coal fired thermal power \\nplant\\n•\\t\\nAchieved CO2 recovery energy less than 2.4 GJ/ ton-\\nCO2 (At 90% CO2 Capture, CO2 Conc. approx. 12% vol) \\nSpecification\\n•\\t\\nLocation: Omuta City, Fukuoka Inside Mikawa Thermal \\nPower Plant (Property of SIGMA POWER Ariake \\nCo.Ltd.)\\n•\\t\\nCommenced Operation: September 2009\\n•\\t\\nSource Gas: Flue gas from biomass/coal fired thermal \\npower plant\\n•\\t\\nCaptured CO2: 10 tpd CO2\\n•\\t\\nCapture rate: > 90%\\nPicture of Saga CCU commercial plant\\nPicture of Demonstration plant of Ministry of the Environment, \\nJapan\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n122\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCO2 CAPTURE PLANT PROCESS \\nThe Svante carbon capture process consists of a series of \\nsteps which include passing flue gas, regenerating steam, \\nand conditioning air through structured adsorbent beds in \\na specific order. \\n1.\\t\\nAdsorption: The first step in the process is the \\nintroduction of the feed gas into the structured \\nadsorbent beds, where CO2 is adsorbed onto the \\nsurface of the adsorbent, while the remainder of the \\nflue gas mainly N2, O2 and H2O is sent to the stack as \\nspent/exhaust gas.\\n2.\\t Regeneration: The CO2-rich adsorbent bed then \\nrotates to a sector of the process where low pressure \\nsteam flows through it, requiring only a small amount \\nof superheat to overcome heat losses from the \\nsystem. This is the first regeneration step, where \\nsteam regenerates the adsorbent, releasing a stream \\ncomposed primarily of CO2 and steam.\\n3.\\t Conditioning: After regeneration with steam, the \\nbed rotates through a sector of the process where \\nheated ambient air is used to condition and cool the \\nstructured adsorbent. The ambient air stream, termed \\nConditioning Gas, removes most of the water vapor \\nfrom the adsorbent. The adsorption, regeneration, and \\nconditioning functions described above are integrated \\nand implemented in the RAM, as shown in the figure \\nbelow.\\nSvante is on the 2023 Global Cleantech 100 and was \\nranked second among private companies in the Corporate \\nKnights Future 50 Fastest-Growing Sustainable Companies \\nin Canada. Svante was also acknowledged in the 2023 \\nXB100, the definitive ranking of the world’s top 100 private \\ndeep tech companies, hosted by XPRIZE and Bessemer \\nVenture Partners.\\nFor more information on Svante, visit www.svanteinc.com.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nSvante’s technology utilizes a single piece of compact equipment enabling a competitive reduction in capital costs \\ncompared to first generation approaches.\\n•\\t\\nCapacity is scalable in multiples of individual Rotating Adsorption Machines (RAMs) between 500 and 5000 tpd of \\nCO2 captured, depending on the application and product purity requirements.\\n•\\t\\nSvante’s technology is flexible by using different adsorbents and can target low and high concentration industrial flue \\ngases.\\n•\\t\\nInherent ability to load follow and start and stop extremely quickly by easily controlling the rotation speed of the RAM. \\nThis feature enables CO2 capture from intermittent process such as lime production PFR kilns and electric arc furnaces.\\n•\\t\\nSvante’s proprietary VeloxoTherm™ process is environmentally friendly based on novel Structured Adsorbent Beds \\n(SAB), which are not subject to nitrosamine and nitramine emissions.\\n•\\t\\nNo process safety associated with new hazardous chemicals being brought onsite.\\n•\\t\\nSvante has built world-class collaborations and partnerships with world-class organizations across the CCUS value \\nchain, including project developers, engineering, construction, and procurement companies, as well as utilization, \\ntransportation, and sequestration entities, which enables Svante’s customers manage their CO2 emissions from source \\nto sink.  \\nCO2 CAPTURE PLANT PROCESS \\nCapturing of CO2 from industrial operations using chemical \\nsolvents is technically proven, but the costs in terms \\nof capital and energy use are high and the potential \\nfor toxic chemical emissions has prompted developers \\nto seek other technological approaches. One avenue \\nshowing promise is the use of solid adsorbents. Svante \\nTechnologies Inc. (Svante) has developed a novel solution \\nto capture large-scale CO2 emissions from hard-to-abate \\nindustries such as cement, hydrogen, oil & gas, aluminum, \\nchemicals, pulp & paper, and more. The CO2 captured can \\nbe either safely stored deep underground or used to make \\nother products in a closed loop. Svante’s post-combustion \\ncapture technology is currently being deployed in the field \\nat pilot plant-scale by industry leaders in the energy and \\ncement manufacturing sectors, including:\\nCO2MENT Pilot Plant Project: Lafarge Canada and Svante \\nlaunched this one tonne per day (tpd) project in 2019 at \\na cement plant in Richmond, British Columbia, Canada. \\nThe CO2 captured here is planned to be used to make \\nproducts such as sustainable aviation fuel, makeup bases, \\nsnowboard waxes, and more.\\nCenovus: (formerly Husky Energy): This is a 30 tpd \\ndemonstration plant, which launched in 2019 at an \\nindustrial facility in Lloydminster, Saskatchewan, Canada.\\nChevron USA: Svante’s latest pilot-scale project, a carbon \\ncapture plant set to capture 25 tpd came online in the \\nSpring of 2023 in Bakersfield, California, USA.\\nIn addition, several engineering projects for commercial-\\nscale carbon capture projects ranging from 500 to 4,500 \\ntpd are underway in North America and Europe.\\nTo date, Svante has attracted more than US$500 million in \\nfunding since it was founded in 2007, with the latest Series \\nE fundraising round closing at a record-breaking US $318M \\nwith Chevron New Energies as the lead investor. Other \\nparticipants included new and existing investors from large \\nentities such as GE Vernova, 3M Ventures (the venture \\ncapital arm of 3M), United Airlines Ventures, Samsung \\nVentures, and more. \\nThe company is currently expanding its commercial filter \\nmanufacturing facility in Canada. In 2024, the new facility, \\nThe Centre of Excellence for Carbon Capture & Removal, \\nlocated in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada will have \\nan annual capacity to deliver filter modules capable of \\nremoving 5 Mtpa CO2. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t cnitta@svanteinc.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.svanteinc.com\\nSVANTE \\nSvante’s energy efficient and low-cost technology, the \\nVeloxoTherm™ carbon capture process, is an intensified \\nrapid-cycle Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA) system \\nusing advanced Structured Adsorbent Beds (SAB). This \\nnovel process is designed to capture CO2 directly from \\nindustrial sources and release pure CO2 in less than \\n60 seconds, compared to hours for other technologies \\nand requiring significantly less capital cost. The capture \\nprocess is implemented via a device similar to that of \\nregenerative air heaters widely used in power plants, in \\nwhich a proprietary structured adsorbent is arranged on \\na circular rotating structure, known as a Rotary Adsorption \\nMachine (RAM). The device simultaneously exposes \\ndifferent segments of the structure to each step of the \\nTSA cycle. A key advancement is the development of \\ninnovative adsorbent materials, which enable the use of a \\nrapid temperature swing cycle.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n124\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nTRANSPORT \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n126\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nTransmission is often considered to be the low-tech \\npiece in the CCUS value chain, however a vast pipeline \\nexpansion is needed if CCUS is to take its place in the \\nFuture Energy world. The arms of this new pipeline \\nnetwork will reach throughout populated areas and must \\nbe designed to prevent rupture, “running fracture” and the \\nhazards of CO2 gas release.\\nImpurities in CO2 can adversely affect transmission pipeline \\ndesign and operation. In the coming era of growth, fluid \\n“quality” specifications will emerge, and will be eventually \\nregulated for hubs and networks. However, many CCUS \\nprojects will require “point-to-point” transmission pipelines. \\nThese may seek to transmit and inject CO2 with challenging \\nimpurities such as hydrogen sulphide, and potentially \\nincreased water content, in an effort to reduce the overall \\ncapital and operating cost of the supply chain.\\nWhilst pipeline design standards such as DNV-RP-F104 \\n(Design and Operation of Carbon Dioxide Pipelines) \\ncontinues to evolve, the process of designing a pipeline \\nis far from fully codified. It can also be very iterative and \\ninefficient.\\nAn ill-disciplined and unstructured approach to design can \\neasily lead to multiple repetitions of the design, impacting \\ndesign cost and schedule. Worse still, it can leave the \\nproject owner with some doubt as to whether their final \\ndesign is actually optimal from either a capex or an \\noperability perspective.\\nGHD’s pipeline engineering team is based in Australia but \\nworks with pipelines worldwide. The Australian pipeline \\nstandard, AS 2885 provides specific design methods for \\noil and gas pipelines, with some guidance on CO2 design. \\nThis standard encourages a risk-based and thoughtful \\ndesign process and is an excellent platform from which to \\ndevelop a formal method to reach optimal CO2 pipeline \\ndesigns, without multiple iterations.\\nGHD will design CO2 pipelines for any jurisdiction in full \\ncompliance with the nominated pipeline standard, however \\nour journey to reach this destination follows the robust \\ndesign methodology that we have developed.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nReduced FEED cost and schedule\\n•\\t\\nMinimal risk when procuring pipeline material\\n•\\t\\nMaximum flexibility and operability of installed pipeline assets\\n•\\t\\nSound basis for capex estimating at the end of FEED\\nGHD OPTIMISED CO2 PIPELINE DESIGN\\nGHD presents its CO2 pipeline design method, outlining \\nthe importance and complexity of reaching optimal \\ndesigns. The GHD method is focused and systematic. It \\ndrives towards the optimal pipeline design with a minimum \\nof iteration.\\nFor a pipeline, Front End Engineering Design (FEED) \\ntypically takes the design to an advanced state, especially \\nin the specification of the pipeline steel.\\nThis enables pipeline material to be ordered shortly after \\nthe financial investment decision is made, which is often \\nnecessary due to its long delivery time. FEED also refines \\nthe route, designs major crossings, and allows other long \\nlead items to be procured. GHD’s approach facilitates \\nthese steps and avoids the common experience of \\nneeding to repeat complex design work as the pipeline \\ndesign “evolves”.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t anthony.mills@ghd.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.ghd.com/en/\\nGHD\\nInputs\\n-\\nInjection pressure\\n– Flow Scenarios\\n– Concept route\\n– Temps\\n–\\nHeat xfer coeff\\n–\\nComposition\\n– Topography\\n– Flow liner (unlikely) ?\\n– Booster pump sites \\nwhere power is available\\nOutputs\\n– Inlet Pressure\\n– NOM Pipe Size(s)\\n– Pump location & duty confirmed\\n– Design Pressure\\nApproximate wall thickness\\nusing design factor from\\nprevious CO2 designs\\nNO\\nGas comp\\nOperating\\nP&T\\nDet Des\\nFeed\\nFeed\\nConcept\\nSteady state hydraulics\\nInformal estimate of design\\npressure\\nRelease modelling\\nSafety \\nManagement \\nStudy\\nFurther Inputs\\n-\\nRefine route\\n-\\nLocation analysis\\n-\\nThreat analysis\\n-\\nCyclic pressure ?\\n-\\nCrossing types\\n-\\nSubsea design ?\\nOutputs\\n-\\nLocation classes\\n-\\nHigh Consequence zones\\n-\\nFracture control req’ts\\n-\\nMLV Spacing\\nWall thickness calc\\nFracture Control Plan\\nMarket \\nCheck-in\\nMaterials Study\\n-\\nCorrosion\\n-\\nStress corrosion cracking\\nOperations Inputs\\n-\\nStart up\\n-\\nStop and cool\\n-\\nRestart\\n-\\nDepressuring\\n-\\nSlugging\\n-\\nHydrates\\n-\\nFree water margin\\nFlow Assurance\\n(Transient hydraulics)\\nInjection well design\\nCrack \\narrestors\\npractical\\n(Y/N) \\nValidated \\nassumption of \\n200-250J  \\ntoughness \\navailable\\nValidity of \\nEmpirical \\nMethod OK ?\\nYes- Proceed\\nNo- Use Failure \\nStrain Locus \\nModelling\\nSelect\\nstrength\\nGrade\\nTopo and geotech surveys\\n(can be FEED or early\\nDetailed Design)\\nDetailed Design Tasks\\n-\\nOnshore and Offshore detailed design\\n-\\nLine pipe procurement\\n-\\nFacilities design\\n-\\nCrossing design\\n-\\nBending philosophy\\n-\\nOthers.\\nOutput:\\nSelected Wall Thickness\\nOutputs\\n-\\nMoisture spec\\n-\\nCorrosion allowance ?\\n-\\nMin design temp\\nOutputs\\n-\\nSteel type\\n-\\nSpecial req’ts ?\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n128\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDON’T CRACK! \\nBUT IF YOU DO CRACK- TRY TO PULL IT TOGETHER…\\nThe classic concern with CO2 pipelines is running ductile \\nfracture, where the pipeline “unzips” over an extended \\nlength, thus multiplying the chances that the failure and \\nsubsequent fluid release will coincide with and harm the \\npublic. \\n“Crack arrestors” were historically used on older pipelines, \\nbut in many cases were applied in a tokenistic way at long \\nintervals that sometimes failed to meaningfully lower risk \\nlevels. Recent and currently planned projects rely instead \\nin “intrinsic arrest” pipe, which will arrest running cracks \\nwithin a reasonable distance. Fracture control almost \\nalways ends up determining the final wall thickness.\\nLeading researchers in the field have taken designers \\non a challenging journey since 2019. Prior to this time, \\nCO2 pipelines were designed using a modified “Batelle \\nTwo Curve” (BTCM) method. This method used well \\nknown software- DUCTOUGH™ to model the running \\ncrack and GASDECOM™ to model CO2 decompression. \\nHowever, it was recognised that resulting designs could \\nbe unconservative and potentially still be vulnerable to \\nrunning ductile fractures.\\nSince then, a number of methods have been proposed in \\nquick succession, as shown in the following diagram.\\nOTHER THINGS TO JUGGLE\\nWhilst all of this is playing out, the hydraulic modelling \\nfrom the Concept stage is expanded into “flow assurance” \\nwork. This considers all the transient conditions where the \\nreal challenge in operating CO2 pipelines occurs, such \\nas how to start and stop the pipeline, cool-downs, and \\ndepressurization. These processes need to consider the \\ndangers of hydrate formation, rapid free-water corrosion, \\nand auto-refrigeration embrittlement.\\nThese design strands weave together to culminate in the \\nfull specification of the pipe material, as well as a good \\nunderstanding of the route that the pipeline traverses \\nand how it will be built. GHD can then estimate costs \\nmore accurately and pipe material can be purchased with \\nconfidence.\\nGHD reaches out to developers of CCUS projects \\nworldwide. Our key CCUS team is based in Houston and \\nBrisbane, Australia. We provide engineering all the way \\nfrom CO2 capture plant through to reservoir pore space. \\nOur pipeline design work is leading-edge but resides \\nwithin a complete service offering that also includes CCUS \\napprovals and environmental work.\\nAt the time of writing, proponents really face a choice \\nbetween three main design outcomes:\\n•\\t\\nEmploy a “conservative design”, which requires \\nonly lab-scale material tests to validate. This usually \\ninvolves extra millimetres of steel, and potentially even \\nover-sizing of the pipeline in order to be able to safely \\nrely on the results of historical burst tests. However, it \\nis a valid technique for shorter pipelines.\\n•\\t\\nProcure pipe samples and perform full scale burst \\ntests- this method is likely to produce the most \\nefficient design on large projects, but extends lead \\ntime considerably.\\n•\\t\\nUndertake “Special Assessments”, which involve \\nhighly specialised computer modelling of the running \\nfracture. (GHD is acquainted with the very few \\ninstitutions who can perform this.)\\nIn any of these approaches, it is necessary to know the \\nphase envelope of the CO2 with its various impurities and \\nthen to identify the temperatures and pressures of different \\noperating points along the pipeline and in different \\nseasons. Special modifications to the classical equations of \\nstate may be needed to accurately predict the saturation \\npressure.\\nThe designer can then predict how the supercritical \\nor dense phase CO2 will decompress. When the fluid \\nsaturation line is encountered, the fluid becomes a boiling \\nliquid that evolves large quantities of CO2 vapour, tending \\nto maintain the pressure and causing the crack to “keep \\nrunning”.\\nThe figure below shows how GHD assessed this on a \\nrecent project.\\nAs at mid-2023, it is possible that the industry leaders are \\nreverting to highly corrected versions of the BTCM. GHD \\ncontinues to track these developments.\\nThe process begins during Concept stage, by defining \\nfundamentals such as the injection pressure of the target \\ngeo-reservoir. This stage is dominated by the process \\nof “Steady State Hydraulics”, which allows the pipeline \\ndiameter and design pressure to be nominally set and \\ndetermines the need for mainline pump station(s).\\nCost estimates using factored metrics from the natural gas \\npipeline industry allow the pipeline to be costed at this \\nstage and if the overall CCUS project appears attractive, \\nthen pipeline design enters the next stage- FEED.\\nA CO2 pipeline FEED by GHD starts with a materials study, \\nwhich identifies any special requirements such as stress \\ncorrosion cracking resistance and proposes a grade of \\nsteel that is likely to be optimal. API 5L Grade X65 is a \\nlikely starting point, however GHD checks in with pipe \\nmerchants at this stage to identify any trends in the market, \\nwhich might promote a different strength steel, which may \\nthen increase or decrease wall thickness and therefore \\nsteel tonnage.\\nAlso, during FEED, the pipeline route becomes “real”. \\nGeographically localized threats to the safety of the \\npipeline are identified, as are nearby population centres. \\nAdvanced software such as PHAST™, SLAB™ and CHARM™ \\nare utilised to simulate the release and abrupt partitioning \\nof CO2 its gaseous and solid (snow) ambient phases and \\nto examine how prevailing wind and topography might \\ntransport the plume over unexpectedly long distances. \\nThe effect of contaminants such as H2S that are potentially \\nmore dangerous than the CO2 itself is also considered. \\nAS 2885 calls for a Safety Management Study to formalize \\nthis mile-by-mile risk assessment of the pipeline route, \\nand GHD advocates this process for pipelines in all \\njurisdictions. The results from this process combine with \\nfurther design inputs to produce a tentative wall thickness \\nselection and the process then begins of designing the \\npipeline’s “fracture resistance”. A new generation of \\npipeline steels has appeared in the last few years. These \\noffer stellar toughness as measured using the conventional \\n“Charpy” test but are behaving unusually in some of the \\nother standard material tests..\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n130\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nJFE’S MARTENSITIC CRA TUBING\\nJFE Steel is an integrated steel mill, having various type \\nof steel product lineup. JFE is also a global supplier of \\nmartensitic stainless steel, especially for Oil Country \\nTubular Goods (OCTG) and has wide range of expertise \\nfor steel pipe materials and connection systems. OCTG \\nwere first manufactured and shipped at JFE Steel Chita \\nWorks in 1971. Since then, JFE has been developing and \\nsupplying martensitic CRA tubing globally. Starting from \\nfirst 13Cr martensitic stainless sales in 1984, JFE has further \\ndeveloped with the expertise in the corrosion research \\nthe martensitic CRA materials, from modified 13CR (named \\nJFE-HP2-13CR) up to 15CR-17CR (named JFE-UHP™-15CR \\nand JFE-UHP™-17CR) and supplied to the operators of oil & \\ngas industry with great satisfaction.\\nJFE’S PREMIUM CONNECTION\\nJFE’s connection development started in early 1980s. In \\nthe 1990s, JFE introduced the JFEBEAR™. More recently, \\nin 2011, the JFELION™ connections were developed, \\ndesigned to meet today’s toughest well conditions \\nand industry testing protocols. These JFE’s flagship \\nconnections have been globally supplied over 400,000mt \\nand 100,000mt, respectively, with satisfaction. In 2018, \\nJFE have established the connection testing laboratory at \\nJFE Connections America (JCA) to further accelerate the \\nconnection development and evaluation.\\nAPPLICATIONS OF CRA TUBING AND CONNECTION TO \\nCO2 UNDERGROUND STORAGE WELLS\\nWith the growing global demand and necessity for carbon \\nreduction, JFE sets great priority on the supplying of tubing \\nand connection for the CO2 underground storage wells.\\nIn general, CO2 accelerate the corrosion of injection tubing \\nmaterial because the CO2 decreases the pH of water. If \\nother corrosive impurities such as SO2, NO2 and O2 are \\nincluded in the CO2, severity to the CO2 tubing will be \\nincreased further.\\nJFE has evaluated their martensitic CRA grades including \\nJFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR tubing where they \\nhave shown great CO2 resistant corrosion performance \\nagainst certain CCS simulated environments. Some of the \\nevaluation results were published in the technical paper1) \\nfor AMPP Annual Conference (former NACE International’s \\nCORROSION Conference & Expo),and will be presented in \\nthe Eurocorr 2023 (The Annual Congress of The European \\nFederation of Corrosion) as well. \\nJFE has also evaluated the sealability performance on their \\nrobust JFELION™ connection simulating worst case thermal \\nshock during CCS operations. JFELION™\\nshowed seal performance even after temperature cycles \\nbetween -35C/ambient temperature and rapid cooling with \\na temperature drop of 80 degrees Celsius.  \\nJFE has been involved intensely in the material selection \\ndiscussion and supply of the tubing for CCS projects. \\nStarting from 2008, JFE has supplied the CRA tubing with \\ntheir premium connections to several CCS projects globally \\nas shown below in Table 1.\\nJFE would continue to put weight on the investigation \\nstudies to establish further confidence in different impurity \\nand water chloride levels depending on the CO2 source/\\nwell environment. JFE is collaborating and discussing \\nwith the operators/industry for optimization and supply \\nof the CRA tubing for future CCS projects, enhancing the \\nworldwide storage capacity.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nJFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR Tubing have following benefits which could contribute the popularization of clients’ \\nCCS projects.\\n•\\t\\nTubing with corrosion resistance against CO2 with contaminated gas condition\\n•\\t\\nLower cost compared to duplex stainless steel and higher CRA tubing\\n•\\t\\nShorter delivery time compared to duplex stainless steel and higher CRA tubing\\n•\\t\\nDelivered with JFE’s robust premium connection such as JFEBEAR™ and JFELION™\\nJFE-UHPTM-15CR AND JFE-UHPTM-17CR TUBING\\nJFE Steel has been playing a key role of supplying the oil \\n& gas industry with martensitic corrosion resistant alloy \\n(CRA) tubing with their own robust premium connections. \\nWith the growing global demand and necessity for carbon \\nreduction, JFE now sets great priority on the supplying of \\ntubing and connection for the CO2 underground storage \\nwells. JFE has evaluated their martensitic CRA grades \\nincluding JFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR tubing \\ntogether with the JFELION™ connection for the application \\nin CO2 underground storage wells, where they have shown \\ngreat and promising performance for the usage. Starting \\nfrom 2008, JFE has supplied the CRA tubing with their \\npremium connections to several CCS projects globally \\nto demonstrate the feasibility of CCS and increase the \\nstorage capacity. JFE would continue the collaboration and \\ndiscussion with the customers/operators to contribute to \\nthe CCS projects.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t h-takai@jfe-steel.co.jp\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.jfe-steel.co.jp/en/index.html\\nJFE STEEL CORPORATION\\nFigure 1: Example of CO2 Corrosion\\nCO2 Corrosion\\nNo Corrosion\\nCarbon Steel After 1 year Operation\\nJFE Material After 1 Year Operation\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n132\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nREFERENCE\\n1.\\t\\nYuichi Kamo, Kenichiro Eguchi and Hiroyuki Takai, “Corrosion Behavior of Martensite-Based Stainless Steels in \\nChloride Solutions Saturated with CO2 Containing Impurity Gases,” AMPP Annual Conference 2023, paper No. 18908 \\n(Denver, Colorado,2023)\\nYEAR\\nAREA\\nMATERIAL \\nGRADE\\nOD \\n(INCH)\\nWT (POUNDS/\\nFEET)\\nCONNECTION\\nPROJECT TYPE\\n2008\\nN. America\\nHP2-13Cr-95\\n7\\n29\\nJFEBEAR\\nCommercial\\n2009\\nN. America\\nHP2-13Cr-95\\n4.5\\n18.9\\nJFEBEAR\\nCommercial\\n2008\\nN. America\\n13Cr-80\\n9.625\\n47\\nJFEBEAR\\nCommercial\\n2009\\nN. America\\n13Cr-85\\n4.5\\n12.6\\nJFEBEAR\\nCommercial\\n2009\\nOceania\\nL80-13Cr\\n5.5\\n17\\nJFEBEAR\\nPilot\\n2014\\nJapan\\nL80-13Cr\\n3.5\\n12.7\\nJFEBEAR\\nPilot\\n2014\\nJapan\\nHP2-13Cr-110\\n3.5\\n12.7\\nJFEBEAR\\nPilot\\n2022\\nOceania\\nHP2-13Cr-95M\\n3.5\\n9.2\\nJFEBEAR\\nCommercial\\n2022\\nOceania\\nL80-13Cr\\n4.5\\n13.5\\nJFEBEAR\\nPilot\\n2022\\nN. America\\nL80\\n9.5\\n47/53.5\\nAPI 5B\\nPilot\\n2022\\nEurope\\nUHP17Cr-110\\n7\\n29\\nJFELION\\nCommercial\\n2023\\nJapan\\nHP1-13Cr-110\\nOD:2.375” ~ 7”\\nJFEBEAR\\nPilot\\n2023\\nN. America\\nL80-13Cr etc.\\nOD:2.875” ~ 5.5”\\nJFEBEAR\\nPilot\\n2024\\nAsia\\nHP1-13Cr-110\\n7\\n29\\nJFELION\\nPilot\\n2024\\nAsia\\nUHP17Cr-110\\n7\\n29\\nJFELION\\nCommercial \\n(Under discussion)\\nTable 1: JFE’s Steel Pipe Supply Record for CO2 Injection. (Include Projects Under Discussion)\\nFigure 2: Image of JFE-UHPTM-15CR and JFE-UHPTM-17CR\\nFigure 3: Image of JFE Premium Connection (JFEBEARTM, JFELIONTM)\\nFigure 4:  JFEBEARTM, JFELIONTM company logos\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n134\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nWHAT IS DUOLINE 20 GRE LINED TUBING?\\nDuoline 20 is a Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) composite \\nliner, which is inserted inside steel tubing to protect it from \\ncorrosion due to CO2, free O2, H2S, chlorides, water, and \\nother constituents which may exist in the process fluids. \\nThis tubing is used downhole in injection and production \\nwells. Duoline GRE also mitigates solid deposition inside \\nthe tubing.\\nTubing made Carbon steel, lined with Duoline 20 GRE, can \\nbe utilized instead of expensive chrome and higher alloy \\nsteel grades, which are often the appropriate material for \\nresistance to CO2.\\nDuoline 20 GRE Lined tubulars have been successfully \\nemployed in a variety of applications where they have \\nbeen exposed to extreme process conditions – high \\ntemperatures, high pressures, high concentrations of \\ndissolved gases, high chlorides, and high flow rates as \\nwell as mechanical “stresses” during multiple downhole \\ninterventions. The success of the technology is based \\non extensive testing and trials conducted by operators \\nworldwide over five decades.\\nDuoline GRE liners are a proven flow assurance enabler. \\nBenefits derived from the properties of the system include \\nelimination of solid deposition, higher flow rates, reduced \\nfrictional losses and higher fluid temperature retention. \\nThese are attributed to the smoother surface of the Duoline \\nGRE compared to steel, as well as the added insulation \\nprovided by the layers of grout and GRE. Enhanced \\nflow assurance allows a more consistent, uninterrupted \\ninjectivity rate.\\nDuoline GRE has been proven to withstand:\\n•\\t\\nTemperatures from -51 °C (-60 °F) to 144 °C (291°F)\\n•\\t\\nMore than 300,000 ppm chlorides\\n•\\t\\n100% wet, dry and dense phase CO2\\n•\\t\\nOver 18,000 psi pressure\\nDuoline 20 has been a workhorse in CO2 injection \\nwells since 1984. This track record provides significant \\nexperience for knowledge transfer into material selection \\nfor carbon injection and utilization downhole in global \\nCCUS projects. \\nDESCRIPTION \\nThe Duoline 20 Lining system consists of a fiberglass \\nreinforced epoxy resin composite liner cemented inside \\nlow alloy carbon steel tubing. The cement transfers fluid \\npressure to the steel. The ends of the liner are protected \\nfrom mechanical damage by end caps called flares. A \\npolymeric Corrosion Barrier Ring extends the corrosion \\nbarrier across the coupling between two adjacent flares.\\nDUOLINE 20 GRE LINED TUBING IN CO2 INJECTION \\nThe first miscible CO2 Injection EOR project in Canada \\nbegan in 1984 in the Joffre Viking Tertiary Oil Unit by \\nVikor Resources and the Alberta Oil Sands Technology \\nand Research Authority. This is the first known successful \\napplication of fibreglass-lined tubing to combat CO2 \\ncorrosion.\\nSince then, Duoline 20 has been used extensively by \\nEquinor, ExxonMobil and Oxy in CO2 injection wells. In the \\nUnited States, nearly 20 million feet of Duoline GRE Lined \\ntubing has been used in CO2 injection wells. In 1996, Statoil \\nwere among the first to use Duoline GRE Lined Tubing in \\noffshore Water Alternating CO2 (WAG) wells.\\nDuoline 20 has since become the gold standard for tubing \\nmaterial in CO2 injection wells, CO2 WAG wells, carbonated \\nwater injection wells and hydrocarbon producers with high \\nCO2 concentrations. Duoline GRE has been tested and \\nfield-proven to withstand dense phase CO2 (wet and dry) \\nand low pH solutions from dissolved CO2, for decades.\\nDuoline 20 GRE lined tubing offers attractive savings \\ncompared to capital intensive high-chrome materials that \\nare often the metallic selection for CO2 applications. \\nCCUS projects depend on dehydration of the CO2 gas \\nto prevent corrosion. It is undoubtedly challenging to \\nmaintain the 100% absence of moisture downhole. The \\nimpact of residual water from the reservoir during shut-in \\nof CO2 injection wells is also a concern. In such cases, the \\ndehydration of the gas will prove ineffective in combatting \\ncorrosion downhole. This risk necessitates a pre-emptive \\ncorrosion prevention strategy. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nThere are two distinct contributions that Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing can make to reducing the carbon footprint of a CCUS \\nproject.\\n•\\t\\nFirstly, Duoline 20 GRE lining provides a corrosion barrier which protects carbon steel tubing for decades. The \\ncombined system costs a fraction of chrome and higher alloy steel tubing. Additionally, unlike sensitive alloy steels, \\nDuoline GRE liners will offer consistent corrosion protection irrespective of contaminants in the flue gases from \\ndifferent industrial sources over the life of the project. \\n•\\t\\nSecondly, eliminating the use of chemicals for corrosion inhibition means eliminating carbon emissions from chemical \\nmanufacture, transportation, and injection into the wells over the life of the well.\\nThe above benefits of applying Duoline 20 GRE Lined tubing in CCUS applications enable significant reductions in CAPEX \\nand OPEX over the lifecycle of the wells. This in turn enhances the overall viability of the project.\\nDUOLINE 20® FIBERGLASS (GRE) LINED TUBING IN CO2 INJECTION AND SEQUESTRATION\\nAs CCUS projects are driven by the common goal of \\nreducing global carbon emissions, the technologies \\nemployed in these projects have a critical role to play \\nin achieving this goal. In several cases, existing ageing \\ninfrastructure from oil or gas field projects is repurposed \\nfor injecting CO2 for up to five more decades. Maxtube \\nprovides a technology that contributes to increasing the \\nlongevity of the asset while reducing the cost and overall \\ncarbon footprint of the project. \\nMaxtube Limited are the proud owners of Duoline \\nTechnologies in the United States. Duoline are the \\npioneers of Fiberglass (GRE) Internal Lining systems, used \\nto prevent corrosion in downhole tubulars. Over 110 million \\nfeet of Duoline GRE lined tubing has been installed in over \\n55,000 wells worldwide.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t ccs@maxtube.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.maxtube.com\\nMAXTUBE\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n136\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nOver the life of CCUS projects, it is expected that the \\ninjected gas may be contaminated with NOx, SOx and \\nother contaminants from flue gases generated at various \\nindustrial sources. The performance of metallic alternatives \\nis sensitive to variations in the composition of process \\nfluids. Duoline GRE liners, on the other hand, will offer \\nconsistent corrosion resistance irrespective of variations in \\nconstituents over the life of the project. \\nThe selection of Duoline GRE lined tubing provides added \\ninsurance against potential process interruptions on the \\nsurface. Any disruption to surface facilities for dehydration \\nor treatment of the injected gas will not interrupt CO2 \\ninjection if the material used downhole is able to withstand \\nall corrosive elements. It is also noteworthy that repairs due \\nto avoidable downhole failures are far costlier and time-\\nconsuming than repairs on the surface. Such cases justify \\nthe added insurance of Duoline GRE lining of tubing.\\nThe above points demonstrate how Duoline GRE \\nenhances the integrity and flow assurance of CO2 injection \\nsystems thereby reducing the overall carbon footprint of \\nthe project. Duoline GRE Lined tubing offers substantial \\nvalue to the overall economic and environmental viability \\nof CCUS projects. Whether the well is completed onshore \\nor offshore, platform or subsea, Duoline GRE lining is a \\nsingle solution for tubing corrosion prevention and flow \\nassurance.\\nINDUSTRY AND REGULATORY AUTHORITY \\nENDORSEMENTS\\nDuoline GRE liners have been tested extensively for \\nresistance to exposure to a variety of industry chemicals, \\nfull-scale combined loading inside tubing, pressure \\ncycling, high erosional velocities, fatigue, and durability \\nwhen exposed to downhole, coiled tubing and wireline, \\ninterventions. \\nSaudi Aramco, Shell, BP, Eni, and Statoil have conducted \\ntests to confirm the viability of Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing \\nas an alternative to chrome alloy steels. \\nEni performed qualification tests on Duoline 20 GRE Lined \\ntubing for high-velocity gas production. These include \\ntests to confirm the erosion resistance and mechanical \\nproperties of Duoline GRE which proved that its fatigue \\nresistance is about nine times higher than super-duplex \\nstainless steel. Direct impact and straight pipe test \\nresults showed a very good resistance of Duoline GRE \\ncomparable to that of a Nickel Alloy 625 sample under \\nsimilar conditions. \\nBP performed comprehensive testing to demonstrate \\nthe fatigue resistance of the system. Duoline GRE lined \\nassemblies were internally pressurized to 8,000 psi \\nand exposed to one million load cycles. They were also \\nsubjected to ISO 13679 loading in the first quadrant. None \\nof the assemblies showed any leaks or signs of damage to \\nthe GRE liner and the components in the connection area.\\nDuoline GRE has been used in wells with temperatures up \\nto 145 °C (293 °F) and has also been tested for resistance \\nto temperatures as low as -51 °C (-60 °F). The resistance of \\nDuoline GRE to temperature swings is particularly relevant \\nconsidering the phase change sensitivity of CO2 relative \\nto temperature and pressure. Additional testing is planned \\nto confirm the integrity of the system when exposed to \\nuncontrolled flash freezing due to rapid pressure drop.\\nOperators have tested the compatibility of the Duoline \\n20 GRE Lining System with several premium connections. \\nThese confirm that the Duoline’s GRE lining process \\nand system components do not affect the connection \\ndimensions, torque values and gas sealability. Duoline \\n20 GRE Lining systems have been applied on premium \\nconnection tubing from Tenaris, Vallourec, JFE, and Voest \\nAlpine, among others.\\nIn the US, experience and good practices recorded in \\nthe field of CO2 injection are documented as regulatory \\nalternatives and operating practices for the geological \\nsequestration of CO2 by the United States’ Environmental \\nProtection Agency (USEPA). Federal Requirements under \\nthe Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program for CO2 \\nsequestration wells, are codified in the US Code of Federal \\nRegulations, known as the Geologic Sequestration Rule, \\nwhich establishes a new class of injection well (Class VI) \\nand sets minimum technical criteria and well construction \\nguidelines for these wells for the purpose of protecting \\nunderground sources of drinking water (USDWs). This \\nguidance describes the construction requirements for an \\napproved Class VI injection well wherein GRE lined tubing \\nis well accounted for.\\nVALUE ADDITION FROM FLOW ASSURANCE BENEFITS\\nDuoline GRE retains its surface smoothness over its life \\nwhich retards, and even eliminates, the nucleation and \\nsubsequent deposition of solids such as scales, paraffins \\nand hydrates on its surface hence enhancing flow \\nassurance in wells.\\nFlow assurance benefits derived from Duoline 20 GRE \\nLining have also been attributed to the thermal insulation \\nprovided to the steel by the fiberglass and grout. Eni and \\nPertamina have published findings of higher temperature \\nretention in wells with Duoline GRE lined tubing compared \\nto bare steel tubing. \\nFor higher thermal insulation requirements, Duoline \\ncan engineer a lining solution compatible with Vacuum \\nInsulated Tubing (VIT) to combine superior corrosion \\nresistance with superlative thermal insulation.\\nDuoline GRE lining system has also been applied to \\nflowlines. Eni, Shell, and Apache subsidiaries have been \\nusing Duoline GRE lined tubing to construct flowlines \\nused for the transportation of oil and water. In a worldwide \\nfirst, Shell constructed a high-pressure flowline network \\nusing premium connection tubing. In such a system, the \\ncombination of the metal-to-metal seal in the premium \\nconnection tubing, and the Duoline GRE backed by the \\nsteel body of the pipe, ensure that there is no permeation \\nof dissolved gases through the flowline into the \\natmosphere.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n138\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSTORAGE \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n140\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCMG has been involved in subsurface modeling of the \\napplication of CO2 in the enhanced oil production since the \\nlate 1980’s centered around our GEM reservoir simulator. \\nFollowing the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 a change in focus \\nresulted in the forming of a research consortium between \\nResearch Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth \\n(RITE) and Japan Oil Engineering and CMG to enhance \\nGEM to produce the required capabilities allowing \\npredictive modeling of the CO2 storage process in deep \\nsaline aquifers. \\nFurther investigations and extensions of the modeling \\nenvironment at this time also led to the investigation of CO2 \\ninjection into coal seams. This process provided two main \\nbenefits: The potential increase in methane production \\ndue to preferential replacement of the CH4 by CO2 on the \\ncoal surface; as well as the long-term storage of CO2 as it \\nadhered to the coal surface. \\nAs the safety and liability frameworks were gradually \\ncreated, understanding the ability to safely store CO2 \\nunderground; the ability to contain the CO2 over extended \\nperiods of hundreds or even thousands of years; and \\nthe type of physical mechanisms that take place over \\nboth the short- and long-term storage, were crucial to \\nmoving the concept of aquifer storage forward. CMG’s \\nGEM reservoir simulator, originally designed for oil and \\ngas extraction modeling, was enhanced to provide the \\nphysical mechanisms required to simulate CO2 behavior in \\nunderground formations. This involved: \\n•\\t\\nDetailed CO2 solubility calculations for the subsurface \\nfluids; as well as molecular dispersion and diffusion \\nmodels \\n•\\t\\nGeochemical modeling to capture the geochemical \\ninteractions between the injected CO2; the reservoir \\nfluids; and the minerals present in the aquifer rock. \\n•\\t\\nGeomechanical analysis of the stresses induced \\nto determine seal integrity and fault movement; \\nreactivation of inactive faults leading to undesired flow \\nand leakage.\\n•\\t\\nTemperature effect on fluid movement, geochemical \\nreactions, and geomechanical response. \\n•\\t\\nCoupling to surface facilities \\nCMG’s CoFlow solution is an Integrated Reservoir & \\nProduction System Modelling software that allows detailed \\nanalysis of the well and pipeline systems feeding CO2 \\ninto the subsurface, modelling steady state flow in the \\npipeline system. CoFlow’s multi-fidelity, multi-disciplinary, \\ncollaborative modeling environment, allows reservoir and \\nproduction engineers to make informed decisions on large \\nintegrated oil and gas projects and is fully integrated with \\nGEM to provide an end-to-end software solution to model \\nCO2 transport and storage. \\nFor over 45 years, CMG has brought industry-first \\ntechnologies to the market through extensive research \\nand collaboration. In our recent collaboration, CMG joined \\nhands with Kongsberg to form a research consortium with \\n10 other oil and gas industry partners to investigate CO2 \\nstorage in depleted oil and gas systems. This consortium \\nhas resulted in software that links Kongsberg’s LedaFlow \\ntransient pipe and well modeling product with CMG’s GEM \\nreservoir simulator to accurately capture the CO2 behavior \\nduring transport and storage, focusing on the ability to \\nstart up and shut down injection operations safely and \\neffectively. \\nFurther enhancements of CMG’s GEM simulator have also \\nbeen developed over the years to allow for the additional \\ncomplications of storage in the low pressure (and lower \\ntemperature) depleted oil and gas reservoirs\\n1.\\t\\nPure CO2 behavior as well as impure mixtures, and the \\nmixing with existing reservoir hydrocarbons. \\n2.\\t Rapid cooling to subzero temperatures around \\nthe injection wells and the consequences of such \\ntemperature changes to the local well environment \\nand ability to inject. \\nMore recently, with the latest software development of \\nFocus CCS, customers have access to a solution that \\nsupports their process from end-to-end, fast-tracks their \\ntime-to-value, and allows them to make business critical \\ndecisions regarding new CCS ventures, through faster and \\nmore efficient model creation, and automated regulatory \\nreporting. \\nCMG’s commitment to bringing industry-first solutions \\nto market, coupled with high-quality user experience \\nand expert customer support has always set us apart \\nfrom the competition. CMG’s dedicated support team is \\ncomprised of practicing reservoir simulation engineers \\nwho will answer your questions, assist with installation \\nand resolve technical issues to keep your business \\nrunning smoothly. Our team of experienced and skilled \\nprofessionals guide users through an immersive online \\nor in-person learning process that builds capabilities that \\ncan be directly applied to real-world projects. Customer \\nSuccess and Consulting experts average at least 10 years \\nof engineering experience and offer over 30 courses that \\ncover all recovery processes and reservoir challenges, with \\ndedicated training facilities and global support.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nDe-risk a range of Energy Transition projects related to CO2 storage; H2 storage and production; and geothermal \\nprocesses \\n•\\t\\nAnalyse the subsurface uncertainties associated with injection and storage of CO2 \\n•\\t\\nQuantify the storage volumes; long term stability; and applicable injection rates for CO2 storage projects \\n•\\t\\nSatisfy regulatory requirements through determining the long-term safe containment of CO2 \\nINNOVATORS IN SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY\\nComputer Modelling Group Ltd. (CMG) (TSX: CMG) is a \\nglobal software and consulting company that combines \\nscience and technology with deep industry expertise to \\nsolve complex subsurface and surface challenges for the \\nnew energy industry around the world. For over 45 years, \\nwe have helped organizations unlock value from their \\nassets through continuous innovation and consultation. \\nOur expertise spreads across a broad spectrum of energy \\nworkflows, and our technology can help energy companies \\nnavigate this complex and changing landscape. CMG is \\nheadquartered in Calgary, AB, with offices in Houston, \\nLondon, Dubai, Bogota, Bengaluru, and Kuala Lumpur. \\nINNOVATION TO ADVANCE A NEW ENERGY SYSTEM \\nLonger forecasting timescales, limited subsurface data, \\nand public safety and environmental concerns increase the \\ncomplexity of carbon storage projects exponentially. CMG’s \\n20 years of experience in helping energy companies use \\nCO2 injection to enhance oil recovery can be applied to \\naccelerate the transition safely and effectively to a low-\\ncarbon future. Our knowledge and real-world experience \\nallow us to help companies in oil and gas and other \\ncarbon-intensive industries like refining, power generation, \\nand manufacturing make the transition. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t Mark.Edmondson@cmgl.ca\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.cmgl.ca/; https://accelerate.cmgl.ca\\nCMG\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n142\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nExploration Analyst is a straightforward Common Risk \\nSegment mapping tool based in ESRI’s ArcMap or ArcPro \\nthat convolves any combination of geologic, environmental, \\nregulatory, infrastructure, or other geospatial inputs to \\ncalculate storage volumetrics and Chance of Success on \\na map basis. Because Exploration Analyst has an easy-to-\\nmaster user interface and standard ESRI data structures \\nit can be easily adopted and integrated into existing or \\nevolving workflows. Exploration Analyst workflows can \\nbe standardized and shared and even run in batch. The \\nconcepts and functionality have been honed by decades \\nof deployment in the hydrocarbon industry, with clear \\ntranslation to carbon storage application. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nAgnostic compilation of proprietary, vendor, and public data.\\n•\\t\\nEfficient integration of inputs from multiple disciplines that facilitates communication among diverse team members.\\n•\\t\\nAuditable conclusions that can be validated against well results.\\n•\\t\\nVolumetrics and risk evaluated in a single application.\\n•\\t\\nInputs may be rigorously derived from data, loosely sketched from concepts, or anything in between.\\n•\\t\\nWorkflows can be standardised and shared using Tasks, as well as run in batch using Exploration Analyst’s \\ngeoprocessing tools.\\nEXPLORATION ANALYST TO MAP AND EVALUATE STORAGE PLAY POTENTIAL\\nExploration Analyst is an extension to Esri’s ArcMap and \\nArcGIS Pro software that assesses potential storage \\ncapacity, maps storage segments with common risk \\nprofiles, and high-grades storage areas with the best \\nChance of Success (COS). Exploration Analyst can \\nvalidate COS maps against well results, calculate prospect \\nvolumetrics, perform multi-criteria block or lease analyses, \\nas well as evaluate competitor positions and support \\nportfolio strategy. Exploration Analyst creates individual \\nCOS layers for separate geological elements that \\ncontribute to successful storage, including reservoir, trap, \\nand seal factors. Layers can be constructed from data or \\nsketched from concepts, and are then combined into a \\ngeologic play-chance model. Additional environmental, \\nregulatory, infrastructure, or other elements can be added \\nto the analysis as required. Exploration Analyst provides \\na wide range of summary maps, graphs, and reports to \\nquickly and intuitively communicate results.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t Richard.Webb@getech.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.getech.com\\nGETECH\\nRisked storage capacity, by stratigraphic unit\\nRegional integrated Chance of Success\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n144\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nGetech prepares detailed regional  (102 - 105 km2) fault \\nmaps to support client evaluation of seal integrity and \\nthe potential for induced seismicity, as well as to guide \\nadditional, more detailed, investigations including the \\ndesign of seismic monitoring networks and the acquisition \\nof project specific 3D seismic surveys. The process begins \\nwith an inventory of existing Getech and client geophysical \\ndata, including gravity, magnetic, and seismic. The data \\nare integrated and processed with advanced techniques \\nincluding filtering, reduction to pole, and various derivatives \\nappropriate to the specific local question addressed by \\nthe investigation.  Getech (alone, or in collaboration with \\nthe client) synthesize and evaluate available literature and \\nother publicly available geoscience data against Getech \\nglobal plate-tectonic models to establish a fundamental \\ntectonic framework. Faults are interpreted from the \\nprocessed geophysical data by human and machine \\nmethods, including by Automated Coherent Lineament \\nAnalysis and Selection (ACLAS, Cascone et al. 2017, \\nGeophysics, v. 82. P. G87-G100, https://doi.org/10.1190/\\ngeo2016-0337.1), and iteratively compared to topographic, \\nremote-sensing, and geologic data to describe each fault \\naccording to its relative importance for compromising seals \\nor inducing seismicity, and according to its kinematics. \\nIndividual faults are grouped into families of structures that \\nshare kinematic and activation histories. Fault-segment \\nazimuths are compared to publicly-available regional stress \\norientations (± client local measurements, for example from \\nimage or caliper logs) to evaluate slip propensity. Fault \\ninterpretations are iteratively combined with 2D, 2.5D, \\nand 3D inversion of gravity and magnetic data to sharpen \\nthe interpretation of subsurface lithologic geometry, \\nincluding depth to significant boundaries, for example \\ncrystalline basement or clastic/carbonate transitions. The \\n2.5D modelling also investigates lithologic variations \\nwithin constrained geologic units via density (gravity) or \\nsusceptibility (magnetic) variation. Results are delivered in \\nindustry-standard, fully attributed, electronic files for a wide \\nrange of analytic platforms (for example ESRI ArcGIS, QGIS, \\nPetrel, KINGDOM, Geographix, CPS3, IESX, SEG-Y, SPS, \\nUKOOA, OGP, Landmark, ZMap and OpenWorks).\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nCan be applied anywhere, even where seismic or well data are sparse.\\n•\\t\\nExisting Getech database, especially good in US Lower 48 onshore and shallow water, allows immediate project \\ninitiation without additional geophysical data acquisition.\\n•\\t\\nTotal project time from kick-off to final delivery can be weeks instead of months or years.\\n•\\t\\nExisting Getech datasets are regionally consistent, they do not require compilation and QC of diverse legacy data, for \\nexample seismic surveys of varying vintage, quality and acquisition/processing parameters.\\n•\\t\\nProven approach has been validated over many years in hydrocarbon and geothermal applications worldwide. \\nREGIONAL FAULT MAPPING TO EVALUATE SEAL INTEGRITY AND INDUCED SEISMICITY RISK\\nGetech regional (102-105 km2) fault mapping starts with the \\nworld’s most comprehensive and quality-controlled gravity \\nand magnetics database, applies advanced processing \\n(including high-pass filtering, total horizontal derivative, and \\ntilt angle), creates robust 2D, 2.5D, and 3D inversions, and \\npicks potential faults using Automated Coherent Lineament \\nAnalysis and Selection (ACLAS), a process developed \\nand published by Getech. Additional client geophysical \\ndata can be integrated to enhance the analysis, but is \\nnot required. Potential faults are iteratively validated and \\nclassified into temporal and kinematic families using \\navailable topographic, remote-sensing, and geologic \\n(including seismic) data and Getech’s plate-tectonic \\nmodels. Fault azimuths are compared to regional stress \\nmeasurements to evaluate the chance for fault segments \\nto be under extension or compression. The regional fault \\nframework can be used on its own or serve as the basis \\nfor more detailed local interpretation, including planning \\nseismic-monitoring networks or 3D seismic acquisition.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t Simon.Campbell@Getech.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.getech.com\\nGETECH\\nRegional fault mapping symbolized by crustal scale and \\nkinematics\\nRegional fault mapping symbolized by activation history\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n146\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nOne of the initial challenges facing the global development \\nof Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is the identification \\nand characterization of subsurface storage sites. While \\ndepleted oil and gas fields represent some of the best \\nunderstood and commercially viable targets, there is simply \\nnot enough storage volume to tackle the scale of the \\nchallenge.  Saline formations are porous and permeable \\nreservoir horizons that contain saline fluid as opposed to \\nhydrocarbons and have a much larger storage potential. \\nFortunately, the concept of exploring for suitable saline \\nformations shares many similarities with play-based \\nexploration for hydrocarbon reservoirs. As part of the \\nenergy transition effort, our geoscientists have been \\nfocused on adapting traditional oil and gas workflows, \\ngathering datasets, and investigating stratigraphy to help \\nwith CO2 storage identification. These workflows are \\nunderpinned by data and a global tectonostratigraphic \\nmodel, combined with geoscience principles to enable a \\nconsistent global coverage of inputs for fairway analysis. \\nWorkflow results are collated together in storage atlases \\nthat provide immediate overviews of the storage potential \\nand risks associated with assessed intervals. This enables \\na user to quickly familiarise themselves with the breadth of \\nstratigraphic potential in a target area.\\nThe consistent, reproducible screening workflows on \\nCO2 Storage Screen, provide teams with an accelerated \\nunderstanding of the subsurface and helps identify suitable \\nsaline aquifers for CO2 storage. The efficiency gains of \\ncloud technology and leveraging a wealth of subsurface \\ncontext, means that within minutes users can test storage \\nconcepts, investigate risks, and make informed decisions \\nwithout significant investments of time and resources. \\nThe underpinning Neftex® Predictions context supports \\nthose without location specific subsurface understanding. \\nIn addition, comparing fairways via Prospective Storage \\nResource Calculation (PSR) provides initial ranking of play \\npotential, allowing a user to quickly build a custom portfolio \\nof storage targets anywhere around the world.\\nFor users who wish to understand the deeper context, \\nincluding the search for analogues or access to \\nstratigraphy, tectonic or climate frameworks, a full \\nsubscription to Neftex® Predictions is recommended. This \\naccess will help the user gain a deeper understanding with \\nthe Neftex® interpretative framework and the wealth of \\nconditioned and contextualised subsurface data. \\nFor more information on how DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 \\nStorage Screen or a comprehensive Neftex® subscription \\ncan meet the challenge of screening for suitable storage \\nlocations, please contact us.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nAnswer in minutes – Reduce the time required to generate a play fairway evaluation for CO2 storage potential from \\nweeks to minutes, with comprehensive analysis, evaluation of multiple concepts and Prospective Storage Resource \\nCalculation \\n•\\t\\nAny play, anywhere - Model driven interpretive inputs allow global usage regardless of data coverage or exploration \\nhistory\\n•\\t\\nProceed with confidence – Identify suitable saline aquifers for CO2 storage with Neftex® Predictions unique integration\\n•\\t\\nConsistent analysis – Inputs supported by the Neftex® Predictions global tectono-stratigraphic framework deliver \\na consistent analysis regardless of differences in geography or stratigraphy\\n•\\t\\n\\t\\nIntegrated assessment – Assess both the geographic and temporal distribution of play elements and risks related \\nto reservoir, seal, supercriticality, or operations\\n•\\t\\n\\t\\nConnected workflows – Bring screened outputs into geospatial software or DecisionSpace® 365 applications\\n•\\t\\n\\t\\nQuickly tap into an area – Regional storage atlases provide immediate overviews \\n•\\t\\n\\t\\nPortfolio risk and ranking\\nCO2 STORAGE SCREEN \\nScreening, leading to site selection, is the first stage of the \\ncarbon sequestration workflow. This involves identifying \\nstratigraphic units with storage potential and identifying \\nlocations with the greatest prospectivity. DecisionSpace® \\n365 CO2 Storage Screen builds on over 20 years of \\nsubsurface insights to provide users with the subsurface \\ncontext to rapidly screen sequestration targets around the \\nworld. Our screening inputs are derived from disparate, \\noften siloed, publicly available data, combined with \\nglobal subsurface models and geoscience principles, to \\nextrapolate into white space and provide insight into data \\nlean saline aquifers. Different stratigraphic units can be \\nrapidly and uniformly assessed to test multiple scenarios \\nor compare multiple fairways within the cloud hosted \\nscreening application. Storage volume calculations and \\nrisk assessments are collated in storage atlases to provide \\nusers with the understanding required to select potential \\nstorage intervals from an existing portfolio.\\nHALLIBURTON \\nPlay Fairway evaluation for \\nCO2 storage potential\\nCONTACT\\nScan the code to contact \\nour Sustainability Experts\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n148\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nDWP takes well design and engineering through a standard \\nprocess that can be customized for CCS well construction \\nand design criteria. \\nDWP’s offset well analysis enables the automated design \\nof a new well by comparing operator defined KPIs and \\ndesign parameters. It uses drag-drop capabilities to \\ncreate a blueprint for the new design to automatically \\nrun engineering calculations for the new well. Offset well \\nanalysis includes:\\n•\\t\\nCasing depth selection\\n•\\t\\nCasing specifications\\n•\\t\\nBottomhole Assembly (BHA) selection\\n•\\t\\nFluid design\\n•\\t\\nWell barrier management\\n•\\t\\nWell operating parameters\\nDWP has detailed business process management \\nworkflows for the feasibility of a well prospect and the \\ndesign of the well. A cloud based integrated suite of well \\nconstruction technology, including EDT, takes the well \\nconstruction process from trajectory design to completions \\ndesign and analysis. Higher well construction performance \\nis achieved by incorporating drilling decision optimization \\nwith integrated workflows.\\nWELLCAT™ SOFTWARE FOR CCS WELLS\\nWellCat™ software is part of the EDM suite and provides a \\nprecise solution for both wellbore analysis and integrated \\ncasing and tubing design. It calculates accurate downhole \\ntemperature and pressure profiles, which can be used for \\npipe-body movement and casing and tubing load analysis \\nfor production scenarios and CO2 injection. WellCat™ \\nsoftware helps understand various challenges in CCS wells \\nand different load scenarios.\\nDRILLING DESIGN\\nThe Drill Design module simulates flow and heat transfer \\nduring drilling operations, providing full transient analysis. \\nCASING DESIGN\\nThe Casing Design module analyzes casing loads, design \\nintegrity, and buckling behavior under complex mechanical, \\nfluid pressure, and thermal-loading conditions with \\nstandard and automatic load-case generation. Analysis \\nmay be performed in conjunction with the Drill Design \\nand Production Design modules, including tubingless \\nconfigurations.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nDigital Well Program® outcomes:\\n•\\t\\nImproved decision-making on drilling parameters using comprehensive and proven engineering\\n•\\t\\nReduced time to select the optimum design by 60-80% due to running multiple design scenarios\\n•\\t\\nAutomated workflows allow engineers to work on high value business decisions\\n•\\t\\nPerform advanced analysis through trusted Engineer’s Desktop™ computer software.\\n•\\t\\nAutomatic update of design as new real time data is available\\n•\\t\\nIntegration of the well plan with well site operations for real-time plan adjustments\\nModelling and operational best practices can be leveraged to minimize the risk of chemical corrosion and mechanical \\nproperty degradation. NETool™ software simulations enable an image of the expected behaviour of injected CO2 in specific \\nreservoirs. Temperature, pressure, and flow of CO2 in the wellbore are estimated to ensure the injected CO2 remains within \\nthe safe boundaries. Preliminary CO2 injection screening and probabilistic system assessments help enable decisions in \\npreliminary stages of a CCS project. \\nCO2 STORAGE WELL CONSTRUCTION & INJECTIVITY TECHNOLOGY \\nDigitally Integrated Well Construction is Halliburton’s \\napproach to plan, design, and execute a well using \\nCollaborative Well Engineering and Integrated Automation. \\nAs part of this approach, the Digital Well Program® (DWP) \\nweb based application integrates offset-well analysis with \\nindustry-proven engineering algorithms, and reporting \\ntools to fast-track a cost-effective well program approval \\nprocess and well delivery, while supporting continuous \\nimprovement of well design. Implementation of a DWP \\nsolution can help address most concerns including, reduce \\nwell program preparation time, increase well reliability, \\naccelerate end-to-end well delivery, while lowering cost. \\nCO2 injection modelling requires dedicated wellbore \\nsimulations to ensure operations are planned within \\nsafe and effective limits. NETool™ software is a steady-\\nstate numerical simulator that provides user-friendly \\ncomprehensive modelling with the capabilities required for \\na simple vertical well, a long horizontal well, or a multilateral \\nwell with complex completions.\\nCONTACT\\nScan the code to contact \\nour Sustainability Experts\\nHALLIBURTON \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n150\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nANNULAR BARRIER DESIGN\\nHalliburton offers a tiered portfolio of chemical barriers \\ntailored to the injection plan and isolation zone of interest. \\nThese solutions include non-Portland solutions, such as \\nThermaLock™ cement system or WellLock® resin system, \\na resin-modified cement, CorrosaLock™ cement system, \\nand a Portland based solution, CorrosaCem™ cement \\nsystem. When combined with multi-stage cementing \\nand mechanical barriers, additional benefits may result in \\nmaximized annular fluid separation, increased cement lift \\nto surface, and the presence of a secondary barrier.\\nPRODUCTION DESIGN (INJECTIVITY AND FLOW \\nASSESSMENTS)\\nThis module simulates fluid and heat transfer during \\ncompletion, production, injection, stimulation, testing, \\nand well-service operations. Transient and steady-state \\nanalysis for single-phase and multiphase flow can be done \\nwith initial conditions defined by thermal results from the \\nDrill Design module. It also offers linked analyses with the \\nTube Design and Casing Design modules. New collapse \\nload assessments are incorporated (Bureau of Safety and \\nEnvironmental Enforcement (BSEE), Well Containment \\nScreening Tool (WCST)). \\nTUBE DESIGN\\nThe Tube Design module analyzes tubing loads and \\nmovements, buckling behavior, and design integrity \\nunder complex mechanical, fluid-pressure, and thermal-\\nloading conditions with standard and automatic load-case \\ngeneration. Tube Design offers linked analyses with the \\nProduction Design module.\\nMULTI-STRING DESIGN\\nThe Multi-string Design module predicts pressure and \\nvolume changes due to annular pressure buildup (APB) \\nwhen the well system heats up as a result of drilling or \\nproduction operations or the injection of hot fluids into \\nthe well. The Multi-string Design module determines the \\nmovement that occurs at the wellhead during the life of the \\nwell. Analyses are linked to Drill Design, Production Design, \\nTube Design, and Casing Design modules.\\nNETOOL\\n™ SOFTWARE\\nNETool™ software is a steady-state numerical simulator that \\nprovides comprehensive modeling for the most complex \\nwells. Designed for completion engineers operating \\nCO2 injection wells, this tool is a highly detailed wellbore \\nand completion simulator for CO2 storage design. From \\ninjection well design to execution control, it incorporates \\nthe functionality required for all phases of injectivity \\nplanning and operations. It manages outflux injection \\nprofiles along the wellbore, which gives a clear picture \\nof the CO2 injection zones, especially in horizontal wells. \\nIts compositional simulation provides accurate phase \\nbehaviour in changing pressure–temperature conditions \\nalong the wellbore and built–in component properties \\nallow for the creation of high complexity EOS models. \\nFigure 1: Digital Well Program® - Offset Well Analysis \\nFigure 2: Digital Well Program® - Design Feasibility (Plan)\\nFigure 3: WellCat® Software \\nFigure 4: NETool™ Completions and CO2 Phase Behaviour Analysis\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n152\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Solution optimizes \\nmodelling and interpretation at each critical stage of \\nthe CO2 life cycle using a flexible approach to accessing \\ntools. The solution facilitates specific workflows designed \\nbetween applications to optimize modelling and create \\ngreater efficiency for timely results and decisions.\\nWithin the umbrella of CO2 Storage Solution, CO2 Storage \\nPlume is an integrated suite of high-resolution modelling \\ntools and simulators for CO2 storage exploration, \\nmonitoring, and prediction. The software addresses key \\naspects of CO2 storage workflows: formation storage \\nprospecting, capacity estimation, well injectivity, formation \\npressurization, plume trapping, and dissolved CO2 \\ndispersal. \\n•\\t\\nProspect for new storage sites \\n•\\t\\nAssess capacity and containment for CO2 storage\\n•\\t\\nMatch storage monitoring data \\n•\\t\\nPredict the long-term fate and risks of a storage site in \\nthe post-operational phase \\nCO2 \\nMigration \\nsimulator: \\nA \\nCO2-adapted \\ninvasion \\npercolation simulator for free-phase plume modelling. CO2 \\nMigration is built on the state-of-the-art Permedia® CO2 \\nmigration simulator, providing extremely high-resolution \\nmodels of gravity-segregated plume distributions in \\nheterogeneous storage settings. \\nCO2 BOS simulator: A fast multi-threaded Black Oil \\nSimulator, developed to specifically handle CO2 storage \\nand solubility. Specially adapted for two-phase plume and \\nbrine modelling, CO2 BOS addresses reservoir engineering \\nworkflows for CO2 modelling in saline formation settings. \\nIt is specifically tuned to run CO2 injection out-of-the-box, \\nwith built-in CO2 injection scheduling, PVT, and solubility \\nhandling. \\nCO2 Flow simulator: CO2 Flow is a high-resolution \\nhydrodynamic solver for modelling CO2 storage related \\npressure changes. With a well modelling scheme that \\nhandles CO2 injection rates and injection interval pressures, \\nCO2 Flow offers a high-resolution regional simulation \\nfor testing the boundary conditions of high-resolution \\nheterogeneous meshes for regional pressure models. \\nCO2 Dashboard: CO2-specific equation-of-state and PVT \\nwizard for initializing simulations. The CO2 Dashboard \\nis used to initialize model conditions: gas and brine \\nphase density, compressibility, viscosity, solubility, and \\ninterfacial tension. The wizard has been validated against \\nseveral published works containing both theoretical and \\nexperimental data. Initial model conditions for these key \\nproperties can be automatically transferred from the \\nDashboard to the CO2 simulators.\\nMODEL CALIBRATION \\nThe iSTAR™ intelligent drilling and logging platform and \\nwireline Xaminer® (XSI™, XMR™, STX™, RDT™) services \\nprovide the necessary detailed rock and fluid properties, \\nstructure and fault analysis, rock mechanics, pressures, \\nand samples to characterize and simulate a CO2 storage \\nsite fully Integrated rock analysis provides detailed \\nheterogeneity and texture mapping to logs and fast CO2 \\nrelative permeabilities and sensitivity to advance simulation \\nwhile waiting for physical core. \\nThe ability to “see” small quantities of CO2 outside the \\ninjection reservoir is critical for confirming well integrity and \\nthat no CO2 has entered diffusion or aquifer zones above \\nthe injection reservoirs. \\nIntelliSat™ pulsed neutron logging service is Halliburton’s \\nlatest generation Multi-Detector pulsed neutron tool \\nthat provides accurate and robust Sigma, Hydrogen \\nIndex and Carbon/Oxygen ratios from the wellbore \\nenvironment. It also measures individual energy yields for \\naluminium, carbon, silicon, oxygen, and 21 other discrete \\nelements. This is the only tool that gives definitive change \\nin saturation which will impact injection conformance \\nmonitoring and update to simulations.\\nA strong differentiator of Halliburton’s IntelliSat™ pulsed \\nneutron logging service is the use of a third detector. \\nThis Long detector is designed to read primarily neutron \\ninteractions in a partially gas filled environment given \\nthe low density of gas. This gas saturation measurement, \\nSatG™ (Chen, Jacobson, Guo, SPWLA-2015-AAA), derived \\nfrom long inelastic count rates, is even more sensitive \\nin the presence of CO2. A methodology derived by \\nHalliburton for CO2 injection in depleted gas zones yields \\na SatQ, (Quintero, Guo, Gales SPWLA-2022-0091) which \\nrepresents the CO2 saturation in the near borehole region, \\nexclusively.\\nThe tool’s superior and unique resolution of 2% (Sigma, \\nC/O) allows for detection of minute changes in CO2 \\nsaturation whether the injection is in depleted gas or water \\nzones.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nDecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Plume leverages Permedia® CO2 software to couple robust reservoir, CO2 migration, \\nand customized black oil simulators with an easy-to-use interface. These are integrated through a single wizard to help \\nusers set up simulation parameters and runs with easy-to-follow workflows. \\nCO2 Storage Plume is flexible and able to consume existing models in a variety of data types. It allows the user to complete \\nan end-to-end CO2 workflow for prospecting, regional pressure modelling, plume modelling, and injection modelling. \\nSTORAGE CHARACTERIZATION AND PLUME SIMULATION\\nDecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Solution is a highly \\nflexible cloud-based solution designed to evolve and grow \\nwith the needs of the industry as CO2 projects are initiated \\nand developed. \\nIt is designed to facilitate data interpretation, modeling, \\nand design of a CO2 storage site from the first stages of \\nsite selection to site characterization, scenario modelling \\nfor storage resources estimation and containment and CO2 \\ninjection assessments. \\nUnderstanding CO2 displacement in injection intervals is \\nimportant for developing effective injection strategies and \\nestimating storage capacity. Detailed storage resource \\ninformation is updated into DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 \\nStorage Plume software to update and confirm simulation \\nmodels. Key information acquired by Halliburton’s \\niSTAR™ intelligent drilling and logging platform and \\nwireline Xaminer® logging services provide the detailed \\ncharacterization and data to model a CO2 storage site.\\nHALLIBURTON \\nSleipner Plume Visualization\\nCONTACT\\nScan the code to contact \\nour Sustainability Experts\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n154\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe safe and successful design and operation of \\nCO2 injection and observation wells requires careful \\nconsideration of several technical challenges. To maintain \\nwell integrity, it is essential to understand the reservoir and \\nfactors such as caprock integrity, potential leak paths, and \\nlegacy, plugged, and abandoned (P&A) wells. \\nAnalyzing cement condition and bonding confirms \\nzonal isolation and/or identifies the possibility of fluid \\nmigration through channelling or poor cement areas. \\nThese technologies are acoustic, therefore are affected \\nby the fluids, solids, and scaling material in the well. The \\nCircumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool (CAST™) is an \\nultrasonic tool that provides high-resolution images in \\ncased holes. The tool’s interchangeable head rotates a full \\n360° and contains a high-frequency acoustic transducer \\nto provide a comprehensive evaluation of the pipe and \\ncement. The CAST™ tool determines the casing thickness \\nfor pipe inspection and determines the type of material in \\nthe annular space between the casing and borehole wall. \\nAdvanced software analysis is available which can provide \\nadditional information on cement bond and well integrity.\\nHalliburton’s Radial Cement Bond Log (RCBL™) tool \\ncaptures downhole data to ensure a reliable cement-bond \\nevaluation for a full range of thru-tubing logging and casing \\ncompletions, from small diameter tubing to large casings.\\nThe Halliburton Electromagnetic Pipe Xaminer® V (EPX™ \\nV) pipe inspection service quantifies metal loss in one \\nto five concentric strings of pipe in a wellbore using \\naccurate High-Definition Frequency (HDF) technology. This \\ncapability and 1 11/16” OD enable examining the whole well \\nin one trip and assessing pipe condition quickly through \\ntubing. This unmatched capability enables customers to \\nreduce diagnostic time, obtain comprehensive information \\nfor monitoring programs, and determine the right solution \\nfor a nonconformity in their completion.\\nWith the DataSphere® monitoring systems platform, \\nHalliburton delivers a broad portfolio of highly accurate, \\nQuartz based sensor solutions that give advanced \\npressure and temperature insights. This extensive portfolio \\nis AWES certified and includes LinX® behind casing \\nwireless monitoring, Opsis® tubing deployed gauges, and \\nindustry leading DataSphere Array multi-point pressure \\ntemperature allowing for distributed pressure sensors \\nacross all injection intervals. The various sensor solutions \\nwithin the DataSphere platform feature field proven, \\nrobust solutions including single billet mandrels with \\nno connection, full redundancy, a range of metallurgy \\nand thread connections, and unparalleled deployment \\noptions allowing for reliable, efficient installation. These \\nsensor solutions combine to provide zonal connectivity \\ninsights, CO2 migration patterns, and reliable life of well \\nconfirmation of containment.\\nAdvanced solutions that encompass an array of monitoring \\ntools, including Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), \\nDistributed Temperature Sensing (DTS), microdeformation \\nmonitoring (tiltmeters, GNSS, InSAR), and Microseismic \\nmonitoring, providing accurate insights.\\nDAS monitors acoustic signals within the wellbore to \\nidentify potential leaks and establish their exact locations, \\nwhile DTS tracks temperature changes that signify \\nfluid movement and possible leak points. Collectively, \\nthey provide a thorough understanding of the wellbore \\nenvironment to facilitate early detection and remediation of \\nwellbore integrity issues.\\nThe risks of out of zone injections (OOZI), where CO2 \\nmigrates beyond the target storage area, may pose \\npotential threats to the environment and storage integrity. \\nDAS and DTS help monitor and detect OOZI. DAS senses \\nvariations in fluid movement and pressure that may \\nindicate CO2 migrating out of the target zone, while DTS \\nidentifies temperature anomalies related to out of zone \\nCO2 migration. By utilizing these tools, rapid detection is \\nenabled, to help ensure containment and conformity.\\nMicroseismic monitoring plays a critical role in caprock \\nintegrity \\nmonitoring \\nby \\ncapturing \\nand \\nanalyzing \\nmicroseismic events to detect fracture propagation and \\nfluid migration within the caprock. Combining surface \\nmicroseismic monitoring with DAS microseismic improves \\nevent detectability and location accuracy, ensuring a \\ncomprehensive understanding of subsurface dynamics \\nand enhancing caprock integrity protection.\\nOld, inaccessible legacv wells can be monitored with \\nsurface \\ntechniques \\nand \\nfar-field \\nmicrodeformation \\ntechniques. These measurements provide a svstematic \\napproach to caprock and well integrity monitoring.\\nDownhole and surface sensors combine to provide a \\nrobust and integrated solution, which will deliver valuable \\nreservoir insights as well as superior performance and \\nenhanced well-monitoring capabilities. With our MMV \\nsolutions, our customers can have confidence in the \\nreliability and accuracy of their implemented monitoring \\nsystems to enable optimal CCS operations.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nBenefits from the holistic cap rock and well integrity monitoring system can be outlined as follows:\\n•\\t\\nComprehensive azimuthal cement evaluation to insure injection zone isolation and containment with CAST™ \\n(Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool)\\n•\\t\\nRadial bond log and baseline tubular inspection for time lapse comparison of erosion and/or corrosion with EPX™ \\n(Electromagnetic Pipe Xaminer®, CAST™ or MFC (multi-finger caliper)\\n•\\t\\nActive pressure and temperature monitoring in the wellbore, multi-point P/T across the reservoir, caprock and in \\nA-annulus and/or B-annulus with DataSphere® Opsis®, Array and LinX®\\n•\\t\\nActive well integrity monitoring with LinX®, DTS and DAS\\nCAPROCK AND WELL INTEGRITY MONITORING: SUBSURFACE (IN-WELL) MMV SOLUTIONS\\nWell integrity plays a vital role in the profitability of a project \\nor asset. Regular well inspection provides assurance of \\nthe system’s integrity and containment, which reduces \\nuncertainties and risks associated with CO2 storage \\nlike erosion from drilling or workovers, corrosion, and \\ngeomechanics constraints. Unexpected well damage \\nor containment issues can jeopardize assets and CO2 \\ncontainment.\\nCaprock and well integrity are critical monitoring objectives \\nfor MMV (Measurement, Monitoring and Verification) plans. \\nWell sensor measurements acquired with DataSphere® \\nmonitoring systems, as well as Distributed Temperature \\nSensing (DTS) fiber optics and Distributed Acoustic \\nSensing (DAS) provide a holistic monitoring approach \\nwhere both tubular and caprock leaks can be determined \\nin real time. A downhole system can be combined with \\nseabed monitoring solutions such as tiltmeters and seismic \\nto design a system that is scalable alongside the CO2 \\ninjection radius growth.\\nHALLIBURTON \\n•\\t\\nAbility to monitor far field cap rock condition with DAS Microseismic\\n•\\t\\nCombining surface pressure measurements with tiltmeter microdeformation monitoring, available both on land and \\nsubsea, results in robust caprock monitoring\\n•\\t\\nApproach for legacy, plugged, and abandoned wells for well integrity screening with Microdeformation monitoring\\n•\\t\\nIntegrate with Clariti® View to provide a seamless solution to access Array sensor data remotely from any device, \\nwithout having to install or maintain the infrastructure necessary. The monitoring platform stores data in a secure cloud \\nand provides access via the Clariti View visualization dashboard, where the operator can view live data, download \\nhistoric data and set alert triggers to stay ahead of any remediation needs. This also helps ensure the operator meets \\nregulatory agency reporting requirements with up-to-date information.”\\nCONTACT\\nScan the code to contact \\nour Sustainability Experts\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n156\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nConformance and containment, pillars of any MMV plan, \\nmust be ensured to achieve a successful CCS operation. \\nConformance can be achieved by ensuring the injected \\nCO2 behavior in the storage complex matches the models, \\nwhile containment is fulfilled by putting in safeguards \\nto have the CO2 plume confined in the reservoir and \\npreventing any uncontrolled release of fluids through the \\nprimary or secondary seals. To achieve conformance and \\ncontainment, the CO2 plume needs to be monitored and \\ntracked throughout the lifetime of the project, while also \\nmonitoring caprock integrity.\\nGiven its higher resolution and image quality, VSP (Vertical \\nSeismic Profiling) is an effective tool for monitoring \\nand tacking the CO2 plume. DAS has emerged as a \\ncost-effective alternative to conventional VSP, offering \\ncomparable imaging quality. Halliburton offers FiberVSP™ \\nservice, a DAS based VSP solution, that when combined \\nwith other monitoring tools, provides a comprehensive \\napproach to monitor and track the CO2 plume.\\nKey Features of Halliburton’s FiberVSP™ service:\\n•\\t\\nDAS enables the capture of high-resolution subsurface \\nimages, which is essential for accurate CO2 plume \\ntracking and caprock integrity monitoring. Featuring a \\ndenser sensor array than traditional geophones, DAS \\ncollects extensive, top-quality data with exceptional \\nspatial and temporal resolution\\n•\\t\\nBy requiring a much smaller footprint at the wellsite, \\nDAS offers a cost-effective solution for VSP surveys to \\nenable more repeatability\\n•\\t\\nTo \\naddress \\ndiverse \\nCCS \\napplications \\nand \\nenvironments, the fiber optic cable can be permanently \\ninstalled for long-term monitoring or deployed for \\ntemporary surveys, providing flexibility in MMV plans\\nIn conjunction with FiberVSP™ service, Halliburton offers \\nMicrodeformation Monitoring as an additional tool for CO2 \\nplume and caprock integrity monitoring. This technology \\nhas been in commercial use for over 30 years and is robust \\nacross a wide range of formation properties. It provides \\nvaluable model calibration data and is more cost-effective \\nthan repeat seismic surveys.\\nContinuous CO2 injection could potentially cause fluid \\nmigration in formations either by moving through the rock \\nmatrix or by opening a fracture system. Both processes \\nresult in rock motion transmitted elastically in all directions, \\nwhich can be detected at the ground surface or seabed \\nwith precise measurements. These insights are essential to \\nensure the containment and conformity of CCS initiatives.\\nThree main technologies in Microdeformation Monitoring \\n—tiltmeters, GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems), \\nand InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar)—\\ncan be combined to optimize monitoring programs. They \\noffer reliable caprock breach detection, long-term fluid \\nbalance tracking, and calibration values for reservoir and \\nfracture growth models. Each one contributes to MMV plan \\ncompliance in CCS projects.\\nTiltmeters are extremely sensitive instruments used to \\nmap hydraulic fracture orientation for treatments as deep \\nas 5000 meters and provide rough locations of fluid \\nvolumetric centers for shallower processes. These sensors \\ncan be used on surface, downhole, or marinized to be used \\nfor seabed deformation monitoring.\\nGNSS, which includes the United States’ GPS constellation, \\nhas a lower measurement resolution than tiltmeters but \\ncan be integrated into a tiltmeter array to limit long-term \\nmeasurement uncertainties. The advantages of GNSS \\ninclude three-axis measurements and absolute output \\nrelative to a global frame of reference. Incorporating a \\nfew GNSS measurements into a tiltmeter provides both \\nshort-term sensitivity and confidence in deformation \\nmeasurements over project timescales.\\nInSAR uses radar measurements, primarily from purpose-\\nbuilt satellites or airborne systems, to measure motion \\nat near GNSS levels of sensitivity over a large area with \\nfine pixel resolution. Dense coverage ensures that areas \\nrequiring higher precision monitoring are not overlooked.\\nThe combination of tiltmeters, GNSS, and InSAR \\ntechnologies offers a comprehensive and adaptable \\nsolution for monitoring caprock and well integrity in CCS \\nprojects. By leveraging these techniques, operators can \\nhelp ensure MMV plan compliance and promote the long-\\nterm viability and safety of CCS initiatives.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nComprehensive monitoring: Combining FiberVSP™ with Microdeformation Monitoring techniques offers a robust \\napproach for tracking CO2 plumes and ensuring caprock integrity throughout CCS projects\\n•\\t\\nModel calibration: Microdeformation Monitoring provides valuable data for calibrating reservoir and fracture growth \\nmodels to enhance the accuracy of predictions\\n•\\t\\nEarly leak detection: FiberVSP™ and Microdeformation Monitoring technologies contribute to swift identification and \\nprecise localization of leaks, allowing for timely remediation\\n•\\t\\nImproved safety and containment: By effectively tracking fluid movement and detecting potential breaches, FiberVSP™ \\nand Microdeformation Monitoring help ensure the CO2 plume remains confined within the reservoir\\nCAPROCK INTEGRITY & CO2 PLUME MONITORING: SURFACE/SEABED MMV SOLUTIONS \\nConformance and containment are crucial for successful \\nCCS operations and require CO2 plume monitoring \\nand caprock integrity throughout the project’s lifetime. \\nHalliburton’s \\nFiberVSP™, \\na \\nDistributed \\nAcoustic \\nSensing (DAS) based solution, captures high-resolution \\nsubsurface images and provides a cost-effective, versatile \\napproach for CO2 plume tracking. When combined with \\nMicrodeformation \\nMonitoring \\ntechnologies—tiltmeters, \\nGNSS, and InSAR—offer reliable caprock breach detection, \\nlong-term fluid balance tracking, and calibration values \\nfor reservoir and fracture growth models to ensure \\nMMV (Measurement, Monitoring and Verification) plan \\ncompliance.\\nHALLIBURTON \\nMicrodetormation measurement through Tiltmeters\\nCONTACT\\nScan the code to contact \\nour Sustainability Experts\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n158\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSince relatively few carbon sequestration projects are \\nonline to use as analogs, the subsurface assessments \\nof these projects rely heavily on reservoir simulation. \\nGeoscience and engineering teams collaborate to build \\ngeocellular models and upscale for dynamic simulation of \\nstorage reservoirs.\\nNSAI has built hundreds of models and has efficient, fit-for-\\npurpose workflows that can tailor a model to the specific \\nneeds of any client. These models can provide insight into \\nkey reservoir uncertainties pre-injection or deep insight \\ninto storage mechanisms once history-matched to actual \\nperformance data.\\nNSAI is also an industry leader in gas storage evaluations in \\nNorth America. We have worked over 40 storage projects \\nfor our clients, assisting in area of review (AoR) updates, \\nidentifying and resolving wellbore issues, field studies, \\nlitigation, and more.\\nThis experience has given NSAI a thorough understanding \\nof all storage containment issues, with expertise in studies \\nto support initial permitting and ongoing regulatory \\nobligations. Additionally, NSAI has prepared thousands of \\nreports using the definitions of the Petroleum Resources \\nManagement System (PRMS) of the Society of Petroleum \\nEngineers (SPE). The SPE’s classification system for CO2 \\nstorage, the Storage Resources Management System \\n(SRMS), closely parallels the PRMS, and commerciality of \\nprojects is a key aspect.\\nBeyond storage fees, tax credits, and government \\nsubsidies, CCS projects evaluated under SRMS can be \\ncoupled with a revenue- and CO2-generating project for \\ncommercial determinations. NSAI’s time-tested processes \\nfor evaluating project technical and economic aspects are \\nhighly respected in the investor community.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nExperience – NSAI has over 60 years of experience in integrated subsurface studies, providing technical and advisory \\nservices for clients in over 100 countries, both onshore and offshore. NSAI has evaluated dozens of natural gas \\nstorage projects and more than 10 permanent CO2 sequestration projects.\\n•\\t\\nReputation – NSAI is known for the high quality of our work, the excellent service we provide to our clients, our strong \\nrespect for confidentiality, and our independence from the clients and properties for which we prepare evaluations.\\n•\\t\\nExpertise – NSAI has the technical skills needed for all subsurface aspects of CCS projects, including well planning, \\nregional geology characterization, local geologic structural mapping, storage reservoir characterization, log and core \\ndata analysis, fluid PVT analysis, static and dynamic simulation modeling, and injection performance surveillance.\\n•\\t\\nTrusted Analysis and Advice – At NSAI, our goal is to be more than just a consultant; we strive to be a trusted advisor \\nto our clients through full project life cycles and beyond.\\nGEOLOGIC MODELING, RESERVOIR SIMULATION AND CARBON STORAGE CERTIFICATIONS\\nWhether injecting into depleted hydrocarbon-bearing \\nformations or into regionally extensive aquifers, NSAI has \\nthe expertise to certify the subsurface aspects of your \\ncarbon capture project. As a leader providing petroleum \\nengineering and geology evaluation services to industry for \\nover 60 years, NSAI staff can bring to bear an unparalleled \\nskill set.\\nNSAI has geological staff that are experts at seismic \\ninterpretation and integration of well data to map \\nformations, as well as reservoir engineering teams that are \\nexperts in dynamic modeling of fluid flow and CO2 storage \\nprocesses. NSAI also employs specialized economic \\nmodeling software and capabilities to accurately quantify \\nproject value.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@nsai-petro.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.netherlandsewell.com\\nNETHERLAND, SEWELL & ASSOCIATES, INC.\\nNSAI integrated geologic modeling and reservoir simulation of Sleipner Field CCS Project CO2 plume migration.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n160\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCARBON STORAGE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT\\nIn a low-carbon environment, underground CO2 storage \\nhas the potential to be a cash-flow generating asset. This \\nincludes both mature, operational CCS projects as well as \\nimmature, future CCS projects. Like all corporate assets, \\nCO2 storage owners should track and estimate the value \\nof all CO2 storage assets. Quorum’s Carbon Storage \\nResources Management solution enables CCS operators \\nto analyze the capacity of their CO2 storage assets and \\nunderstand how that capacity is changing over time.\\nBenefits\\n•\\t\\nTrack and analyze the full portfolio of CO2 storage \\nassets – Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources \\nManagement application serves as a single source of \\ntruth for a full portfolio of CO2 storage assets.\\n•\\t\\nSupports SPE’s CO2 Storage Resources Management \\nSystem (SRMS) - align with the industry standard \\nframework for managing and reporting CO2 storage \\nresources.\\n•\\t\\nSpend less time gathering data – engineers will have \\nmore time to analyze storage resources data and \\nsupport decision-making.\\n•\\t\\nReduce risk of data entry errors – company-specific \\ndata quality checks to identify errors early in the data \\ngathering workflow. \\n•\\t\\nScalable for companies of all sizes - from small \\nindependents to international supermajors, companies \\naround the world can take advantage of our solution.\\n•\\t\\nFuture proof your CO2 storage business – capture \\nand report CO2 storage resource estimates in a \\nstructured manner in preparation for future regulatory \\nrequirements.\\nDescription\\nQuorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management is \\na cloud-based solution that captures storage estimates \\nacross a resource owner’s full portfolio of assets from \\nmature, operational projects to less mature contingent or \\nprospective storage resources. It is a best practice for a \\nresource owner to gather estimates for all storage assets \\n– to understand their value in the context of all corporate \\nassets and prioritize investment accordingly.\\nThe capacity of CO2 storage assets changes year-over-\\nyear for a variety of reasons such as reservoir performance \\nor economic conditions. Quorum’s Carbon Storage \\nResources Management solution reconciles year-over-\\nyear changes allowing a CO2 storage owner to understand \\nwhich factors are driving fluctuations in estimated reservoir \\ncapacity. The diagram below illustrates the change in CO2 \\nstorage estimates over the course of a year. The starting \\nestimate is represented by the bar on the left side. The \\nending estimate is represented by the bar on the right side. \\nThe items in between reconcile the difference in starting \\nand ending estimates due to technical or economic factors:\\nQuorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management \\napplication is an extension of one of Quorum’s world-class \\nsoftware applications. Our application, Quorum Reserves, \\nis used by oil and gas producers to track, estimate, and \\nanalyze oil and gas volumes in underground reservoirs. \\nThe same technology in Quorum Reserves has been used \\nfor Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management \\nsoftware application.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nIn-depth analysis to support decision-making\\n•\\t\\nUnderstand the value of your assets and unlock their hidden value\\n•\\t\\nGreater consistency across asset teams\\n•\\t\\nSpend less time compiling data and ensuring data quality\\n•\\t\\nTransparency and governance to your data and processes\\n•\\t\\nFuture-proof your business as the energy transition accelerates\\nCCUS OFFERINGS BY QUORUM\\nQuorum Software is a leading provider of energy software \\nworldwide, serving more than 1,800 customers across the \\nentire energy value chain in over 55 countries. Quorum’s \\nsolutions power growth and profitability for energy \\nbusinesses by connecting people, workflows, and systems \\nwith decision-ready data. Twenty years ago, we delivered \\nthe industry’s first software for gas plant accountants, \\nand today our solutions streamline business operations \\nwith industry-forward data standards and integrations. \\nThe global energy industry trusts Quorum’s experts and \\napplications to successfully navigate the energy transition \\nwhile delivering value today and into the future. \\nFor more information, visit www.quorumsoftware.com.\\nQuorum is developing solutions for the energy transition \\nin many different areas including a) Carbon Capture, \\nUtilization, and Sequestration b) Corporate Planning & \\nStrategy c) Emissions Management d) Hydrogen & RNG, \\nand e) Utility Scale Renewables. Below we outline a portion \\nof our energy transition portfolio specific to CCUS. For a \\ncomplete picture, please see our website:\\nhttps://www.quorumsoftware.com/solutions/energy-\\ntransition/\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t ccus@quorumsoftware.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.quorumsoftware.com\\nQUORUM SOFTWARE\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n162\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nPETROVR\\nPlanning and developing Carbon Capture, Utilization and \\nStorage projects necessitates the integration of the input \\nof many technical and commercial functions. The quality \\nof this integration, together with the ability to assess \\neffectively and transparently all alternative development \\noptions, is essential to maximising the value of these \\nprojects. Furthermore, these projects are fraught with \\nuncertainties, from the storage capacity, the costs and \\nperformance of all the wells and facilities involved as well \\nas scheduling of the execution and operational activities. \\nThroughout the maturation of these projects, storage \\nowners are faced with decisions such as how many CO2 \\ninjection wells are needed, what should the capacity of \\ntransmission pipelines and/or processing facilities be, and \\nhow to manage risks associated with the development? \\nEach of these decisions will impact the success of the \\nproject both in terms of financial success and amount of \\nCO2 that can be captured and safely stored. Quorum’s \\nPetroVR application empowers engineers and planners \\nto assess and compare all the development alternatives \\navailable, factoring in the impact of the risks and \\nuncertainties into the decision-making process throughout \\nthe maturation process of these large and complex CCUS \\nprojects. \\nBenefits\\n•\\t\\nEnhance CCUS project evaluation through integrating \\nsimulation covering all technical and commercial \\naspects in one single application.\\n•\\t\\nStreamline CCUS project evaluation by integrating \\nsimulation of all technical and commercial aspects into \\na single, comprehensive application.\\n•\\t\\nImprove the quality of the CCUS project development \\ndecisions throughout the project maturation process \\nwith the ability to assess and compare transparently \\nand consistently the various development alternatives \\navailable, understand the trade-offs between these, \\nand select the one that fits best your corporate \\nstrategic objectives. Understand the impact of the \\nproject risks and uncertainties and factor this into the \\ndecision-making process.\\n•\\t\\nSimulate the development of your CCUS project under \\nuncertainties through Monte Carlo analysis.\\n•\\t\\nManage production goals and net-zero commitments \\n– actualize the challenges of net-zero development \\nwith easily configurable tooling to enable development \\nplanning and production optimization.\\nDescription\\nQuorum’s PetroVR application is a comprehensive full-\\ncycle, integrated simulation software for exploration and \\ndevelopment projects including specific functionalities to \\ncover the CCUS use-case. \\nPetroVR is built on more than 20 years of oil & gas field \\ndevelopment experience. It permits engineers and \\nplanners to configure the model of their asset as necessary \\nto reflect specific areas of complexity. It has an integrated \\nsimulation capability where users can specify any object \\nand associated activities necessary to model their project \\nthroughout its life cycle. This includes reservoirs, wells, and \\nfacilities but also specific CO2 storage: CO2 injection wells \\nand CO2 injection facilities. An illustration is provided in the \\nfigure below.\\nThe application simulates the project execution and \\noperation in a time step fashion covering the entire life of \\nthe project, consistently applying inputs, constraints and \\nrules as specified by the user and thereby computing the \\nexpected production and injection volumes as well as \\nthe associated costs incurred through time, allowing the \\nassessment of the economic viability of the project.\\nStorage Resources Management Standard (SRMS)\\nThe Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) has developed \\na common framework for resource owners to account \\nfor CO2 storage resources called the Storage Resources \\nManagement Standard (SRMS). Quorum’s Carbon Storage \\nResources Management application aligns with the SRMS \\nframework.\\nThe above diagram illustrates the structure of the SRMS \\nframework. It has two axes. The vertical axis indicates the \\nmaturity of a CCS project which is measured by the chance \\nof commerciality. The most mature projects are accounted \\nfor as “capacity”, followed by ‘contingent storage \\nresources’ and finally the least mature “prospective \\nstorage resources.” The horizontal axis indicates the range \\nof uncertainty of CO2 storage capacity in a resource. As a \\nproject matures toward commerciality there is typically a \\nnarrower range of uncertainty. Resource owners usually \\ncapture three deterministic estimates of a CO2 storage \\nresource: a low estimate, a best estimate, and a high \\nestimate.\\nA standardized framework such as the SRMS empowers \\nCCS operators to have a common basis of understanding \\nto describe CO2 storage resources in different jurisdictions \\nacross different companies. Quorum’s Carbon Storage \\nResource Management application aligns with the \\nSRMS framework. Like other resource-based industries, \\nQuorum foresees a regulatory environment that requires \\nCCS operators to publicly disclose their CO2 storage \\nresources using a framework such as the SRMS. Quorum \\nrecommends that operators future-proof their CO2 storage \\nbusiness by adopting a standardized, auditable application \\nto capture storage resource estimates. \\nPlease see our website: https://www.quorumsoftware.com/\\nsolutions/energy-transition/carbon-capture-utilization-and-\\nsequestration/carbon-storage-resources-management/\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n164\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nFLOWCAL\\nThe Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) process involves \\ncollecting (capture) CO2 from industrial processes or from \\nthe atmosphere, transporting the CO2 via pipelines and \\ninjecting it into underground geologic formations. During \\nthis highly technical process, CO2 is handled in both \\ngas and liquids (supercritical) phases making accurate \\nmeasurement data management both a challenge and a \\nrequirement for successful and ongoing profitability of CCS \\nprojects. \\nThe responsibility of custody transfer measurement points \\nmeans CO2 must be measured and correctly accounted \\nfor at the capture point, pipeline inlets, pipeline outlets, \\npipeline linepack/inventory, storage injection points, and \\nfinally, the storage inventory must also be tracked and \\nbalanced. A CCS operator must have a strong toolset to \\nconsolidate, review, correct and distribute an immense \\namount of measurement data across the organization. \\nIn addition, the CCS operator must perform this with the \\nknowledge that the measured CO2 and inventory are \\naccurate to minimize legal and financial exposure and \\nmaximize revenue.\\nFLOWCAL by Quorum is the tool that enables CCS \\noperators manage CO2 measurement data.\\nBenefits\\n•\\t\\nSupport for CO2 measurement in both gas and liquids \\n(dense) phase \\n•\\t\\nSupport for a wide range of metering technologies \\nsuch as coriolis, ultrasonic, orifice, linepack/linefill, \\ncaverns, etc.\\n•\\t\\nCompliance with measurement industry standards and \\nregulations \\n•\\t\\nPhysical balancing by volume and mass\\n•\\t\\nMeet internal and external audit requirements.\\n•\\t\\nFinancial risk reduction/elimination\\nDescription\\nFLOWCAL by Quorum Software is one of the most robust \\nmeasurement data management systems available, \\nstreamlining the measurement process and optimizing \\ndata integrity. Designed to operate as a data warehouse \\ncapable of serving the needs of an entire organization, \\nFLOWCAL provides a corporate solution for the most \\ndemanding system requirements. It can be applied to \\nCO2 measurement, hydrocarbon measurement (gas and \\nliquids), helium and hydrogen measurement.\\n \\nFLOWCAL is used by the largest energy producers and \\nmidstream operators to ensure every drop of hydrocarbon \\nis reviewed and accounted for. New CCS operators are \\nstarting to rely on FLOWCAL to ensure their stringent \\nmeasurement needs are met in support of their financial \\ngoals. FLOWCAL has an extensive toolset to avoid costly \\nerrors by using validation routines that flag erroneous \\ndata and identify issues in the field, reduce measurement \\nuncertainty, identify ‘Lost And Unaccounted For’, physical \\nsystem balance, and minimize risk by ensuring compliance, \\ndata transparency and a complete secure audit trail.\\nIn addition to simulation capabilities, PetroVR has an \\nadvanced scenario manager enabling the easy and \\ntransparent generation of alternative development scenario \\nmodels. This functionality facilitates the comparison of the \\ndevelopment alternatives identified by the user making the \\n“what if” analysis easy, transparent, and greatly enhancing \\nthe ability to generate insights into the trade-offs between \\ndecisions.\\nMany project engineers and planners rely on aggregating \\ninputs from various spreadsheets to model their field \\ndevelopment plan and possible alternatives. While \\nspreadsheets are flexible, they are prone to errors. The \\napproach is often cumbersome, time-consuming and does \\nnot offer any standardization across asset teams. PetroVR \\npermits companies to replace spreadsheet modelling with \\na powerful business simulation approach that integrates all \\nthe elements of their project.  \\nThe PetroVR application facilitates probabilistic analysis \\nthrough its easy-to-use Monte Carlo functionality. Users \\ncan specify the range of uncertainty for every input variable \\nthat they need to consider in the evaluation of the project \\nand generate the full range of expected outcome for any \\nselected value measure reflecting all the uncertainties \\nspecified (see example below). CCUS are large and \\ncomplex projects with many technical uncertainties as \\nwell as commercial. Factoring these uncertainties in the \\ndecision-making process is essential. \\nQuorum’s PetroVR application has a long-standing track \\nrecord of adding value and reducing risks associated with \\nfield development. CCUS operators can take advantage of \\nthis application’s powerful simulation, scenario analysis and \\nprobabilistic evaluation capabilities to guide and support \\ntheir project development decision-making. \\nPlease see our website: https://www.quorumsoftware.\\ncom/solutions/planning-economics-reserves/asset-\\ndevelopment-planning/petrovr/\\nCO2 Transportation and Injection Balance\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n166\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nIn summary, FLOWCAL enables CCS operators to review, \\ncorrect, and account each CO2 molecule whether it is \\nin gas or dense phase, in the pipeline or in underground \\nstorage. FLOWCAL can manage CO2 custody transfer \\ndata, balance the captured versus the injected CO2, keep \\ntrack of CO2 inventories in the pipe and underground, \\nand provide a holistic view of the CO2 moved across the \\nCCS operation. System balancing can be managed from \\ngas volume balance, liquids volume balance, and mass \\nbalance perspective providing a bird’s eye view of the \\nentire CCS system. Please see our website: https://www.\\nquorumsoftware.com/solutions/measurement/gas-liquid-\\nmeasurement/\\nDense phase CO2 volume statement\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n168\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nFULL VALUE CHAIN \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n170\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nIndustrial carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a significant \\ncontributor to global warming and climate change. \\nAccording to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate \\nChange (IPCC), one of the key measures for countries \\nto accelerate their efforts toward achieving net zero \\nemissions in accordance with the Paris Agreement, is \\nthe adoption and implementation of carbon capture \\nand storage (CCS) technologies. A crucial aspect of a \\nCCS system is the design and operation of its network \\ninfrastructure which encompasses gathering and export \\npipelines, storage facilities, compressors, heaters, coolers, \\npumps and injection systems for safe and reliable transport \\nand storage of CO2 in subsurface formations.\\nHowever, transitioning from the design phase to the \\noperational phase of any CCS network project poses \\nsignificant challenges especially as the transportation and \\npermanent storage of CO2 is different when compared \\nto hydrocarbons specifically around understanding CO2 \\ncorrosion and its thermodynamics. To date, most CO2 \\nsequestration experiences has been around enhanced oil \\nand gas recovery (EOR/EGR). The challenges are made \\nmore difficult with the implementation of hub & cluster \\ntype networks. The complexity arises with having multiple \\nemitters and sources of CO2 flowing into the network with \\nvarying pressures, temperatures, and impurity composition. \\nTherefore, there is an identified need for a comprehensive \\nmodelling solution of the entire value chain of a CCS \\nnetwork, which would not only assist in the design phase \\nas a proof-of-concept tool and provide detailed simulations, \\nbut also deployed as a predictive and real-time operational \\nsolution throughout the entire lifecycle of the network. \\nSuch a digital model would help reduce investment costs, \\noperational expenditures and mitigate operational risks.\\nTo address this knowledge gap in the CCS segment, ABB \\nhas developed an integrated digital solution called ABB \\nBalance of Operations which harnesses the capabilities \\nof digital twins for different aspects of a CCS network. \\nThis digital solution specifically focuses on two important \\nparts of a CCS network, namely the transportation and \\npermanent storage of CO2. \\nDuring operations, on the above-surface element, this \\nsolution is capable of managing CO2 flow assurance and \\nconduct CO2 thermodynamic modeling in real-time, as \\nwell as respond to the transients and interruptions within \\nthe network in real-time with regards to loss of emitter(s), \\nwell shut-ins, as well as pressure, temperature and \\nflowrates fluctuation to provide responsive and flexible \\noperation of the CCS cluster network. It is also able to \\nanalyze composition of impurities in individual CO2 streams \\nfrom multiple emitters, calculate the blended emission \\ncomposition from multiple emitters, and compute to predict \\ncorrosion factors, ensuring safety and reliability of the \\nnetwork infrastructure and its operation.\\nOn the subsurface element of the CCS network, this \\nsolution is able to model the subsurface formation in 3D \\nand in real-time in terms of its capacity, containment and \\ninjectivity. This allows for the availability of real-time data \\nand parameters such as injection pressure, temperature \\nand flowrates to be input into an optimization system.\\nA digital optimizer then computes and provides optimized \\nsetpoints for key operational aspects such as compression, \\nheating, cooling and tight injection profiles according to the \\noperational philosophy across multiple injection wells with \\nvaried subsurface pressures. The solution is also capable \\nof modeling and forecasting the dispersion of CO2 within \\nthe subsurface formation throughout the lifecycle of the \\nnetwork. This optimization process ensures minimization \\nof energy consumption and ensures high availability of the \\nnetwork.\\nABB Balance of Operations for CCS networks is an \\nintegrated \\nholistic \\ndigital \\nsolution \\nwhich \\nensures \\noperational flexibility and reliability through the entire \\noperational lifecycle of a CCS network. It caters to the \\ncomplexities of a CCS network by providing capabilities \\nsuch as full-chain modeling of the CCS network, analysis \\nof CO2 flow streams in terms of impurity composition, \\ncalculation of blended CO2 emission composition, \\ncomputation and prediction of corrosion factors, modeling \\nof subsurface geological formations, and optimization \\nof energy consumption through compression, pumping, \\nheating, cooling and injection rates. This solution aims to \\nensure high operational availability, infrastructural safety, \\nand de-risk CCS network operations whilst optimizing \\noperational costs.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nABB CCS Balance of Operations embodies an end-to-end digital solution with energy optimization capabilities, focused on \\nensuring safe, reliable, and efficient operation of CCS networks with the following core functionalities: \\n•\\t\\nLeading-edge modelling of CO2 processes and impurities\\n•\\t\\nSubsurface geological lifecycle modelling for CO2 dispersion\\n•\\t\\nAutonomous and optimized operation for real-time transient response\\n•\\t\\nSmart heating, cooling and energy-optimized compressor and pump control\\n•\\t\\nCO2 injection profile management\\n•\\t\\nReal-time CO2 corrosion prediction\\n•\\t\\nTraining, simulation, and ‘look-ahead’ or ‘what-if’ scenario analysis for planning\\n•\\t\\nEnablement for autonomous operations\\nABB BALANCE OF OPERATIONS FOR CCS NETWORKS\\nABB is a prominent provider of electrification, controls/\\nautomation, \\ntelecommunication, \\nand \\ndigital \\n(ECTD) \\nsolutions to energy industries, including carbon capture \\nand sequestration (CCS). As a technology partner to the \\nenergy industry, ABB has advanced its comprehensive \\nsustainability \\nportfolio \\nby \\nintegrating \\ncutting-edge \\ntechnology known as ABB Balance of Operations for CCS \\nnetworks. Our patented product is tailored specifically to \\nenhance the efficiency and management of CCS network \\noperations from the emitters through to and including \\nthe subsurface storage formations, encompassing the \\ncomplete network lifecycle.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t daniel.tay@my.abb.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.new.abb.com\\nABB PROCESS AUTOMATION\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n172\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nAcross the carbon capture value chain, digital solutions \\nfor capture, transportation and storage can address the \\nkey challenges to successful commercialization and wide-\\nscale deployment of CCUS, by helping to reduce costs, \\nminimize risks and ensure confidence in long-term solutions. \\nAdditionally, risk and reliability software evaluates project \\nplans and economic feasibility by analyzing the effect of \\nfactors such as the equipment reliability and capacities, \\noperations logic, storage limits, maintenance practices, \\nlogistics alternatives, weather, and market conditions. This \\ndynamic, event-driven modeling technology can provide \\nan accurate prediction of future performance to justify \\ninvestment and operation decisions that will minimize the \\nrisks and will maximize profits across the asset lifecycle.\\nDigital Solutions from AspenTech can be used across the \\nvalue chain by different stakeholders to: \\n•\\t\\nPrioritize investment options\\n•\\t\\nHelp to make technology more economic to deploy it at \\na wider scale\\n•\\t\\nAccelerate project execution\\n•\\t\\nImprove efficiency in operations\\nRESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT OF CAPTURE PROCESSES\\nDigital technologies, using well-known process simulators \\nAspen Plus® and Aspen HYSYS®, can help to perform \\ntechnical and economic analysis through rigorous modeling \\nof carbon capture or conversion of CO2 into valuable \\nproducts, by representing the complex chemistry and \\nthermodynamics.\\nGEOLOGIC CHARACTERIZATION\\nCharacterization of geologic storage candidates with \\nefficient subsurface studies to confirm technical and \\neconomic feasibility, disclose technical details of the \\nproposed site and enhance confidence to support permit \\napplications. \\nPROJECT SCALE-UP AND EXECUTION\\nAspenTech’s Concurrent Engineering solution leverages \\ndigital technologies that improve collaboration between \\nLicensors, Engineering & Construction companies, and \\nowner-operators. Models used on previous technology \\ndevelopment and R&D stages provide early visibility to \\nhelp improve CAPEX allocation across any future projects \\nand eliminate risks. Digital tools provide insights to size and \\nselect equipment and identify the need for corrosion or other \\ntypes of sensors that could reduce the CAPEX needed. \\nScale-up uncertainties can be further evaluated with Aspen \\nFidelis™ to consider alternative processes and prioritize \\ncapital options. This dynamic, event-driven modeling \\ntechnology can provide an accurate prediction of future \\nperformance to justify investment and operation decisions \\nthat will minimize the risks and will maximize profits across \\nthe asset lifecycle. \\nCAPTURE TECHNO-ECONOMICS\\nProcess modeling can further optimize capture processes \\nand improve economics. AspenTech’s integrated economics, \\nenergy and emission analysis, enables iteration of process \\nconfigurations, to reduce costs and carbon footprint, \\nidentifying the right tradeoff between capture efficiency and \\nenergy consumption. \\nIn December 2022, AspenTech announced a partnership \\nwith Saudi Aramco to provide a unique, integrated modelling \\nand optimization solution that will enable capital intensive \\nindustries to address the identification of the most promising \\ncarbon capture and utilization paths by simultaneously \\nconsidering economics, process design and operations \\nconstraints and CO2 reduction. The goal of this innovation \\nis to enable businesses to make evidence-based decisions \\nin support of adopting carbon management strategies that \\noptimize and accelerate sustainable operations.\\nCARBON CAPTURE OPERATIONS \\nModels from the design stages can be used for high-fidelity \\nOperator Training Systems to help staff be prepared once \\nthe process is up and running. In addition to that, advanced \\nprocess control technologies like Aspen DMC3, can improve \\nthe stability of the process, and reduce energy use in key \\nunit operations.\\nLONG-TERM MONITORING OF GEOLOGICAL STORAGE \\nIn the long term, during operation of the carbon \\nmanagement system and at the post-closure stage, digital \\ntechnology is crucial to enable reliable, transparent and \\nauditable records of the performance of the carbon storage \\nasset. Time lapse (4D) seismic monitoring allows the imaging \\nof the growth of the CO2 plume in the reservoir and helps \\ndemonstrate both containment and conformance. Today’s \\nAspenTech Subsurface Science & Engineering provides the \\ntools to analyze and interpret monitoring measurements \\nand to update performance prediction through 3D model \\ncalibration.\\nIntegrated digitalization strategies for CCS, and related \\nsustainability initiatives, will ensure long-term business \\nresilience during the demanding and volatile Energy \\nTransition. Choosing the right partner to guide your journey \\nwill be critical to tackle the magnitude of this challenge and \\nthe transformation required. AspenTech understands the \\nvalue of partnership and the deep and lasting bonds that \\ncome from continuous engagement, working side-by-side \\nwith customers to identify new applications as they adapt to \\nchanging market demands while also ensuring sustainability \\nprogress.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nDrive innovation in the development of new carbon capture technologies\\n•\\t\\nEvaluate risk in CCS systems to make informed investment decisions across the value chain\\n•\\t\\nReduce capital and operational expenditures in carbon capture processes with rigorous process simulation\\n•\\t\\nAccelerate cost-effective commercialization and scale-up of carbon capture processes with optimized process designs\\n•\\t\\nScreen storage/sequestration candidates & select storage locations by evaluating capacity, containment and site \\nability for injection and monitoring performance\\n•\\t\\nOptimize injection conditions during storage and track CO2 movements in the subsurface to demonstrate regulatory \\nconformance\\nCARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS \\nDigital technologies are crucial enablers for continuous \\ninnovation, economic scale of technologies, accelerated \\nimplementation, and complete confidence in geological \\nCO2 storage.\\nAspenTech is an industrial software company for capital-\\nintensive industries with a long history of innovation \\nthat started over 40 years ago with the first process \\nflowsheet simulator. AspenTech digital portfolio provides \\na comprehensive, holistic approach to asset optimization \\nacross design, operations and maintenance. \\nFor the carbon capture value chain, an end-to-end solution \\nincludes optimization of capture, transportation and \\nstorage. AspenTech process simulation software already \\nhas a strong track record of helping companies improve \\noperational efficiency and reduce emissions and is even \\nmore crucial to CCUS. \\nThe powerful combination of AspenTech breakthroughs \\nin process simulation, subsurface geophysical and \\ngeological modeling, AI-powered hybrid modeling, process \\noptimization software and digital grid management can \\ndeliver results at scale—both economically and at an \\naccelerated pace to meet the requirements of industrial \\ncarbon mitigation.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gerardo.munoz@aspentech.com \\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.aspentech.com \\nASPEN TECHNOLOGY\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n174\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nBaker Hughes has been supplying unbonded flexible pipe \\nto the offshore oil & gas industry for more than 30 years, \\nsupporting the development of such projects that face some \\nof the harshest conditions in the world. An unbonded flexible \\npipe is made up of a series of polymer and metallic layers \\nthat are uniquely configured to suit each project’s specific \\nrequirements.\\nThe traditional oil & gas industry is witnessing a remarkable \\nsurge in demand for CO2-compatible pipelines, primarily \\nfueled by the unique challenges posed by CO2-rich pre-\\nsalt reservoirs in Brazil. In these projects, CO2 stripped from \\nthe pre-salt fields’ production fluids is reinjected into the \\nreservoirs at high pressures.\\nBaker Hughes has undertaken significant research and \\ndevelopment over more than five years to support the \\nuse of its conventional flexible pipe products in CO2-rich \\napplications. This research, which includes small-, mid- and \\nfull-scale tests, has led to a detailed understanding of the \\ncritical design parameters for transporting CO2. A review by \\nan Independent Verifying Authority has led to an approved \\n‘safe envelope’ of operating conditions under which no \\nfailure modes, including stress corrosion cracking, will occur.\\nBaker Hughes’ proven expertise in CO2-rich applications \\nhas positioned the company as a leading supplier of flexible \\npipes, with more than 70km of such pipes already installed. \\nThese CO2-compatible products leverage the same set of \\nstandard materials and manufacturing techniques employed \\nin more traditional applications, ensuring consistent quality \\nand performance across the board.\\nBased on the product’s capability and track record, Baker \\nHughes’ flexible pipes are equally suitable for use in CCS \\napplications and there are clear value propositions for \\nthis product. For example, shallow water CCS dynamic \\napplications necessitate a technology that can withstand \\nCO2 and a high-fatigue environment. Only an unbonded \\nflexible pipe has a proven track record in both.\\nWhen used as infield flowlines, flexible pipes can lead to \\na lower total-installed cost than rigid pipes. Furthermore, \\nflexibles remove the need for rigid jumpers, which require \\nmetrology and fabrication before installation. This hugely \\nbenefits the schedule at the most critical time – shortly \\nbefore start-up.\\nBaker Hughes remains committed to providing cutting-\\nedge, reliable solutions for the offshore oil & gas industry, \\nwhile simultaneously addressing the growing need for CO2-\\ncompatible pipelines in CCS applications. By consistently \\ndelivering high-quality, innovative products, Baker Hughes \\ncements its position as a trusted partner, helping to shape a \\nsustainable future for the energy sector.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nProven capability for high-pressure CO2 transportation using standard materials and product design\\n•\\t\\nProject schedule is hugely benefited when compared to rigid alternatives\\n•\\t\\nEnabling technology for shallow-water dynamic CO2 risers\\nOFFSHORE FLEXIBLE PIPES\\nSubsea CCS projects require pipelines for transportation of CO2 to the reservoir. Key requirements of these pipelines \\ninclude technical capability, cost-effectiveness and risk reduction. Baker Hughes unbonded flexible pipes have a proven \\ntrack record in CO2-rich applications that address these technical requirements. Baker Hughes’ flexible pipe product has \\nthe potential to offer significant cost and risk benefits to a CCS project compared to alternative options such as rigid pipes.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n176\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe Regenerative Froth Contactor (RFC) provided by \\nICS is an innovative gas/liquid absorption co-current \\ncontactor system equipped with the Corrugated Screen \\nPacking (CSP) that offers promising reductions in \\nequipment size versus conventional absorbers. The RFC \\nabsorber represents a cutting-edge technology. It is static \\nequipment, having no moving parts, and operates in a \\ndownward gas- liquid ‘co-flow’ configuration, with pulse \\nregime hydrodynamic condition. While conventional \\nabsorbers work with a thin film of liquid over the packing \\nitself, the CSP is made of convoluted screens that \\nmaximize the solvent pulsing effect while minimizing the \\nmetal packing material; by inducing the RFC to operate \\nunder a froth condition in two phase flow, the diffusivity film \\nover the traditional packing surface is replaced by millions \\nof bubbles and droplets in the volume of the tower. These \\nbubbles are created as bands of froth collapse and are \\nregenerated. The liquid and gas phases enter the tower co-\\ncurrently from the top, flow through the absorber in pulsing \\nregime and are disengaged at the bottom of the tower. The \\npulse flow is not imposed by a mechanical stimulation but \\nset up as a purely hydrodynamic multi-phase phenomenon \\ndepending on the phases flow rates and the CSP design. \\nThe gas passes through multiple zones of froth along the \\nabsorber and gas components gets absorbed into the \\nsolvent.\\nIn carbon capture application, the CO2 will be transferred \\nfrom the gas into the liquid phase in the froth present \\nthroughout the whole volume of the column. The \\nRFC absorber/reactor design enables the system to \\naccommodate high gas flow rates and liquid/gas ratios \\nat acceptable back pressure and without encountering \\nflooding in the column. RFC systems can also be used \\nin processes with precipitating solvents or high levels of \\nentrained solids, leading to 3-phase contactors. There is \\nminimal-to-no fouling or additional pressure drop penalty \\nwith RFC technology, even under high particulate loads \\nand high viscosity.\\nBased on the selected gas/liquid system’s physical \\nproperties (e.g. viscosity, presence of solid precipitation), \\nthe geometry of the CSP packing can be selected to \\nenforce a coarser/thinner froth. \\nApplications of the RFC technology can be used across \\nvarious carbon capture platforms, ranging from natural \\ngas treatment, post-combustion capture, and air pollution \\ncontrol, e.g., indoor air quality management, direct air \\ncapture\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nHigher mass transfer rate  \\n•\\t\\nSignificant absorption tower height reduction \\n•\\t\\nSignificant absorption tower cross-sectional area and footprint reduction\\n•\\t\\nFouling and salts deposition resistance\\n•\\t\\nLimited impact of high viscosity on mass transfer rate\\nREGENERATIVE FROTH CONTACTOR\\nBaker Hughes has acquired a Canadian start-up, Industrial \\nClimate Solutions (ICS), to further strengthen engineering \\ntechnology developments through process intensification. \\nThe technology provided by ICS is the Regenerative Froth \\nContactor (RFC) equipped with Corrugated Screen Packing \\n(CSP). The RFC operates in co-current flow under the pulse \\nregime generated by the gas and liquid phases that flow \\nthrough the CSP packing, a static equipment.  The RFC \\nprovides an increase of effective mass transfer surface that \\nreduces the required packing volume, within admissible \\npressure drop values for the process. The technology \\nis solvent-agnostic and has been validated at lab scale. \\nICS is currently conducting the implementation for post-\\ncombustion carbon capture applications within Baker \\nHughes portfolio.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n178\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nDemonstrated low specific thermal energy consumption of 2.6 GJ/ton CO2 \\n•\\t\\nUses ammonia, a commodity chemical that is easily procured and not bound to a specific supplier\\n•\\t\\nStable reagent. Unlike amine-based solvent systems, it does not suffer from thermal and oxidative degradations\\n•\\t\\nFlexible for process integration. Allows efficient-direct high temperature waste heat utilization or direct electrical \\nheating without the degradation of solvent performance\\n•\\t\\nTolerant towards oxygen in flue gas and towards contaminants such as SOx and NOx\\n•\\t\\nProduces less harmful emissions and potentially useful by-products\\n•\\t\\nRegenerates CO2 at high purity (> 99.5%) at elevated pressure, thus requiring less compression energy for the \\ndownstream CO2 product\\nCHILLED AMMONIA PROCESS \\nThe Chilled Ammonia Process (CAP) was developed to \\naddress the challenges of removing carbon dioxide from \\nlow-pressure flue gases, which were generated by fossil-\\nfuel-based power plants and industrial emissions points, \\nsuch as coal-fired power plants, waste-to-energy power \\nplants, biomass power plants, cement plants, refineries, \\nand petrochemical complexes.\\nCAP is a post-combustion carbon-capture process that \\nuses a non-proprietary solvent formulation based on \\nammonia. Ammonia is a low-cost, inorganic commodity \\nchemical, readily available on the global market from \\nmultiple sources and not bound to any specific supplier. \\nIt is also stable, tolerant to flue gas contaminants and \\ntypically exhibits very low and controllable loss in the CAP \\nprocess.  Moreover, green ammonia (produced from green \\nhydrogen) could be used instead of conventional ammonia \\nin the CAP process.\\nAmine-based solvents have a tendency to degrade \\nas a result of exposure to hot environments (thermal \\ndegradation), in the presence of oxygen (oxidative \\ndegradation) and in acid gas reactions (such as NOx). \\nThe degradation results in a reduction of performance, \\nsolvent loss, equipment corrosion and the generation of \\nvolatile degradation compounds that are emitted into the \\ntreated flue gas, including nitrosamines, which are known \\ncarcinogens. Such degradation phenomena are absent \\nfor CAP, as the process uses an ammonia-based solvent, \\nwhich is inorganic. CAP has the added advantage of being \\nable to regenerate CO2 at elevated pressure, resulting in \\nreduced energy costs to liquefy or further compress the \\nCO2 downstream. \\nCAP has been validated at several test facilities with a \\ndesign capacity of up to 100 ktpa CO2, treating flue gases \\ngenerated by oil boilers, coal boilers and industrial off-\\ngases. A CAP plant designed to capture up to 80 ktpa \\nCO2 has been operated at Test Centre Mongstad (TCM) \\nin Norway for 2 years, where it demonstrated low specific \\nthermal energy consumption of 2.6 GJ/ton CO2 on refinery \\ncracker offgas (12.5 -16.0% CO2). The testing at TCM also \\ndemonstrated CAP’s ability for quick start-up, low ammonia \\nemissions, high CO2 product purity and meeting targeted \\nCO2 capture rates.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\nFlue Gas In\\nDCC\\nFlue Gas \\nCondensate\\nFlue Gas\\nBlower\\nCO2\\nAbsorber\\nCO2\\nRegenerator\\nReboiler\\nSteam In\\nReturn\\nCondensate\\nREF\\nREF\\nDCH\\nTreated\\nFlue Gas\\nWater\\nWash\\nNH3 Stripper\\nCooling\\nSteam\\nREF\\nCW\\nProduct CO2\\nto Compression\\nChiller System\\nREF\\nCO2 Wash\\nFlue Gas\\nWater\\nRich Solution\\nLean Solution\\nCO2\\nNH3/CO2\\nREF   \\n   Refrigerant\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n180\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nThe Chilled Ammonia Process (CAP) uses an ammoniated \\naqueous carbonate solution to absorb CO2 from the flue \\ngases at ambient pressure and low temperature. Unlike \\nother technologies, the functionality of the ammonium \\nsolution is not affected by oxygen and easily purged of \\nheat stable salts formed by trace acidic components, \\nwhich may pass dedicated flue gas preconditioning steps. \\nMoreover, since its gaseous emissions and liquid waste \\nstreams are non-toxic, no additional treatment facilities are \\nrequired.\\nA simplified process flow diagram of the CAP technology is \\nshown in the accompanying figure and the process can be \\ndescribed as follows.\\nInlet flue gas first undergoes cooling via a direct contact \\ncooler (DCC) that enables the contact of gas with cooling \\nand chilled water to lower the flue gas temperature to a \\nsuitable level (typically below 15 °C), which is needed for \\nthe CO2 absorption process and water balance. Most of the \\nwater vapour contained in the flue gas is removed in this \\nstep, which reduces the volumetric gas flow and increases \\nthe CO2 concentration. For conventional amine-based \\nsolvents, a flue gas pre-treatment step is required, which \\nis typically integrated with the DCC to reduce NOx, SOx \\nand other contaminants in the flue gas to very low levels \\nto decrease degradation and formation of heat-stable salts \\nwhen the flue gas interacts with the solvent. However, for \\nCAP, this pre-treatment step is typically not required as \\nthe ammonia-based solvent is able to tolerate these flue \\ngas contaminants. Strong acids such as SOx react with \\nammonia and form heat-stable salts, which are withdrawn \\nfrom the system as an aqueous by-product.    \\nCooled flue gas from the DCC enters the bottom of the \\nabsorber column, where it is washed counter-currently \\nwith lean ammonia-based solvent (orange line). CO2 \\nis selectively removed from the flue gas in a chemical \\nabsorption process using the alkaline lean solvent. The \\nlean solvent is a solution comprising ammonia, water \\nand CO2 where different species (ammonium carbamate, \\nammonium bicarbonate, ammonium carbonate and a \\nlimited amount of free ammonia in an aqueous solution) \\nare in equilibrium. The dissolved ammonia species react \\nwith CO2 from the flue gas in the absorber by shifting the \\nspecies’ equilibria towards bicarbonate. The CO2-rich \\nsolvent (green line) leaves at the bottom of the absorber \\nand is sent to the regenerator section, where it is heated \\nto a temperature high enough for CO2 to be released \\nfrom the solvent. A reboiler located at the bottom of the \\nregenerator column provides the heat to the solvent. The \\nheating source is typically steam, although hot oil or heat \\nfrom a direct-fired or electric heater can also be used due \\nto the absence of thermal degradation. \\nHeat is imparted to the solvent to shift the equilibria to \\nammonia-rich species releasing the absorbed CO2, which \\nleaves at the top of the regenerator column. Compared \\nto the amine-based post-combustion technologies that \\nregenerate CO2 at near atmospheric pressure, CAP \\nregenerates CO2 at an elevated pressure (14 bar - 25 \\nbar[a)), which reduces the downstream compression power \\nrequirements.\\nRegenerated lean solvent (orange line) is returned to the \\nabsorber after undergoing cooling through heat exchange \\nwith the cold rich solvent in the lean-rich heat exchanger, \\nwhich simultaneously heats the rich solvent. This is an \\nimportant heat integration step that significantly reduces \\nthe reboiler heat requirement.\\nTreated flue gas exiting the top of the absorber column \\ncontains residual CO2 and ammonia, which is recovered \\nwith a water wash step to prevent unacceptable emissions \\nof ammonia into the atmosphere. After the water wash \\nstep, the flue gas is routed to a flue gas heater. A guard \\nsystem is integrated with the flue gas heater, which relies \\non the injection of sulfuric acid to neutralize any residual \\nammonia, converting it into ammonium sulphate. The flue \\ngas is reheated with warm water condensed from the DCC, \\nwhich serves to raise the temperature of the final treated \\nflue gas to a temperature high enough to be released into \\nthe stack and to optimize the water balance of the system.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n182\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nMSP is a post-combustion technology that is applicable to \\na wide range of flue gases. It uses a blend of ammonium \\nand potassium-based salts to absorb CO2 from flue gases \\nat ambient pressure and temperature. The stability of the \\ninorganic solvent used by MSP’s ammonium solution \\nis not affected by oxygen and shows high tolerance to \\nacidic trace components present in the incoming flue gas. \\nThe process is characterized by very low emissions and \\nproduces little-to-no toxic waste.\\nA simplified process flow diagram of the MSP technology is \\ndepicted in the accompanying figure and the process can \\nbe described as follows.\\nInlet flue gas first undergoes cooling to 20 - 30 °C in a direct \\ncontact cooler (DCC) and subsequently enters Absorber \\n1, where it contacts the mixed salt solvent counter-\\ncurrently. The mixed salt solvent in Absorber 1, which has \\na higher concentration of ammonium-based species than \\npotassium-based species (high ammonia/potassium ratio), \\nperforms the bulk removal of CO2, absorbing 60-80% of \\nthe CO2 in the flue gas. The remaining CO2 is absorbed in \\nAbsorber 2, which operates with the mixed-salt solvent with \\na lower ratio of ammonium-based species to potassium-\\nbased species than that of the solvent feed of Absorber 1. \\nAbsorber 2 performs the trim removal of CO2 to achieve \\nan overall CO2 capture rate of more than 90% and reduces \\nthe ammonia slip from Absorber 1. A water wash located at \\nthe top of Absorber 2 further reduces the ammonia content \\nin the treated flue gas to ensure that it meets the ammonia \\nemission limits. \\nBoth absorbers operate with liquid recycle using heat \\nexchangers to remove the heat of reaction and keep \\nthe solution at the optimum temperature for efficient \\nabsorption and minimum ammonia slip. The CO2-rich \\nsolvent collected from the absorbers is sent to the \\nregenerator for regeneration via an integrated rich-lean \\nheat exchanger network that is designed to recover \\nsensible heat.\\nHeat is supplied to the regenerator via a reboiler located \\nat the bottom of the column. The increase in temperature \\nreleases CO2 as a gas and regenerates the mixed-salt \\nsolvent to be returned to Absorber 1 and Absorber 2. \\nCO2 is released at an elevated pressure of 10 - 20 bar(a) \\nfrom the regenerator column, which serves to reduce the \\ndownstream CO2 compression power requirements.\\nThe CO2-lean mixed salt solvent is drawn from the lower-\\nmiddle stage of the column and sent back to Absorber 1 \\nto perform bulk CO2 removal. Near the bottom of the \\nregenerator where the temperature is higher, ammonia is \\nvaporized, resulting in a lean solvent with low ammonia/\\npotassium ratio, which is returned to Absorber 2 where it \\nperforms the trim removal of CO2 and reduces ammonia \\nlosses.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nReduced reboiler energy consumption of 2.0 – 2.3 GJ/ton CO2 \\n•\\t\\nUses inexpensive, industrially available chemicals (potassium and ammonium salts)\\n•\\t\\nStable reagent. Unlike amine-based solvent systems, it does not suffer from thermal and oxidative degradation\\n•\\t\\nTolerant towards oxygen in flue gas and to contaminants such as SOx and NOx\\n•\\t\\nRegenerates CO2 at elevated pressure, thus requiring less compression energy for the downstream CO2 product\\n•\\t\\nReduced auxiliary electricity loads\\nMIXED-SALT PROCESS\\nBaker Hughes uses the Mixed-Salt Process (MSP) for \\nCO2 capture under license from SRI International. SRI \\nInternational received support from the US Department \\nof Energy’s Office of Fossil Energy and National Energy \\nTechnology Laboratory (NETL) for the development of this \\ntechnology.\\nMSP is a post-combustion carbon-capture process that \\nuses a novel solvent formulation, which is based on \\npotassium carbonate and ammonium salts. Both chemicals \\nare low-cost, inorganic commodity chemicals, and readily \\navailable on the global market from multiple sources. \\nThe inorganic solvent used by MSP is tolerant to flue gas \\ncontaminants (such as SOx, NOx, and O2), unaffected \\nby thermal and oxidative degradation, results in lower \\nemissions, lower toxicity, and higher CO2 regeneration \\npressure \\ncompared \\nto \\nconventional \\namine-based \\nsolutions. MSP has been demonstrated at the capacity of \\n0.25 tpd at the SRI campus in Menlo Park, USA. A 10 tpd \\npilot-scale plant to demonstrate the MSP technology at the \\nUniversity of Illinois is currently in the design phase.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\nFlue Gas In\\nDCC\\nFlue Gas\\nCondensate\\nFlue Gas\\nBlower\\nAbsorber\\n1\\nCO2\\nRegenerator\\nReboiler\\nSteam In\\nReturn\\nCondensate\\nCW\\nCW\\nCW\\nCO2 Ovhd \\nReflux\\nProduct CO2\\nto Compression\\nAbsorber\\n2\\nCW\\nWater Wash\\nTreated\\nFlue Gas\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n184\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCompact Carbon Capture has transformed the process \\nequipment used in post-combustion carbon capture by \\nintroducing rotation and high G-forces to capture CO2. The \\nG-forces are created in several cross-flow rotating packed \\nbeds. CO2-lean solvent is distributed from the inner axis \\nand horizontally flung outwards in the direction of the wall \\nof the column, while the flue gas moves vertically from the \\nbottom to the top. Mass transfer takes place between the \\nflue gas and the solvent in a cross-flow type arrangement. \\nDue to the rotation of the packed bed within the column \\nthat induces high centrifugal forces (60-100 G-force), the \\nsolvent is accelerated when it hits the packing structure, \\nforming small droplets. This generates a large vapor-liquid \\ncontact area compared to traditional static mass transfer \\ntechnology that rely on gravity. The larger contact area \\nbetween gas and liquid results in a faster mass transfer of \\nCO2 from the flue gas into the solvent droplets, resulting \\nin a much shorter absorber column height compared to \\nconventional, static absorber columns.\\nThe high G-forces allow for the application of highly viscous \\nsolvents that improve the process efficiency. Higher \\nsolvent concentration results in higher absorption rates. \\nWhen this is combined with the compactness introduced \\nby the process intensification, a considerably lower solvent \\nvolume is needed, and the pump capacity needed for \\nsolvent transfer is reduced. \\nThe compact stripper is a combined reboiler and desorber \\nunit that can operate at higher pressures and handle highly \\nviscous solvents. High-speed rotation of the stripper unit \\nintroduces turbulence and high G-force to the solvent \\nregeneration, which are advantageous for mass and heat \\ntransfer, resulting in very compact equipment. The rotating \\nbed desorber/stripper can be described as a lightweight \\npressurized shell-and-tube heat exchanger where the \\n“hot-side” tube bundle rotates to generate the centrifugal \\nforce required to produce small solvent droplets.  Instead \\nof a static regenerator column with attached reboiler in \\na conventional solvent-based system, CCC™ will have a \\nsingle compact rotating bed/flash drum that both heats the \\nrich solvent and flashes off CO2 to generate a high purity \\n(>99%) CO2 product stream. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nUp to 75% reduction in the overall size of the capture plant compared to conventional technologies\\n•\\t\\nUp to 50% reduction in capital expenditure compared to conventional technologies\\n•\\t\\nThe possibility to reduce operating expenses significantly by using new, viscous, and efficient solvents\\n•\\t\\nReduced lead time through standardized and containerized production, design thinking for simplified logistics, and \\ndecreased demand for civil works\\n•\\t\\nModular scalability to increase the deployment speed of CO2 capture equipment. For example, it is possible to invest \\nin partial capture right away and increase the capture capacity at a later stage.\\nCOMPACT CARBON CAPTURE (CCC)\\nBaker Hughes acquired Compact Carbon Capture (CCC), \\na pioneering technology development company based \\nin Bergen, Norway, that specializes in compact carbon \\ncapture solutions. CCC employs the rotating packed bed \\ntechnology, a novel process intensification that utilizes \\ncentrifugal acceleration to intensify mass transfer, thereby \\nreducing the equipment size and cost. CCC’s technology \\nis solvent-agnostic and in principle, can be applied to any \\nsolvent developed for post-combustion carbon capture. \\nUsing its rotating packed bed technology, CCC drastically \\nincreases the vapor-liquid contact area, overcoming the \\ntraditional hydraulics limitations. Compared to traditional \\nsolvent-based systems using static equipment, CCC’s \\nenhanced mass transfer results in reduced residence time \\nin both the absorber and the regenerator, thereby requiring \\nmuch smaller equipment.\\nCCC is currently validated at the pilot scale at Equinor’s \\ntest facilities (PLAB) in Porsgrunn, Norway. Steps for further \\nadvancement are ongoing, with a demonstration plant at \\nthe 15 tpd scale currently in the engineering stage.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n186\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nReduced compression train parasitic power consumption\\n•\\t\\nOptimized high compression ratio across a wide range of flow rates\\n•\\t\\nOptimum rotor balance for low vibration level\\n•\\t\\nEasily accessible components for maintenance\\t\\n•\\t\\nAutomatic capacity control and safety system to reliably match any operating condition\\n•\\t\\nReduced lead time through standardized and containerized production, design thinking for simplified logistics, and \\ndecreased demand for civil works\\nTRANSPORTATION\\nLeveraging its extensive domain expertise in compression \\nand pumping technologies from decades of experience in \\nrelated areas such as urea and liquefied natural gas, Baker \\nHughes has the comprehensive capabilities to make the \\ncompression of CO2 safer, easier and more cost-effective \\nfor CCUS applications. Baker Hughes has focused its \\nattention on customizing complete compression trains \\nsuited for the unique characteristics of CO2 so that these \\ncan operate more efficiently and minimize the overall \\nparasitic power consumption of CCUS processes. \\nBaker Hughes offers a range of products, including \\nreciprocating, centrifugal and integrally geared CO2 \\ncompressors, as well as centrifugal CO2 pumps. These \\ntechnologies have undergone years of proven in-field \\nperformance. Baker Hughes has also continued to develop \\nand optimize these technologies at our global research \\ncentres, performing extensive testing in both laboratory \\nand in-field environments before launching these products \\nfor our customers’ use.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\nThe operating envelope for CO2 delivery to sequestration \\nsites is very broad in terms of volumetric flow and delivery \\npressure. It ranges from several thousand m3/h at relatively \\nlow pressures, up to a few hundred m3/h at extremely high \\npressures (700-800 bar). Baker Hughes offers a range of \\ncustomizable CO2 compression systems, depending on site \\nconditions such as delivery pressure, temperature, cooling \\nsources and gas composition. General configuration \\noptions for CO2 compression are shown in the table below.\\nPRESSURE\\nCONFIGURATION OPTIONS\\n< 200 bar\\nIn-line compressor\\nIntegrally geared compressor  \\n+ pump\\n> 200 bar\\nIn-line compressor + HP pump\\nIntegrally geared compressor  \\nwith MP pump + HP pump\\nMP = medium pressure; HP = high pressure\\nBaker Hughes has optimized the configuration of the \\noverall CO2 compressor-pump train for CCUS applications. \\nThis includes the selection of the intermediate pressure \\nbetween the last compression stage and the pump suction \\nwith the goal of decreasing the total power consumption \\nand cost.\\nIntegrally geared compressors\\nThe main advantage of integrally geared centrifugal \\ncompressors are that coolers can be installed after each \\nstand-alone stage. Baker Hughes’ design features a \\nbull gear and from one to four high-speed pinions, with \\none or two impellers mounted on each pinion shaft. \\nStand-alone stages optimize impeller speed and allow \\nimpellers to operate at higher peripheral speed and level \\nof compression. Each stage can be fitted with inlet guide \\nvanes to eliminate the need for recirculation for partial \\nloads. The net result is a high efficiency operation that \\nrequires less work than an in-line compressor.\\nIn-line centrifugal compressors\\nBaker Hughes has supplied more than 200 in-line \\ncompressor units with discharge pressure within the \\nrange of 200 bar. The typical train arrangement includes \\na steam turbine or electric motor that drives a low-speed, \\nhorizontally split compressor, and a high-speed barrel \\ncompressor through an increasing gearbox, typically \\nfollowed by a pump for CO2 injection. For applications \\nwhere the CO2 stream contains H2S and water, Baker \\nHughes uses primarily stainless steel for improved \\ncorrosion resistance.\\nPumps\\nBaker Hughes’ development of its high-pressure CO2 \\ninjection pumps rely on the experience of over 1,000 multi-\\nstage centrifugal pumps for liquefied gas applications. Our \\nmultistage barrel pump is a good fit for CO2 applications, \\nproviding better overall efficiency compared with the in-\\nline rotor configurations, thanks to its opposing back-to-\\nback impeller configuration.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n188\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nCollect multiple measurements with a single cable including distributed fibre optic sensing, pressure/temperature \\ngauges for well integrity, compaction monitoring, and seismic data. \\n•\\t\\nUtilizes CoreBright™ hydrogen resistant fibres to limit the effects of hydrogen darkening\\n•\\t\\nCable is cladded with robust Inc 825 corrosion-resistant nickel alloy for maximum protection against chemicals, \\nabrasion, crimping and crush.\\n•\\t\\nContinuous cable with no orbital welds\\n•\\t\\nFibre In Metal Tube (FIMT) utilizes continuous (splice-free) fibres throughout\\n•\\t\\nEquipped with excess fibre to ensure that no strain is transferred to the optical fibre core during deployment or \\noperation. Excess fibre compensates for thermal expansion, as well as tubing stretch.\\nSUREVIEW™ WITH COREBRIGHT™ OPTICAL FIBRE\\nReliable downhole measurement of well and reservoir \\nparameters is imperative to the success of geological \\nsequestration \\nprojects. \\nBaker \\nHughes \\nis \\nuniquely \\npositioned \\nto \\nholistically \\naddress \\nthe \\nmonitoring \\nchallenges. Baker Hughes leverages a broad portfolio of \\ntechnology and experience across permanent downhole \\ngauges, microseismic monitoring, wireline monitoring, and \\nfibre optic solutions. Specifically, fibre optic monitoring \\nis an effective solution to gather a range of real-time \\ndata downhole. These systems can provide distributed \\ntemperature, acoustic & strain measurements, transmit \\npoint gauge data, and capture seismic measurements for \\nuse in vertical seismic profiling. The majority of traditional \\ndownhole fibre optic installations are intended for 10-\\n20 years of hydrocarbon production life. However, the \\ngeological sequestration projects can require much longer \\nservice life. SureVIEW™ with CoreBright™ technology is a \\nproprietary fibre optic cable design with industry-leading \\n40+ years of reliability and unique resistance to common \\nhydrogen darkening failure. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\nSureVIEW™ downhole cable by Baker Hughes uses \\nCoreBright™ optical fibre, which leads the industry in \\nhydrogen darkening resistance, a leading cause of failure \\nfor fibre optic systems over time. CoreBright™ fibre is \\nconstructed from pure silica that minimizes hydrogen \\ndarkening. The cable also includes a layer of hydrogen- \\nabsorbing gel. This combination provides the industry’s \\nbest protection against hydrogen darkening.\\nFabricating a downhole optical cable with the performance \\nand reliability demanded by our industry requires a \\nsophisticated understanding of fibre design, fibre coatings, \\ncable manufacturing processes, and cable construction. \\nFibres are typically coated, often with carbon, to prevent \\nthis hydrogen darkening. However, over time, this coating \\ncan break down or suffer from uneven application during \\nmanufacturing. A well applied coating will likely break \\ndown in about 20 years, particularly at higher temperatures \\n(above 150 °C). CoreBright™ fibre offers its extended \\nlifetime through a simple principle: instead of attempting \\nto avoid hydrogen damage by trying to block hydrogen, \\nCoreBright™ optical fibre avoids the hydrogen damage by \\npreventing the reaction between the SiO2 structure of the \\noptical fibre and the hydrogen. In addition, Baker Hughes’ \\nfibre optic cables are fitted with hydrogen scavenging gels \\nto further reduce darkening risk. \\nIn this way, Baker Hughes’ solution is unique: the fibre will \\nnot darken, and reliable readings over the full life of the \\ninstallation are assured. Independent testing has concluded \\nthat CoreBright™ optical fibre is the only fibre in the industry \\nthat is suitable for harsh downhole environments over a \\nlong duration. It is the only known fibre that was designed \\nfor, and has demonstrated, long-term immunity to first and \\nsecond-order hydrogen darkening effects.\\n1\\nSureVIEW™ fibre optic cables, powered by CoreBright™ \\nfibre, have been installed in over 300 wells worldwide.  As \\nof today, there are no instances of hydrogen darkening \\never experienced. In addition, during high-temperature \\nmonitoring work performed by Baker Hughes for electrical \\nsubmersible pumps where it is common practice to test the \\nfibre as the pumps are pulled, the CoreBright™ fibre has \\nmaintained its mechanical and optical reliability in every \\ninstance. Proof-testing of the fibre showed levels that are \\ntypical of ‘as-built’ condition and demonstrated negligible \\nchanges in optical loss profiles.\\nHigh reliability and longevity enable the use of fibre optic \\nmeasurement in more applications particularly behind the \\ncasing where workover is likely impossible. Baker Hughes’ \\nSureVIEW™ downhole cable is expected to improve data \\nquality and facilitate better decision-making in geological \\nsequestration today. \\n1  \\u0007\\ntedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n190\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nProvides superior reliability in long-life and/or demanding (high-pressure and high-temperature) applications\\n•\\t\\nDerives finest pressure/temperature measurement resolution attainable\\n•\\t\\nDeploys multiple gauge combinations on a single standardized carrier\\n•\\t\\nEliminates the need for additional splices, increases reliability, and reduces installation time through unique \\nconstruction configurations with fewer connections\\n•\\t\\nDeploys multiple gauges, flowmeters, and valve positions to provide redundant readings\\n•\\t\\nServes as platform for future developments\\nSURESENS™ QPT ELITE PDHG\\nWell-known pressure and temperature are key to proper \\nfunctioning throughout a CO2 storage system. For most \\napplications, the best way to monitor these parameters is \\nwith permanent downhole gauges (PDHGs). These gauges \\ncan be used as a standalone means of measurement or \\nas calibration for a fibre optic-based or other extensive \\nmeasurement system. Baker Hughes leverages the \\nquality and performance of the SureSENS™ line to execute \\nintegrated monitoring solutions that combine point gauges, \\nfibre optics, along with periodic means of measurement \\nsuch as wireline logging data. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\n1  \\u0007\\ntedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)\\nThe SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge for permanent \\ndownhole installations measures static and dynamic \\npressures and temperatures while introducing a step \\nchange in reliability and accuracy. The gauge is qualified \\nfor operation at pressures less than 35,000 psi (2,414 \\nbar) and temperatures up to 225 °C (437 °F). The static \\nand dynamic pressure information obtained can be used \\nto determine the effects of injection and plume growth \\non monitoring wells, monitor injection characteristics, \\nand provide input or validation to reservoir models. The \\nSureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge includes the new ELITE \\nelectronics package, built upon Baker Hughes’ industry-\\nleading STAR hybrid electronic package design. The \\nELITE electronics package incorporates an application-\\nspecific integrated circuit (ASIC), providing a new level \\nof reliability to the industry. Baker Hughes provides three \\nconfiguration options—single, dual, and triple gauge. The \\nsingle-gauge configuration is an economical option that \\nwill also permit the smallest possible running diameter \\nfor a streamlined, slim-hole gauge carrier. A dual-gauge \\nconfiguration provides isolated operational redundancy \\nof electronics and transducer at any given installation \\npoint. Each gauge in a dual package operates individually, \\nproviding independent measurements for data redundancy \\nand integrity verification. The triple gauge option can offer \\nredundancy or be ported to record three independent \\npressure measurements. The shorter carrier for a side-by-\\nside triple-gauge assembly also retains a slim hole running \\noutside diameter. \\nFor applications requiring long active life and high \\ndata accuracy, even in demanding high-pressure/high-\\ntemperature type environments, the SureSENS™ QPT ELITE \\ngauge system provides a flexible and reliable solution. \\nBeing highly robust, the SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge \\nmaintains mechanical integrity by deep-penetration and \\nhigh vacuum, electron-beam fusion welds, without the \\nneed for filler material. Only two fittings, the pressure port \\nand the tubing encapsulated conductor (TEC), are required \\nto interface the gauge with the carrier. The gauge pressure \\ninterface connection to the carrier can be externally \\ntested in the direction in which it will experience pressure, \\neliminating the need for an internal pressure test tool. \\nThe TEC’s primary seal is a dual metal-to-metal pressure-\\ntestable interface. The mechanical package is completely \\nintegrated into the gauge assembly, which eliminates the \\nrequirement for external Y-block components.\\nGauge Carrier configured with QPT ELITE permanent downhole gauge\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n192\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nMaximize storage capacity within safety limits\\n•\\t\\nCompliance with regulations\\n•\\t\\nMonitor structure integrity (cap-rock & faults)\\n•\\t\\nDistinguish induced versus natural seismicity\\n•\\t\\nAvoid water breakthrough\\nMICROSEISMIC MONITORING SERVICES\\nMonitoring seismicity is essential to guarantee the integrity \\nof geological sequestration reservoirs and caverns. In \\nterms of physical integrity, seismicity in the cap rock is an \\nindicator of the risk of catastrophic failure. At the reservoir \\nscale, seismicity at faults can identify the reactivation \\nby fluid injection or that they provide a pathway to the \\nsurface for the stored fluids. With more public attention \\ntowards induced seismicity and environmental impact \\nof human activity, reputational integrity is becoming as \\nimportant as physical integrity. It is therefore becoming \\nessential to detect growing activity trends before critical \\nsituation happens to support operators’ injection program. \\nBaker Hughes provides the whole range of customized \\nmicroseismic services and instrumentation to provide \\nlifetime monitoring of CCS assets.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\n1  \\u0007\\ntedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)\\nThe range of the monitoring solution can be described in \\n3 distinct stages that can be performed as a whole or as \\nindependent services.\\nNetwork design\\nIn this phase, consideration is given to the project’s \\nconstrains (regulatory, geological, operational and logistical) \\nand advanced modelling is used to determine the most \\ncost-effective network that will meet the project’s objectives. \\nThis network can consist of a specific technology (surface or \\ndownhole solutions with analogic geophone or fibre optics) \\nto be deployed, but can also have a combination of them to \\nbenefit from their different capabilities. \\nInstallation and maintenance\\nBaker Hughes ensures supply of all the required \\ninstrumentation: surface sensors, shallow buried sensors \\n(100 m), borehole sensors, surface electronics, fibre optics, \\ndigitizers, and fully equipped seismic cabinets. Where not \\ninternally developed, Baker Hughes works with trusted \\nsuppliers with long-term relationships to develop reliable \\nhardware (Mean Time Between Failures of more than five \\nyears) with advanced capabilities. \\nBaker Hughes installs and maintains all the instrumentation, \\nincluding borehole sensors. The requirement for preventive \\nmaintenance is extremely low (one visit a year at most). This \\nallows us to operate sites all over the world. Most of the sites \\nare totally autonomous, relying on solar panels for power \\nand 4G networks for communications.\\nMonitoring - Processing\\nA dedicated team of experts processes the data and \\nreports on the seismicity through a dedicated web portal. \\nThe portal allows the operator to visualize the seismicity in \\ntwo-dimensions (2D) or 3D along with the well trajectories \\nand formation interfaces and offers statistical analysis \\ncapabilities. It also plays the monitoring network’s state of \\nhealth and expected sensitivity in real time. Pressure and/or \\nflow rate curves can be displayed along with seismic rates to \\neasily relate any seismic activity to its probable cause.\\nAutomation of the process can be utilised to enhance \\nthe processing solution by adding 24/7 services such as \\ntraffic light systems that will alert the operator when critical \\nseismicity is reached, and the prediction of the level of \\nseismic risk for the upcoming hours using machine learning.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n194\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nCore longer even in fractured or other jam-prone formations by neutralizing up to two jamming events\\n•\\t\\nFull-closure catcher completely seas inner tube to prevent loss even when the core is unconsolidated\\n•\\t\\nThe HT30™ Max core barrel system delivers larger, longer samples than other systems\\n•\\t\\nUnobstructed ‘slick’ entry eliminates risk of jam at core’s centre\\nCORTIVA™ CORING SYSTEM\\nSeal integrity is key to the success of any geological \\nsequestration project. Along with the logging and \\nmeasurement technology, taking physical cores is one \\nof the best ways to characterize these structures. Core \\nsamples retrieved with traditional coring systems can often \\nbreak and become jammed or lost in a hole. Jams and \\npoor core quality can lead to re-runs that incur significant \\nadditional cost. The CORTIVA™ coring system improves \\nefficiency and de-risks core recovery through the use of a \\nfully-closed and jam-mitigating core barrel. By combining \\nthese key features, CORTIVA™ shortens the time and costs \\nrequired to cut and retrieve a core sample by ensuring the \\nwhole core section is retrieved safely in a single trip. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\nCore jamming during coring operations and/or loss of friable \\ncore material during trip-outs leads to additional coring runs, \\nresulting in increased rig time and cost. Jams that occur \\ninside the inner tube of a core barrel can often be mitigated \\nby certain jam-mitigation techniques, allowing coring to \\ncontinue. However, jams that occur in the core catcher, \\nprovoked by the mechanical interaction of the core with the \\ncatcher mechanism, would not be mitigated by such anti-\\njamming technologies. These typically occur in formations \\nthat are a mixture of fractured (jamming-prone) and friable \\nrock. This type of complex, coring application demands \\ntechnologies beyond what is currently available in the \\nmarket. Competitors have either standalone jam mitigation \\nsystems for jam-prone formations, or full-closure catcher \\nsystems for unconsolidated/friable rock.\\nBaker \\nHughes \\ncombines \\nthe \\nbenefits \\nof \\nvarious \\ntechnologies to improve the efficiency of coring operations \\nin complex formations. With its CORTIVA™ full-closure system \\nwith jam mitigation technology, Baker Hughes combines \\nthe JamBuster™ jam mitigation coring system and the \\nHydroLift™ full-closure catcher system−industry standards \\nfor jam mitigation and recovery of friable rock to improve \\nthe efficiency and recovery of high-quality core in complex \\nfractured and friable formations.\\nThe Baker Hughes patented JamBuster™ system neutralizes \\njams inside the inner tube through concentric inner core \\nbarrel sleeves that automatically telescope if a core \\nbecomes jammed in the core barrel, allowing coring to \\ncontinue without interruption. The HydroLift™ system \\nefficiently recovers high-quality, intact core samples \\ncollected in soft, or unconsolidated formations. The system’s \\nslick, unobstructed entry eliminates the risk of jamming at \\nthe core catcher for the incoming core, while the full closure \\nmechanism secures the core, thus preventing loss of friable/\\nloose formation during trip-out. \\nThe CORTIVA™ full-closure system with jam mitigation \\ntechnology is also integrated with HT30™ Max core barrel \\nsystem to deliver an unmatched core size. It also reduces \\ncore acquisition costs by acquiring longer, high-quality core \\nsamples per run, even in harsh environments.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n196\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nDelivers high performance across a wide temperature range \\n•\\t\\nCompatible in a range of environments including corrosion-inhibited fluids and reservoir fluids \\n•\\t\\nResistant to sour conditions\\n•\\t\\nSingle compound simplifies material recommendations and testing for well planning across all seals including packing \\nelements, O-rings, and bonded seals\\n•\\t\\nExtends life of seal, further improving reliability\\n•\\t\\nMeets ISO 23936-2 and API 11D1 standard\\nAPTUM™ DOWNHOLE SEALS\\nIn geological sequestration, completion integrity for any \\nwell penetrating the target storage interval is key to \\nmaintaining storage integrity over the life of the project. \\nChemical corrosion inhibitors and reservoir’s environmental \\nfactors can be damaging to elastomer seals over time. \\nThe most common sealing elastomers in the industry \\ntoday often force a choice between effectiveness at low \\ntemperatures or chemical compatibility with corrosion \\ninhibitors. Aptum™ seal systems, along with industry-\\nleading packers such as the Premier™ NXT removable \\nproduction packer, perform at lower, more appropriate \\ntemperatures for CCUS and yet maintain excellent \\nchemical compatibility and mechanical properties. With \\nAptum™ seals in the completion, operators can better \\nprotect their metal tubulars and equipment without fear of \\nelastomer degradation.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\nIn typical well completions, the injection or monitoring \\ntubing string is isolated from the well casing by a production \\npacker. This packer creates a mechanical anchor and \\na seal between the tubing and casing. The four main \\nelastomers currently used in these packer element systems \\nto seal between the tubing and the casing are Nitrile (NBR), \\nhydrogenated Nitrile (HNBR), Aflas (FEPM), and Viton (FKM). \\nThese elastomers provide an excellent range of capabilities \\nfor most applications. However, in each case, there are trade-\\noffs, which can introduce risks and costs to an operation. \\nFor instance, NBR has balanced mechanical properties \\nand performs well even at lower temperatures. However, \\nits chemical resistance, particularly to corrosion inhibitors, \\nis quite low. Aflas, on the other hand, is excellent for use in \\nmany inhibited brines, but has significant limitations in lower \\ntemperatures. Baker Hughes set out to develop a balanced \\nelement system that could be used confidently in a broader \\nrange of applications – carbon storage being a prime \\nexample. \\nAptum™ seals are compatible with a range of industry \\nstandard corrosion inhibitors while still maintaining sealing \\ncapabilities in low downhole temperatures.\\nCarbon \\nstorage \\napplications \\ncan \\ncreate \\ncorrosive \\nenvironments when CO2 becomes mixed with water and \\nother fluids in the wellbore. Completion equipment can \\noften be exposed to hydrocarbons, formation water, CO2 \\nand a host of other corrosive fluids. A common and effective \\nway of combating this corrosion is to treat the completion \\nfluids with corrosion inhibitors. These corrosion inhibitors \\nprotect the metallic components of the completion including \\nthe casing, tubing, and packer body. However, they can also \\ndegrade the elastomer. As mentioned earlier, elastomers \\nwith excellent compatibility with inhibited fluids often have \\ntemperature limitations. \\nMany target formations for sequestration are shallow and \\nhave lower temperatures, making them difficult applications \\nfor elastomers such as Aflas. Add the potential for significant \\ncooling during various phases of CO2-injection operations, \\nand a new solution is needed. Aptum™ provides excellent \\nperformance at 4 °C (40 °F) yet maintains long-term \\ncompatibility with bromide- and chloride-inhibited brines. \\nWhen used as a part of the Premier™ removable production \\npacker, Aptum™ seals enable a secure seal between the \\ntubing and the casing, create a reliable mechanical anchor \\nfor the tubing string throughout extreme temperature and \\npressure changes, and is easily removed from the well for \\nworkover or plug and abandonment activities.\\nMATERIALS\\nTEMPERATURE \\n40 °F (4 °C)\\nTEMPERATURE \\n350 °F (177 °C)\\nINHIBITED \\nBRINE >200 °F \\n(93.3 °C)\\nBROMIDE \\nRESISTANCE\\nOIL-BASED \\nMUD \\nRESISTANCE\\nH2S \\nRESISTANCE \\n>10%\\nBALANCED \\nMECHANICAL \\nPROPERTIES\\nPRODUCED \\nRESERVOIR \\nFLUIDS\\nAptum Seal\\nNitrile (NBR)\\nHydrogenated Nitrile (HNBR)\\nViton (FKM)\\nAflas (FEPM)\\nDue to excessive swelling, limit exposure to oil-based mud (OBM) during run-in\\nDue to excessive swelling, O-rings and packing elements require back-up mechanisms to reduce extrusion\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n198\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nProvides a robust rock-to-rock barrier\\n•\\t\\nReduces cost and time associated with section milling\\n•\\t\\nDecreased health, safety & environment (HSE) risk for personnel on site\\n•\\t\\nReduces requirements for rig capability, swarf handling, and other specialized equipment\\n•\\t\\nEliminates the need for swarf cleaning, transport, and disposal\\nHEAVY METAL™ SWARF-FREE SECTION MILLING\\nMany of the world’s most promising geological targets for \\nlarge scale CO2 storage exist in and above late-life and \\ndepleted hydrocarbon plays. Late-life fields often have \\nmany existing wells that penetrate the target storage \\ngeology and can pose seal integrity risks. Baker Hughes \\noffers advanced plug and abandonment solutions to \\nensure that the integrity of aging infrastructure is not \\ncompromised for the life of the sequestration project. \\nDuring plug and abandonment operations, it is sometimes \\nrequired to remove a section of the casing and adjacent \\ncement sheath to expose the formation. This process is \\ncalled section milling. Section milling operations provide \\nan effective downhole seal during plug and abandonment \\nby setting a cement plug directly across the geologic seal \\n- removing metal tubulars and potentially failed cement. \\nHowever, section milling operations can be challenging, \\nwhich makes its large scale use less appealing. \\nAdditionally, \\nconventional \\nsection \\nmilling \\nrequires \\nspecialized equipment to handle the cuttings or ‘swarf’ that \\nare brought to surface during milling operations. HEAVY \\nMETAL™ swarf-free section milling system increases the \\nefficiency while decreasing the cost and carbon footprint of \\nsection milling operations. By improving the performance \\nand economics of section milling operations, wells can be \\nplugged more effectively and with less long-term risk of \\nseal integrity issues. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.bakerhughes.com \\nBAKER HUGHES\\nSection milling is a conventional method for casing removal \\nduring plug and abandonment (P&A) operations where \\nannular well integrity is compromised or questioned. The \\nremoval of casing by milling a window provides full access \\nto the virgin formation, enabling placement of a rock-to-\\nrock barrier. Swarf is an unavoidable by-product of section \\nmilling, generating thousands of pounds of these sharp \\nmetal cuttings that have to be removed from the well. \\nRetrieving and handling the swarf is a time-consuming and \\ncostly process that poses additional health, safety, and \\nenvironmental (HSE) risks, and oftentimes operators will \\nopt for less reliable options, such as perf-and-wash, just to \\navoid swarf. \\nBaker Hughes offers the HEAVY METAL™ swarf-free section \\nmilling service to provide a reliable solution without the \\nnegative side effects of swarf. It eliminates swarf to surface \\nthrough a unique upwards milling process, depositing \\nswarf deep in the rathole, while still enabling a secure \\nrock-to-rock barrier. This unique service reduces time \\nand costs in half, eliminating the need for swarf removal \\nand the risks that swarf presents to people, equipment, \\nand the environment. The bottomhole assembly (BHA) \\nconsists of multiple tools providing different functions to \\nenable upwards section milling using normal right hand \\ndrill pipe connections without any rotation at surface. A \\ntorque isolator allows uninterrupted axial movement and \\ncontinuously isolates reactive torque of the left-hand mud \\nmotor, while milling upwards. The mud motor requires \\ncirculation from surface and provides downhole left-hand-\\nrotation and torque to the section mill and auger. \\nThe \\nsystem’s \\nsection \\nmill \\nfeatures \\nupward-facing \\nknives that utilize METAL MUNCHER™ advanced milling \\ntechnology (AMT) carbide cutting structures and allow \\nupward milling and reaming in one run—even in long \\nlaterals. The section mill cuts through the casing at the \\nbottom of the window, mills upwards to the desired \\ndistance, and then reliably retracts its knives at the top of \\nthe window. \\nThe auger continuously transports any swarf created from \\nthe window to the bottom of the rathole, leaving it all in the \\nwell, while providing a window free of swarf. Because the \\nswarf does not have to be circulated to surface, there is no \\nneed to change over to a high viscosity milling fluid, saving \\nadditional cost and logistics.\\nA Baker Hughes dedicated project management team \\ncan oversee the entire P&A project—from planning phase \\nthrough final abandonment— all with a strong focus \\non safety and efficiency. With a single point of contact, \\ncustomers achieve a simplified, streamlined process that \\nhelps reduce time and minimize risk.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n200\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nUnique combination of products and services across the full CCUS value chain including the expanding applications \\nfor Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC™). \\n•\\t\\nOver 15 years’ experience and participation in 8 large-scale CCUS projects and 2 current 30 Tonnes Per Day (tpd) \\nCCC™ projects. \\n•\\t\\nFull product range includes fans, heaters, compressors, CO2 capture and processing hardware, storage tanks, \\ntransportation tanks and remote monitoring systems for both gas and liquid. \\n•\\t\\nChart’s CCC™ Systems are providing results without the use of chemicals or contaminants, providing significant cost \\nand energy savings.\\n•\\t\\nSignificant knowledge of the processes and challenges of energy intensive hard to abate industries such as Power, Oil \\n& Gas, Petrochemical, Steel and Cement.\\nCARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION AND STORAGE\\nCHART INDUSTRIES, INC.\\nCarbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is a \\nnecessity, not an option, and could contribute up to 20% of \\nglobal emissions reductions required (International Energy \\nAgency). One hundred times the current levels of carbon \\ncapture will be needed by 2050 to keep global warming \\nbelow 1.5°C.\\nChart Industries, Inc. is a global leader in the design, \\nengineering and manufacturing of process technology \\nand equipment. With more than 80 years’ experience \\nin industrial gases and diverse knowledge in cryogenic \\nprocesses, Chart delivers the effective solutions to tackle \\ncarbon emission challenges.\\nIn March 2023, Chart completed the acquisition of \\nHowden, a leading global provider of mission critical air \\nand gas handling products and services for over 165 \\nyears. The combination of Chart and Howden expands \\nthe offering of products and services to provide a unique \\nrange of efficient, sustainable and innovative technologies \\nto support customers in all stages of the CCUS value chain. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t Mark.Courtney@howden.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.chartindustries.com \\n\\t\\nwww.howden.com/en-gb\\nDESCRIPTION\\nEFFICIENT AND INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS ACROSS THE \\nFULL CCUS VALUE CHAIN\\nCO2 Capture and Separation\\nCO2 is captured either at source (Post Combustion/Post \\nProcess Capture) or from the air (Direct Air Capture). \\nPost Combustion Capture\\nPost Combustion Capture is the process of capturing \\nCO2 emissions at source before they are released into \\nthe atmosphere, which is particularly relevant for large-\\nscale industrial facilities which rely on fossil fuels. This \\nincludes facilities such as power plants, cement production \\nfacilities and chemical plants where limited alternative \\nclean fuel sources are available. Capture at source \\nallows these industries to continue to operate without \\nreleasing significant levels of CO2. Howden supports post-\\ncombustion capture with booster fans, gas-gas heaters \\nand oxidation blowers. \\nMany other industrial processes, like fermentation or \\nchemical reactions, also generate large quantities of CO2 \\nthat is also best captured at relatively high concentration at \\nsource.  \\nHowden is a world leader in Mechanical Vapour \\nRecompression (MVR) technologies, which is a key \\nelement for reduced energy in the separation of CO2 from \\nthe solvent that captured the CO2. Roots Blowers and \\nHowden Turbo Compressors or blowers form the basis of \\nthe MVR systems. \\nDirect Air Capture (DAC)\\nDirect Air Capture is the process of capturing CO2 directly \\nfrom the ambient air using fans to draw in the air and then \\ntrap the CO2. Both Chart and Howden provide the low-\\npressure axial fans that would be mounted on top of a DAC \\ntower to draw air through a recirculating fluid or through \\na solid sorbent which traps the CO2 from the ambient air. \\nDAC is an emerging technology and as the technology \\ndevelops further, will benefit from higher pressure \\ncentrifugal fans, a core capability of Howden.\\nCryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC)\\nIn addition to traditional carbon capture methods, Chart \\noffers Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ systems, which as the \\nnames implies, uses the thermodynamics of pressure \\nand low temperatures to separate the CO2 from plant or \\nprocess exhaust. The CO2 is captured, separated, purified \\nand pressurized in a single process, and delivered as a \\nhigh-purity liquid ready for transport, storage or re-use. \\nMore information about the full CCC process can be found \\nlater in this article. \\nCO2 purification and dehydration\\nAfter it is captured, the CO2 is then purified, treated and \\nprepared for permanent storage (sequestration) or direct \\nusage. Depending on the required capacity, flexibility, \\nreliability and efficiency, the most suitable Howden \\ncompression technologies can be selected from screw, \\ncentrifugal, piston or diaphragm compressors to compress \\nand condense the CO2 ready for transport, storage or use. \\nIn some cases there is an opportunity for substantial \\noperational and energy cost savings by using multi \\nmachine systems where Howden can select individual \\ncompressors based on optimization of full and part-load \\nperformance, CAPEX and OPEX.\\nTransport, Storage and Use \\nAfter the CO2 has been separated and processed, it is then \\ntransported from where it was captured either to a storage \\nsite for permanent storage or for direct use.  \\nTransport \\nThere are multiple ways the CO2 can be transported \\nincluding transporting it in a pressurized tank by car, railway \\nor ships, or through a pipeline. Depending on the specific \\nrequirements, Howden can supply a screw, reciprocating \\nor centrifugal compressor to transport the gas, and boost it \\nfor injection & Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) purposes.\\nStorage of CO2 in Gas or Liquid \\nCO2 can be stored as a liquid or a gas depending on the \\ndownstream use. For decades Chart has provided leading \\ncryogenic CO2 storage solutions for the industrial gas \\nmarket from transportable liquid cylinders such as the \\nDura-Cyl® and Carbo-Max® equipment for pilot and small-\\nscale systems to industrial bulk tanks, CO2 ISO units or \\nCO2 tank trucks. Chart’s solutions have been in service for \\ndecades and are available globally to support customers in \\nCO2. \\nHowden Turbo fans to produce bioethanol from CO2 at Arcelor \\nMittal\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n202\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSequestration of CO2 Gases\\nCO2 sequestration is the process of permanently storing \\nthe captured CO2. Often permanent sequestration \\nis referenced to mean storage deep underground in \\ngeological formations such as saline formations, oil and \\nnatural gas reservoirs, coal seams, basalt formations and \\norganic-rich shales. Howden compressors can boost \\npressure to over 200 bar for injection of the CO2 into these \\nporous rock formations to permanently trap it away from \\nthe atmosphere. As this is a growing field of study, there are \\nmethods of permanent sequestration of CO2 (or converted \\nderivatives) to extend to agriculture soil amendments and \\nwater and matter entrainment, binding the CO2 molecule in \\na way that prevents future release. \\nDirect Use or Re-use of CO2 (Utilization)\\nThe captured CO2 gas can be used in a wide range of \\nindustries such as production of materials, urea/fertiliser \\nproduction, food and beverage, healthcare, water \\ntreatment, refrigeration, indoor agriculture and biofuel \\nproduction. Chart provides the CO2 tank and mobile \\nstorage solutions to enable CO2 reuse or distribution. \\nHowden has been optimizing its compressors to handle \\nCO2 for many decades. In the many diverse industries that \\ncan utilise captured CO2, such as the Food and Beverage \\nindustry, Howden already supplies tailor made screw, \\ndiaphragm, piston and centrifugal compressors to plants \\naround the world. \\nChart - Carbon Capture System Solutions \\nCryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC) \\nCryogenic Carbon Capture™ is a post-combustion \\ntechnology that reduces carbon emissions from fossil \\nfueled power stations, cement, steel, and other industrial \\nfacilities using cryogenics to separate the CO2 in a highly \\nefficient process delivering high-purity, liquid CO2 (LCO2) \\nready for transportation, storage and use. \\nChart acquired Sustainable Energy Solutions (SES) in 2020 \\nto scale and commercialize the CCC process with the \\npotential to reduce carbon emissions from all types of post-\\ncombustion emissions sources by 95% to 99% and remove \\nother pollutants, such as sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, \\nand mercury, at half the cost and energy of alternative \\ncarbon capture technologies. Current projects are proving \\nthe large-scale reliability, efficiency, and scalability of the \\nCCC process to achieve cost-effective carbon capture for \\npower and industrial markets.\\nThe CCC technology uses phase change to separate \\nCO2 and other pollutants from exhaust gases. Cooling the \\nexhaust gas results in the CO2 gas transforming into a solid \\nwithout passing through the liquid phase (desublimation); \\nthe CO2 is then separated from the remaining gas, \\npressurized, and melted resulting in liquid CO2 ready for \\ntransportation and use. \\nThe CCC process is minimally invasive and highly efficient, \\neffectively utilizing heat integration to achieve up to a \\n50% reduction in parasitic energy demand depending \\non project-specific conditions compared to an amine \\nabsorption process. \\nWhile traditional carbon capture methods seek to lower \\nthe Carbon Intensity (CI) scores of many applications, the \\nunique liquefaction process of CCC cleans the carbon \\nmeaning it can be resold or reused as Liquid CO2. An \\nexample of this is the oil and gas industry, where the \\nCO2 can be used for enhanced oil recovery. SES has \\nalso demonstrated use of the CO2 for a variety of cases \\nincluding curing concrete and converting the CO2 to useful \\nproducts.\\nChart’s CCC process results in high purity LCO2, which \\ncan be used in a range of applications including chemical \\nmanufacturing, synthetic fuel production, concrete curing, \\nfood and beverage and enhancing plant growth at \\ncommercial nurseries. Chart engineers and manufactures \\nthe low-pressure cryogenic storage tanks, transportation \\nequipment, loading and unloading skids, and end user \\nre-use equipment for multiple applications of CO2.   From \\nstorage tanks of 1000m3 size to ISO units, to MicroBulk \\nsolutions, Chart can deliver the effective solutions for re-\\nuse on site or re-use in a range of applications.\\nSmall-scale \\nCarbon \\nCapture \\nwith \\nEarthly \\nLabs \\nTechnology\\nEarthly Labs technology is uniquely designed to capture \\ncarbon dioxide waste from lower volume, higher \\nconcentration sources such as breweries, wineries and \\nbiogas and purifying CO2 for beverage quality reuse. \\nEarthly Labs offers a full solution including CO2 capture \\nhardware, software, installation, and remote monitoring \\nservices. The CO2 is captured, purified, monitored and \\nreused. The technology is proven, compact and cost \\neffective, capturing millions of carbon dioxide molecules \\nannually helping customers save thousands in CO2 and \\nreducing greenhouse gas emissions.\\nAn example of where the Earthly Labs technology is making \\na significant impact is craft breweries. The CO2 is captured \\nfrom fermentation tanks and pushed through a foam trap \\ninto the compact CO2 capture unit, where all purification, \\ncompression and liquefaction is carried out. The resulting \\nLiquid CO2 from the process is then transferred into a \\nChart storage tank and the brewer uses the liquid CO2 \\nto carbonate their beer and purge tanks. In addition to \\nreducing their carbon emissions every week, the breweries \\nare reducing supply chain risk in an increasing volatile CO2 \\nmarket, reducing their use of industrial CO2, reducing costs \\nand advancing their sustainability goals.\\nSmall-scale Carbon Capture with Earthy Labs Technology\\nChart Industries product offerings for Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC™)\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n204\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nCO2\\nH2\\nCARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE\\nCHEVRON NEW ENERGIES\\nIn a growing world faced with complex energy challenges, \\ninnovative solutions are required to deliver a lower carbon \\nfuture.  At Chevron New Energies, we understand the \\nimportance of addressing climate change and accelerating \\nlower carbon solutions.  Chevron’s strength has always \\nbeen solving big, complex energy challenges. \\nOur \\nCompany’s \\nenergy \\ntransition \\napproach \\nis \\nstraightforward: we are lowering the carbon intensity of \\nour operations and growing lower carbon businesses \\nby leveraging our capabilities, assets, and customer \\nrelationships.  We are scaling and commercializing new \\nbusinesses to meet customers’ lower carbon ambitions \\nthrough a portfolio of energy solutions that include carbon \\ncapture, utilization, and storage; hydrogen; carbon offsets; \\nemerging technologies; and renewable fuels and products. \\nWe aim to help reduce emissions of the essential industries, \\nsuch as refining, petrochemicals, steel, and cement that \\nenable modern society for a better tomorrow.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t newenergies@chevron.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.chevron.com/operations/new-energies\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nChevron New Energies is well-placed to be a CCUS leader building upon our capabilities, assets, and customer \\nrelationships.\\n•\\t\\nWe bring decades of operational experience and a proven track record of carbon capture projects.\\n•\\t\\nWe are one of few companies with the ability to execute across the CCUS value chain and scale this critical technology.\\n•\\t\\nOur direct experience in understanding and driving portfolio-wide emissions reductions enables us to collaborate with \\ncustomers to help solve their lower carbon needs.\\n•\\t\\nWe are a full-service provider with a balanced approach to develop decarbonization solutions with customers in our \\nkey geographies of North America and Asia Pacific.\\n•\\t\\nChevron has committed $10B total capital toward lower carbon energy by 2028 to progress our ambitions.\\nDESCRIPTION\\nSCALING CCUS\\nCarbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is a critical \\nenabler for achieving global net zero goals.  Chevron \\nNew Energies is advancing CCUS and next generation \\ntechnologies by scaling viable lower carbon solutions \\nacross the value chain to help our company and industrial \\ncustomers reach their lower carbon ambitions.  We are \\ntargeting 25 million tonnes of CO2 per year in equity \\nstorage by the end of this decade, with a focus on \\ndeveloping regional hubs that leverage our existing and \\nnew partnerships with customers, governments, and \\nindustry.\\nChevron is actively evaluating multiple locations globally \\nto implement CCUS solutions. We see a future in the \\ndevelopment of CO₂ hubs where emissions from multiple \\nsources are combined for permanent sequestration in \\nunderground storage reservoirs. As hub concepts and \\nprojects are developed, neighboring industrial plants and \\nthird-party emitters can be enrolled as potential partners \\nand customers.  \\nWe are investing in and piloting emerging technologies \\nacross the CCUS value chain to reduce costs, develop new \\nways to capture, use, and sequester CO2, with the goal of \\nscaling these solutions.\\nWe’re also taking action to reduce the carbon intensity \\nof our own operations. Using the marginal abatement \\ncost curve (MACC) process, we have direct experience \\nin understanding and driving portfolio-wide emissions \\nreductions. We can leverage this experience to collaborate \\nwith customers to help address their lower carbon needs.\\nChevron has committed $10B in total capital towards \\nlower carbon energy by 2028 to help progress our energy \\ntransition ambitions.    \\nPROJECT AND PARTNERSHIP HIGHLIGHTS\\nChevron brings decades of operational experience through \\nour large-scale deployment of CO2 injection in the United \\nStates over the last 40 years. We have safely operated a \\nCO₂ pipeline in Colorado for 35 years. This experience is \\ncoupled with our capabilities in drilling, geology, injection, \\npipeline operations, monitoring and managing pressure in \\nwells, and our ability to successfully bring together diverse \\nstakeholders across the value chain.\\nIn Australia, the Chevron-operated Gorgon liquefied \\nnatural gas (LNG) facility incorporates one of the world’s \\nlargest integrated carbon capture and storage (CCS) \\nsystems. Naturally occurring CO₂ found in the offshore gas \\nreservoirs that supply the Gorgon LNG facility is injected \\ninto a large sandstone formation two kilometers beneath \\nBarrow Island. More than 7.8MM tonnes of GHG emissions \\nhave been captured and stored since the system started \\nup in mid-2019; we expect to mitigate more than 100MM \\ntonnes of CO₂ over the life of the project.  \\nCarbon Capture demonstration with Svante and National Energy Technology Laboratory (project #DE-FE0031944)\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n206\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nChevron recently became the operator of Bayou Bend \\nCCS, a carbon capture and storage project located along \\nthe Texas Gulf Coast. We announced an expansion of its \\nCO2 storage footprint through the acquisition of nearly \\n100,000 acres onshore in Chambers and Jefferson \\nCounties, Texas. With a gross storage capacity of more \\nthan one billion metric tons, Bayou Bend CCS is positioned \\nto be one of the largest carbon storage projects in the \\nUnited States, and a leading transportation and storage \\nsolution for industrial emitters located in the Houston Ship \\nChannel and Beaumont / Port Arthur region, one of the \\nlargest industrial corridors in the country.\\nChevron aims to reduce the carbon intensity in San \\nJoaquin Valley, CA. The proposed carbon capture and \\nstorage project at our Eastridge facility entails installing \\nCO2 post-combustion capture equipment, compressing \\nthe CO2, and then injecting the CO2 into the subsurface for \\npermanent storage.\\nChevron New Energies is a part of three joint ventures \\nthat have been granted an interest in three offshore \\ngreenhouse gas storage assessment permits in Australia. \\nAdditionally, Chevron announced a memorandum of \\nunderstanding with Air Liquide, Keppel Infrastructure and \\nPetroChina to advance the development of large-scale \\nCCUS solutions in Singapore.\\nWe are investing in CCUS technologies (e.g., Carbon \\nClean Solutions, Svante, Blue Planet, Ocean GeoLoop) \\nto bring early insights through pilot programs – often \\nutilizing Chevron’s existing assets -- and to accelerate \\ncommercialization of promising technologies.\\nWe are advancing a project awarded from the U.S. \\nDepartment of Energy (#DE-FE0031944) to pilot technology \\nthat captures CO2 from post-combustion gas at our Kern \\nRiver Carbon Capture site in San Joaquin Valley, California. \\nIn collaboration with Svante and the National Energy \\nTechnology Laboratory, we launched a 6-month pilot of \\nSvante technology at scale in November 2022 with the \\ngoal to reduce CO2 capture costs and help commercialize \\nthis technology. \\nACCELERATING LOWER CARBON SOLUTIONS\\nOur capabilities, assets, and customer relationships will \\nserve as a platform for rapid growth in the years to come. \\nWe bring a unique set of capabilities to each of these areas. \\nOur existing assets span the value chain and are in areas \\nwhere we can facilitate demand based on cost-competitive \\nsupply combined with appropriate policy support. We have \\nstrong relationships with key customers and partners, \\nwhich will be critical in developing economic projects that \\ncan scale quickly across a complex value chain.\\nInnovation, partnerships, and policy will be key drivers \\nof change. We begin with a portfolio of existing assets \\nand decades of experience as a strong foundation for \\nfuture growth. We’ve successfully managed complex \\njoint ventures all over the world. We have deep technical \\nexpertise and a long history of advancing and adopting \\nexternal \\ninnovation. \\nWe \\nhave \\nstrong \\ncommercial \\ncapabilities and experience managing rapidly changing \\nbusinesses. \\nManaging \\ndiverse \\nstakeholder \\nand \\ngovernment interests is something we do every day. \\nChevron’s credibility and reputation make us the partner \\nof choice, bringing access to new opportunities.  Chevron \\nNew Energies is taking action to help build the lower \\ncarbon energy system of tomorrow.\\nEmployees at Chevron’s Gorgon Project in Australia\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n208\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCCUS PROJECT PIPELINE IN ENI\\nEni has decades of experience in the storage of natural \\ngas in depleted fields and is applying its experience \\nand expertise to repurpose existing infrastructure into \\npermanent carbon dioxide storage hubs to decarbonize \\nboth its own industrial activities and those of 3rd parties. \\nIn Norway, Eni is partner of Sleipner, the first CCUS project \\nin Europe, successfully in operation since 1996. In the \\nUnited Kingdom, Eni is the T&S Operator of the Hynet \\nNorth West consortium, which has been selected by the \\ngovernment as one of the two priority CCS projects that will \\ncontribute to the Country decarbonization strategy. Hynet \\nis on track to be ready to start operation in 2025 with the \\ncapability to inject 4.5 Mtpa (potential up to 10 Mtpa after \\n2030) in depleted gas fields offshore Liverpool Bay.\\nIn Italy, Eni is developing the CCS Ravenna Hub project in a \\njoint venture with Snam. Located off the coast of Ravenna \\nand based on the large capacity of depleted gas fields in \\nthe Adriatic Sea, this will be the first CO2 storage project in \\nItaly and potentially the largest one in the Mediterranean \\nArea. Phase 1 of the project, already authorized by Italian \\nauthorities, will start operations in 2024 with 25 ktpa \\ncapacity. The industrial phase, with an injection capacity \\nof 4Mtpa and a potential expansion to over 10Mtpa after \\n2030 is scheduled to start in 2026.\\nOutside Europe, Eni is evaluating other CCS opportunities \\nin Libya, Egypt, Algeria, and Australia. Globally all these \\nprojects will store a gross volume of carbon dioxide of \\naround 30 Mtpa in 2030.  \\nCAPTURE\\nCarbon Capture is the most significant element in terms of \\ncosts along the CCUS chain: 60-70% of the total cost.\\nHence, while there are several well proven technologies \\nthat have been applied for decades, improved processes \\nas well as innovative solutions are being developed at \\nglobal level with the purpose of cost optimization.\\nTo be able to address the widest possible range of industrial \\nemissions, Eni is developing proprietary separation \\ntechnology as well as monitoring and incorporating in its \\ntechnology portfolio the different capture technologies that \\nare commercially available or under development around \\nthe world.\\nSeveral activities have been carried out to de-risk the \\napplication of novel technologies, both through ad hoc \\nexperimentation in our labs and through collaborations and \\nexperimental campaigns in specialized R&D centers.\\nR&D areas of interest in capture technology are, among \\nothers:\\n•\\t\\nAbsorption (e.g., amine, carbonate-based solvents)\\n•\\t\\nAdsorption (solid materials)\\n•\\t\\nMembranes separation\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nFull in-house competence along the CCUS value chain\\n•\\t\\nStrategic distribution of depleted reservoirs in the North Sea and Mediterranean areas near industrial emitters\\n•\\t\\nCost-effective storage solutions through repurposing of existing infrastructures\\n•\\t\\nDemonstrated competency to manage complex projects from our long successful track record in the O&G industry\\n•\\t\\nStrong R&D capabilities to unlock value from capture & utilization technology portfolios\\n•\\t\\nProprietary technology and tools for modeling and monitoring\\nCARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS\\nEni is building a leadership position as a provider of \\ndecarbonization services, based on a portfolio of cross-\\nbusiness technology solutions and a balanced mix of low \\ncarbon products in order to effectively address scope \\n1+2+3 emissions. Eni’s strategy aims to deliver a secure and \\nsustainable energy system, while keeping a sharp focus on \\na just energy transition and value creation for stakeholders. \\nCarbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is one \\nof the main pillars of this strategy. Specifically, we are \\naddressing industry needs, in particular for the Hard-to-\\nAbate sectors. As a global energy company with decades \\nof experience and leader in technological development, \\nEni already has an extensive heritage in operations, \\nsubsurface characterization, modeling, and monitoring. \\nThis know-how has been transferred to CCUS leveraging \\non existing upstream assets, including depleted reservoirs \\nand offshore infrastructures strategically distributed in \\nthe North Sea and Mediterranean regions. This allows for \\nthe delivery of projects both in a timely and cost effective \\nmanner.\\nAn additional element of this strategy is the strong R&D and \\ntechnical capabilities to support emitters in the selection of \\nthe most effective capture solutions. They are identified \\namong a wide technology portfolio that relies on strategic \\ncollaborations with leading technology providers as well as \\non our own proprietary technologies.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t roberto.ferrario@eni.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.eni.com\\nENI\\nPROJECT PIPELINE\\nUNDER DEVELOPMENT\\nNEW INITIATIVES\\nIN OPERATION\\nUK \\n- Hynet\\nNorway- Sleipner\\nItaly\\nRavenna\\nLibya \\n- BES\\nEgypt\\nAustralia\\nAlgeria\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n210\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSTORAGE\\nEni’s remarkable experience in exploration and field \\ndevelopment has been transferred, in recent years, to CO2 \\nstorage projects. \\nEni’s centralized G&G (Geological and Geophysical) \\ntechnical services can provide advanced technologies \\nand methodologies, which are strictly linked to high-level \\ncompetencies and commitment towards innovation. The \\nvery same approach is applied to CO2 storage projects. \\nThe re-purposing of competences from O&G exploration \\nto CCS is based on a solid knowledge of how integrated \\nspecialistic studies should be carried out. \\nThis starts from seismic processing, imaging and inversion, \\nactivities where Eni can take advantage of one of the most \\npowerful HPC machines in the industry. Eni G&G workflow \\nincludes rock physics modeling, sedimentological studies, \\nstructural and fault seal analysis, basin-scale migration, \\nusing commercial and proprietary software as e-SimbaTM. \\nAll the specialistic studies are carried out internally, \\nmaximizing the communication between the different \\ntechnical teams and project management. The adopted \\nmultidisciplinary approach to characterize the storage \\ncomplex through the subsurface modeling benefits from \\ncontinuously updating the technologies.  \\nEni’s consolidated experience in reservoir modeling has \\nalso been transferred to storage projects. To support this \\nkind of analysis, Eni is increasingly using Echelon, the \\nproprietary simulator developed to exploit all internal HPC \\ncapabilities. In the framework of CO2 injection modeling, \\nfurther functions are under implementation in order to \\naccurately consider all the processes that take place when \\nCO2 is injected in the porous medium. \\nThe modeling of CO2 storage in depleted fields requires \\nadditional input data for the geochemical-mineralogical \\ncharacterization of rocks and fluids. Eni has developed \\na multidisciplinary workflow that integrates laboratory \\ntests (i.e., ageing experiments at reservoir conditions) and \\nnumerical procedures (i.e., thermodynamic parameter \\nestimation) to identify, model, and quantify the main \\nreactive processes induced by exogenous CO2. The \\napproach can also be used for investigating the sealing \\nefficiency of cap rock by integrating geochemical analyses \\nwith fluid breakthrough pressure tests and geomechanical \\ntests.\\nEni has developed subsurface characterization and \\nmodeling workflows that integrate laboratory analysis with \\nstatic, dynamic and geomechanical modeling. \\nStarting from a 3D fluid-dynamic model, validated through \\nhistorical data, specialistic studies are implemented to \\nguide the definition of the optimal injection profile. The \\ncomplete interdisciplinary simulation workflow includes:\\n•\\t\\ngeomechanical studies to assess thermal effect due to \\nthe injection of a cold fluid within a warm formation\\n•\\t\\ngeomechanical studies for fault stability caprock \\nintegrity evaluations\\n•\\t\\ngeochemical studies to assess the effect on \\npetrophysical properties and injectivity during the \\ninjection period\\n•\\t\\nflow assurance analysis to assess the bottom hole \\ntemperature and the well head conditions, to properly \\ndesign the full CO2 supply equipment (well-heads, \\nflowlines, compressors).\\nUTILIZATION\\nEni is developing a proprietary technology for CO2 \\nutilization through mineralization. The basic principle is a \\nspontaneous process in nature. Silicate minerals containing \\nmagnesium, calcium, and/or iron react with CO2 to form \\nvery stable, inert, and non-toxic carbonate phases, in which \\nCO2 is permanently fixed. \\nEni has optimized the reaction conditions, reaching \\nthe complete conversion of the mineral in a short \\ntime. Therefore, the process could be suitable for an \\nindustrial application and the product could be used as \\na Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) in the \\nformulation of cement.\\nMoreover, Eni is looking into e-fuels production as a \\ncomplementary way of CO2 utilization: green H2 and CO2 \\nare combined to produce different kind synthetic carbon \\nneutral fuels. In particular, Eni is currently developing a \\nproprietary technology for SNG (synthetic natural gas) \\nproduction: a pilot unit is about to be built and operated in \\nan Italian industrial site in the frame of NextGenEU funding \\nprogram.\\nMONITORING\\nIn all CO2 storage projects, whether they are in depleted \\nfields or in saline formations, monitoring activities play a \\nfundamental role, both to guarantee the effectiveness of \\nCO2 containment in the selected site and to comply with \\nNational and International directives. Regarding monitoring \\nactivities, Eni has twenty years of expertise in the sector, \\nrelated both to the use of proprietary technologies and \\nor testing innovative technologies through the direct \\ncooperation with innovative service suppliers.\\nIn this direction, the Eni’s Monitoring strategy is based also \\nin the development of proprietary instruments, as follow:\\n•\\t\\nMMV multidisciplinary workflow;\\n•\\t\\nE-VPMS™: Vibroacoustic Pipeline Monitoring System \\n(patented technology, developed in house R&D \\nproject);\\n•\\t\\nClean Sea: patented offshore hybrid AUV/ROV system, \\nfor simultaneous environmental and asset integrity \\ninspections;\\n•\\t\\nWell Monitoring: several internal R&D projects are in \\nplace, aimed to monitor well integrity, well performance \\nand plume migration.\\nThe monitoring plan is a fundamental document, which \\nreports the actions to be followed throughout all project \\nphases, including the preliminary phase, the injection \\nperiod and the post-injection period.\\nThe MMV refer to the Risk Assessment and also contain \\nreferences regarding the closure and post-closure plans.\\nTypically, Eni’s monitoring approach has been developed \\nwith the aim to ensure:\\n1.\\t\\nThe ability to compare on field measurements with \\ndata provided by static and dynamic models;\\n2.\\t Identify any significant on field evidence;\\n3.\\t Detect any CO2 migrations and/or losses;\\n4.\\t Detect any significant negative effects on the \\nsurrounding environment, and in particular on drinking \\nwater, human population and users of the surrounding \\nbiosphere;\\n5.\\t Evaluate the effectiveness of any corrective measures \\ntaken.\\nThe monitoring plan is designed according to the following \\nprinciples:\\n•\\t\\nCompliance with existing legislation: the monitoring \\nplan must comply with regulatory requirements.\\n•\\t\\nRisk-based: \\nMonitoring \\nactivities \\nare \\nidentified \\nthrough a systematic risk assessment. The scope \\nand frequency of monitoring activities depend on the \\noutcome of the risk analysis.\\n•\\t\\nSite-specific: Monitoring technologies are selected \\nfor each monitoring task based on the result of site-\\nspecific feasibility assessments and then custom-\\ndesigned to ensure optimal monitoring performance \\nunder specific storage site conditions.\\n•\\t\\nAdaptive: Storage site performance and monitoring \\nsystems are continuously evaluated and updated.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n212\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\n1. OVERVIEW OF THE TOMAKOMAI PROJECT\\nThe Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project is an offshore \\nCCS project in Japan. The CO2 source is offgas from an \\nHPU (Hydrogen Production Unit) of an oil refinery located \\nin the coastal area of the Tomakomai Port. CO2 captured by \\nan activated amine process is compressed and injected by \\ntwo highly deviated injection wells drilled from an onshore \\nsite targeting two offshore reservoirs (Fig. 1).\\n2. KEY RESULTS OF TOMAKOMAI PROJECT\\n2.1 CO2 CAPTURE\\nThe CO2 capture process used in the Tomakomai project \\nis a commercially proven amine scrubbing process (OASE® \\nby BASF), and the capture facility is comprised of a two-\\nstage CO2 absorption tower, a CO2 stripping tower and a \\nLow-Pressure Flash Tower (LPFT), as shown in Fig.2. The \\nmaximum CO2 capture rate is 25.3 tonnes per hour.\\nThe two-stage absorption system shown in Fig. 3 results \\nin a significant reduction of the amine reboiler heat \\nconsumption in the CO2 stripping tower as only a small \\namount of semi-lean amine needs to be sent to the CO2 \\nstripping tower. The reboiler heat consumption was \\nmeasured as approximately 0.9 GJ/t CO2 or less, which \\nis a significantly lower energy consumption than that of a \\nconventional one-stage absorption system. The purity of \\nthe captured CO2 was greater than 99% (dry basis) at the \\ntop of the LPFT.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nJCCS can share the following knowledge and experience acquired from the Tomakomai Project.\\n•\\t\\nCapture and compression technologies (excluding inherent knowhow belonging to the process licensor)\\n•\\t\\nInjection and monitoring technologies\\n•\\t\\nPublic outreach experiences\\nSTORAGE\\nJapan CCS Co., Ltd. (JCCS) was founded in May 2008 when \\na group of major companies with expertise in CCS-related \\nfields, including electric power, petroleum, oil development, \\nand plant engineering, joined forces to answer the Japanese \\ngovernment’s call for development of CCS technology.\\nJCCS has been conducting the Tomakomai CCS \\nDemonstration \\nProject, \\nJapan’s \\nfirst \\nfull-chain \\nCCS \\ndemonstration project in Tomakomai City, Hokkaido \\nPrefecture, Japan since JFY2012 (JFY: Japanese fiscal \\nyear from April to March). The project was commissioned \\nto JCCS by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry \\n(METI) between JFY2012 and 2017, and from JFY2018 \\nby New Energy and Industrial Technology Development \\nOrganization (NEDO) with subsidies from METI.\\nThe main objectives and tasks of the project are as follows:\\n•\\t\\nDemonstrate a full-chain CCS system from capture to \\nstorage\\n•\\t\\nDemonstrate that the CCS system is safe and reliable\\n•\\t\\nRemove concerns about earthquakes by the data \\ncollected by establishing:\\n•\\t\\nNo influence by natural earthquakes on CO2 stored\\n•\\t\\nNo perceptible earth tremors induced by CO2 \\ninjection\\n•\\t\\nDisclose project information and data and enhance \\nunderstanding of CCS by local residents\\n•\\t\\nAcquire operational technology as well as strive \\ntowards practical implementation.\\nThe target of 300,000 tonnes of CO2 injection was \\nachieved in November 2019. Post-injection monitoring is \\ncurrently being conducted. No micro-seismicity or natural \\nearthquakes attributable to CO2 injection were detected \\nin the vicinity of the injection area. The time-lapse monitor \\nseismic surveys indicated clear anomalies reflecting the \\nevolution of the CO2 plume. The project is being conducted \\nwith the understanding and support of the local community. \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@japanccs.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.japanccs.com\\nJAPAN CCS CO., LTD.\\nFig. 3 Geological cross section\\nFig. 1 Bird’s-eye View of capture and injection facilities of the Tomakomai Project\\nFig. 2 Two stage absorption process\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n214\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\n2.2 CO2 INJECTION AND MONITORING\\nA geological cross section is shown in Fig.4 with profiles \\nof the deviated injection wells. The Tomakomai project \\ntargets two independent reservoirs of different depths \\nand different lithofacies; the Lower Quaternary Moebetsu \\nformation at about 1,000 to 1,200 m in depth and 3 km off \\nthe coastline, and the volcanic and volcaniclastic layers of \\nthe Miocene Takinoue formation at about 2,400 to 3,000 \\nm in depth and 4 km offshore.\\nOnshore monitoring facilities were comprised of a seismic \\nstation and three observation wells with pressure and \\ntemperature sensors and seismic sensors. Offshore \\nfacilities were comprised of an OBC (ocean bottom cable) \\nwith 72 seismic sensors and four OBSs (ocean bottom \\nseismometers).\\nThe facilities were deployed as shown in Fig.5 and started \\noperation on February 1, 2015, thirteen months before the \\nstart of CO2 injection. CO2 injection into the Moebetsu \\nformation began on April 6, 2016 and was terminated with \\nthe cumulative amount at 300,012 tonnes on November \\n22, 2019. CO2 injections into the Takinoue Formation were \\nconducted from February 6 to February 23, 2018, and from \\nJuly 31 to September 1, 2018. The injectivity of the Takinoue \\nformation was much lower than expected, and therefore \\nthe cumulative injection of CO2 was 98 tonnes. \\nTo date, no seismicity attributable to CO2 injection has \\nbeen detected in the vicinity of the reservoirs (Fig.6). \\nSeismic surveys at cumulative CO2 injection of approx. \\n65,000, 207,000 and 300,000 tonnes into the Moebetsu \\nFormation detected anomalies, indicating evolution of the \\nCO2 plume (Fig.7). Seasonal marine environmental surveys \\nhave detected no indications of seepage of the injected \\nCO2.\\nAs a result of an optimization study of the monitoring \\nsystem and the marine environmental survey, some \\nmonitoring facilities and works have been discontinued \\nafter JFY 2021.\\n3. PUBLIC OUTREACH ACTIVITIES\\nAs the project is being conducted close to the center of \\nTomakomai, a large industrial city including active fishing \\nwith a population of approximately 170,000, securing \\nthe trust of the local community through sustained \\ncommunication, in particular with the local government \\nand fishery cooperatives has been an important step in \\nachieving the smooth delivery of the project. A key factor \\nwas the strong support of the city mayor and the local \\ngovernment, which formed the Tomakomai CCS Promotion \\nAssociation in April 2010 (re-organized in October 2021 to \\nTomakomai CCUS/Zero Carbon Promotion Association), \\nchaired by the mayor of Tomakomai and comprised \\nof all the major local industries including the fishery \\ncooperatives.\\nJCCS also places emphasis on removing concerns \\nregarding earthquakes and securing trust in the safety of \\nJapan’s CCS technology through various public outreach \\nactivities such as forums for local residents, panel \\nexhibitions, exhibits at environmental conferences, site \\ntours, lectures, and experiment classes for schoolchildren. \\nWe have also maintained an information disclosure system \\nin the city hall of Tomakomai.\\nFig. 5 Results of micro-seismicity of monitoring\\nFig. 6 Results of 3D seismic survey\\nFig. 4 Layout of monitoring system of the project\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n216\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nincluding adsorbent-based capture, new solvents, and \\nnovel configurations for solvent-based technologies.\\nIn addition to our carbon capture technology, we design \\nand supply gas dehydration and conditioning systems. \\nOur diverse gas dehydration portfolio includes triethylene \\nglycol (TEG) units, BASF Sorbead® adsorbents and \\nmolecular sieves adsorbents. We are uniquely positioned \\nto select the most optimum CO2 dehydration technology \\nconsidering the dry CO2 specification, and overall \\nCAPEX and OPEX of these systems. This expertise has \\nallowed us to successfully execute more than 100 gas \\ndehydration projects globally which has enabled us to \\nachieve high-energy recovery and low-glycol loss in our \\nglycol-based dehydration packages and modules, which \\nare compact, lightweight, and small in footprint. We are \\ndeveloping the next generation of digitalized desiccant-\\nbased dehydration systems, enabling remote monitoring \\nof operations which will enhance the desiccant lifetime, \\nreduce energy requirements and OPEX of the system. \\nOur CO2 dehydration systems reduce the water dewpoint, \\npreventing hydrate formation, condensation, and corrosion \\nin the downstream processes. Other CO2 conditioning \\npackages include removing contaminants like oxygen, \\nH2S and Mercury and then compression for end use. We \\nare also currently developing off-the-shelf engineered \\nstandardized modular dehydration packages.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\nNOV is a one-stop-shop, offering capabilities to support throughout the entire value chain. These benefits include:\\n•\\t\\nEstablished execution and global supply chain models, featuring local, low-cost fabrication and decreased delivery \\ntimes\\n•\\t\\nExperience in standardized system and equipment packages to drive efficiency\\n•\\t\\nPrecision with large-scale projects, resulting in lower engineering design and project management \\n•\\t\\nResearch and development activity to keep customers involved with the latest CCUS technology advancements\\n•\\t\\nVast well construction capabilities for geological storage to streamline vendor operations\\nCARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS\\nThe transition to cleaner, carbon-neutral energy, coupled \\nwith the growth in decarbonization methods, is one of the \\nmost significant technological shifts to happen in modern \\nhistory. Throughout our 150 years of experience at NOV, \\nwe have pioneered innovations that have enabled our \\ncustomers to safely produce abundant energy while \\nminimizing the environmental impact of their operations. \\nThe energy industry depends on our deep expertise and \\ntechnology to assist in advancing the energy transition \\ntoward a more sustainable future.\\nWe have joined the movement and our goal is simple: \\nrejuvenate to improve upon what we already offer, \\nrepurpose technology and equipment traditionally used \\nin oil and gas operations, and reposition the skills and \\nknowledge from oil and gas toward the energy transition.\\nCarbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is one \\ninitiative where our gas processing technologists and \\nprocess system experts have been able to utilize their \\ncore competencies to design a carbon capture system \\nfor post-combustion flue gas. Within upstream oil and gas, \\nour Wellstream Processing group is recognized as the \\nglobal leader in delivering gas processing technologies \\nand process systems. This expertise is cultivated from \\nour 35-year history of executing more than 350 complex \\ngas treatment and conditioning projects in close to 50 \\ncountries worldwide. \\n Our post-combustion carbon capture technology is \\nfully commercial, scalable, and adaptable to any flue gas \\napplication. This solvent-based post-combustion capture \\ndesign utilizes a proprietary solvent that removes more \\nthan 90% of carbon dioxide. The scalability of our solution \\nsupports a wide range of applications and industries. \\nWe are actively engaged in performing and supporting \\ncarbon capture pre-FEED/FEED studies in a variety of \\nflue gas applications including hydrogen, steel, power \\ngeneration, oil & gas, paper and pulp, ethanol, waste-to-\\nenergy, and ammonia. We are reducing the cost of capture \\nby deploying NOV’s expertise in standardizing equipment \\npackages and developing CO2 point source specific \\nproduct lines.  \\nWe are also involved in strategic partnerships to develop \\nnew carbon capture technologies that are focused on \\nreducing the cost and improving the overall economics of \\nimplementing carbon capture. To address the challenges \\nof implementing capture on smaller emitters below \\n100,000 tons per year, we are exploring new technologies \\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t PF-CCUSMarketing@nov.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.nov.com\\nNOV\\nDESCRIPTION\\nIndustry-leading solutions for CO2 projects of any size are \\nalso available for transport, offshore offloading, injection, \\nand storage. Our growing suite of automation, control, \\nand monitoring solutions also support safe and reliable \\noperations. A sampling of our solutions across CCUS \\nincludes:\\nTRANSPORTATION\\n•\\t\\nFor more than 80 years, Tuboscope has provided \\nproducts and services that improve asset performance \\nand maximize useful life. Our TK™-Corrosion control \\nproducts and pipeline connection systems have \\nsuccessfully been used in CO2 and carbon capture \\napplications, efficiently transporting waste, preventing \\nsevere deterioration of line pipe and downhole tubing \\ndue to the corrosive nature of carbon containing \\nwastewater. \\n•\\t\\nThe \\nproprietary \\nsuite \\nof \\nTube-Kote™ \\ncoatings \\naddresses all operating environments, providing \\nsuperior corrosion protection, deposit mitigation and \\nimproved hydraulics. When used with our pipeline \\nconnection systems, the result is a continuous coated \\nsurface throughout the connection area and improved \\npipeline integrity and efficiency. \\n•\\t\\nOur TK-Liner, GRE lined carbon steel pipe, delivers \\nexcellent corrosion protection in highly corrosive \\nenvironments, as well as thermal insulation for \\ndownhole tubulars and flowlines.\\n•\\t\\nFor more than 50 years, composite pipe has been used \\nin CO2 injection lines, high- and low-pressure pipelines, \\nductwork, WAG systems, and other challenging \\ncarbon capture and transportation applications. Our \\nproducts are ideal for these critical applications due \\nto their ability to handle concentrations of up to 100% \\nCO2. Composite solutions bring excellent corrosion \\nresistance without the additional cost of cathodic \\nprotections or coatings traditional metallic materials \\nrequire. \\n•\\t\\nOur energy efficient horizontal pumping systems \\nare an ideal option to boost CO2 pressure for \\npipeline entry. Tying into our variable frequency \\ndrive (VFD), users control the speed of the pump to \\nadjust discharge pressure and flow rate, as needed. \\nAdditionally, automation, control, and monitoring \\nsolutions drive productivity and improve safety and \\nreliability. \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n218\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nOFFSHORE OFFLOADING, INJECTION, AND STORAGE\\n•\\t\\nWe assist customers with offshore CO2 transfer, from \\nterminal or storage vessel to shuttle vessel, shuttle \\nvessel to storage facilities/well, or from shuttle vessel \\nto storage and injection vessel. Transfer and mooring \\nsystems are important to secure vessels and ensure \\nsafe and reliable CO2 injection offshore. \\n•\\t\\nOur Single Anchor Loading (SAL) and Submerged \\nSwivel and Yoke (SSY) systems are used in shallow \\nwaters, while our Submerged Turret Loading (STL) \\nsystem is used in deep water locations. The SAL \\nsystem is designed for shuttling operations where \\ncontinuous injections are not required, also known as \\nbatch wise injection. Alternately, the STL is suited for \\nboth shuttling and permanent mooring/continuous \\noperation in deeper waters (50 m – 2500 m). The \\nSSY is the preferable solution for permanent moored/\\ncontinuous operation systems in shallow waters (15 \\nm – 60 m). Technology choice and individual system \\ncomplexity levels are also subject to specific seabed, \\nsoil, and weather conditions for the given terminal or \\nstorage aquifer/reservoir location.\\n•\\t\\nOur portfolio of dynamic high-pressure unbonded \\nflexible pipes is compatible with CO2. Already used \\nin deep waters for CO2 enhanced oil recovery \\ninjection (EOR), our offshore flexible pipes are equally \\napplicable for injection into permanent storage.\\n•\\t\\nWe also develop solutions for safe and efficient \\nvessel integration of our technologies for CO2 transfer \\ninterfaces, which include the Bow Loading System \\n(BLS) and the Stern Discharge System (SDS). These \\nhigh performing, field proven technologies have been \\nused in the oil and gas industry for decades and are \\neasily converted to CO2 transfer in all three pressure \\nand temperature levels considered for CO2 handling. \\n•\\t\\nOur full suite of drilling technologies offers many \\nsolutions for drilling into saline aquifers or depleted \\noil and gas reservoirs for permanent CO2 storage. We \\noffer a complete suite of tubulars and bottom hole \\nassembly (BHA) tools, as well as drilling optimization \\nservices.\\nRESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY\\nWe are home to multiple research and technology \\ncenters. Two of our facilities are specifically linked to \\nNOV’s low carbon initiatives, the Springett Technology \\nCenter located just outside of Houston in Navasota, Texas, \\nand the Flotta facility in Orkney, Scotland located in the \\nheart of the Orkney Net Zero Ecosystem. We can rapidly \\nproduce prototypes and test technology for customers \\nwith expanding capabilities to support more low carbon \\ninitiatives. Additionally, our lab services for low carbon \\nsupports \\nenvironmental \\nimpact \\nresearch, \\nsurveys, \\natmospheric monitoring, and permits. \\nAs solutions to support decarbonization continue to evolve, \\nNOV will remain at the forefront solving challenges and \\npartnering with customers across the entire CCUS value \\nchain. Please let us know if we can assist with your next \\nproject by emailing corporatemarketing@nov.com.\\nCCUS VALUE CHAIN INFOGRAPHIC\\nNOV technology supports the entire CCUS value chain. \\n1 Emission source \\n2 Carbon capture system\\n3 Onshore CO2 injection well\\n4 Terminal for offshore CO2 transportation\\n5 Transportation vessel\\n6 Vessel for offshore offloading and CO2 injection\\n7 Re-purposed offshore platform for CO2 injection \\n8 Offshore injection well for CO2\\nCARBON CAPTURE SYSTEM\\nOur built-for-purpose carbon capture system is a solvent \\nbased, post-combustion capture design that removes more \\nthan 90% of carbon dioxide.\\nSUBMERGED TURRET LOADING\\nAn optimal solution for deep water locations, our \\nSubmerged Turret Loading (STL) system is designed for \\nshuttling and permanent mooring or continuous operation. \\nOur STL ensures safe and secure injection offshore.\\nSubmerged Turret Loading\\nCarbon Capture System\\nCCUS Value Chain Infographic\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n220\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nReservoir simulation is a key technology used in different \\nphases of a CO2 storage project. Early in the screening \\nphase, models are built to estimate capacity, test critical \\noperational parameters and eventually select a potential \\nsite over another. New simulation campaigns are typically \\nrun during appraisal and to create a project development \\nplan. Finally, reservoir simulators are also used to estimate \\ncontingency and uncertainty for project costs and in \\ndetermining plume migration conformance for storage site \\nclosure. \\nThe OpenGoSim (OGS) software package provides \\nsimulation capabilities to predict the long-term effects of \\nstoring CO2 in saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon \\nfields. Engineers and researchers can run large-scale \\nsimulations to model the CO2 migration and temperature \\nchange in detail. The simulator offers a number of accurate \\nand easy-to-use built-in options to characterise CO2 and \\nits mixture with residual hydrocarbons, while modelling \\nCO2 dissolution in brine and temperature effects. It utilises \\nmathematical models designed specifically for CCS \\napplications, to improve efficiency and usability when \\ncompared to traditional reservoir simulators developed \\nfor hydrocarbon recovery and often readapted to model \\nCO2 storage. The software is highly scalable and can use \\na large number of computer processors to reduce the \\ntime needed to simulate large areas of the order of 100 \\nx 100 km, for hundreds or thousands of years, as is often \\nrequired by CCS studies.\\nThe OGS project started in 2015 building on PFLOTRAN, \\nan open-source software developed by the cooperation of \\nseveral US national labs (Los Alamos, Sandia, Oak Ridge, \\nBerkley, Pacific Northwest). PFLOTRAN was developed to \\nenhance the understanding of a number of environmental \\nproblems, \\nespecially \\nthose \\nthat \\nrequire \\nlong-term \\nsimulations and significant computational resources, such \\nas nuclear waste management.\\nThanks to support from Equinor, the UK government, \\nand private investors, OGS has developed a reservoir \\nengineering capability tailored to CO2 storage, which \\nnow fits into the industry workflow, and has been used in \\nseveral CCS projects across Europe with ongoing uptake \\nin other regions. The core simulator remains open-source, \\nfacilitating cooperations with academia to accelerate \\nR&D, while OGS has developed a front-end and an \\napplication to leverage cloud computing resources and \\nto increase the simulator portability and usability. Beyond \\nindustry adoption, the software is being used by several \\nuniversities worldwide and government institutes (e.g. \\nBritish Geological Survey) in support of research activities, \\nand lately has been selected by Imperial College and \\nCambridge University to commercialise some CCS-specific \\nupscale techniques and reduced-physics models within \\nthe StrataTrapper project.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nAdvanced modelling of CO2 including thermal effects\\n•\\t\\nWell-established parallel-computing technology to speed up simulations\\n•\\t\\nCloud technology to run models from your laptop\\n•\\t\\nNo upfront license fees\\n•\\t\\nAffordable support packages\\nOPENGOSIM CO2 STORAGE SOFTWARE SUITE\\nOpenGoSim (OGS) has developed PFLOTRAN-OGS, a \\nreservoir simulation package centred on CO2 geological \\nstorage. The simulator can model CO2 storage in both \\nsaline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon fields. \\nThe documentation of the software capabilities and the \\nuser manual is available through the OpenGoSim website.\\nPFLOTRAN-OGS is open-source software that can be \\ndownloaded for free, and users can install and use it on \\ntheir own without any support. \\nAs the company that is developing and maintaining \\nPFLOTRAN-OGS, OpenGoSim offers: (1) commercial \\nsupport for an annual subscription fee, (2) a windows \\ninstaller with pre- and post-processing capabilities and (3) a \\nsolution for cloud deployment.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t Rita@opengosim.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.opengosim.com\\nOPENGOSIM\\nPFLOTRAN-OGS\\nA reservoir simulator dedicated \\nto CO2 storage.\\nHamilton (UK): CO2 injection into a depleted gas field\\nSmeaheia (Norway): CO2 injection into a saline aquifer\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n222\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCHEMICAL SOLVENTS\\nWe are developing novel amine solvents with energy \\nutilization from low-grade waste heat. We succeeded in the \\ndevelopment of amine solvents that could reduce the CO2 \\ncapture energy by 40% compared with conventional amine \\nsolvents. Some novel amine solvents are in industrial use \\nand have been adopted in two domestic commercial \\nplants. \\nMembrane \\nMEMBRANE \\nWe are developing organic membranes, such as \\nmolecular-gate membranes, and inorganic membranes, \\nsuch as zeolite, silica, and palladium membranes. For \\norganic membranes, we are working on a molecular-gate \\nmembrane module, which can separate and capture CO2 \\nfrom a mixed gas, including H2 and CO2, generated from \\nthe production process obtaining H2 from hydrocarbons. \\nFor inorganic membranes, we are working on separation \\nbetween water and alcohol, CO2 and CH4, and MCH \\n(Methylcyclohexane) and H2.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nUseful CO2 capture data using various amine compounds that have been accumulated over 20 years\\n•\\t\\nLiquid and solid absorption materials to effectively capture CO2 using low-temperature steam\\n•\\t\\nOrganic and inorganic membrane technology that can separate CO2, alcohol, H2O, H2 \\n•\\t\\nMaterials for direct air capture (DAC) technology\\n•\\t\\nMembrane reactor technology for CO2 utilization\\nINNOVATIVE CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES WITH CHEMICAL ABSORPTION, \\nADSORPTION, AND MEMBRANES\\nThe Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the \\nEarth (RITE) is dedicated to developing innovative CO2 \\ncapture technologies and to providing world-leading R&D \\nand innovation results with a special focus on chemical \\nabsorption, adsorption, and the membrane separation \\nprocess. Our research topics cover the development of \\nnew materials and innovative manufacturing processes \\nand high-efficiency CO2 capture systems. As for chemical \\nabsorption, the solvent developed in our project has been \\nput to practical use in a commercial CO2 capture process \\nowned by a private Japanese company. For adsorption, \\npilot-scale tests of solid sorbents with good CO2 desorption \\nperformance at low temperatures with adsorption \\nsystems are being conducted in collaboration with private \\ncompanies using flue gas from coal-fired power plants. \\nRecently, we started to develop new absorbents for low-\\nconcentration CO2 capture at natural gas-fired power \\nplants with private companies. Furthermore, the direct \\nair capture (DAC) process which captures CO2 from the \\natmosphere is proceeded as a national project by RITE \\nin collaboration with a private company to develop an \\ninnovative solid sorbent and effective capture system. With \\nthe target of separating CO2 from a highly pressurized gas \\nstream using a low-cost, energy-saving process, we have \\nbeen developing membranes and membrane elements. \\nThey are potentially applied in the integrated coal \\ngasification combined cycle (IGCC) and blue-hydrogen \\nproduction.\\nEfforts are also being made toward the standardization \\nof CO2 capture. As the only organization in Japan that \\nis a member of the International Test Center Network \\n(abbreviated as ITCN, a global association of facilities \\naround the world that promotes the research and \\ndevelopment of CO2 capture technology), RITE regularly \\nexchanges information with overseas ITCN members. \\nIn addition, we are conducting the project “Establish \\na common base for evaluating the standards of CO2 \\nseparation materials,” which started in 2022, and we have \\ninitiated the establishment of Japan’s first real-gas test \\ncenter at RITE.\\nThese studies are based on results obtained from projects, \\nJPNP13012, JPNP16002, JPNP18016 and JPNP21014 \\ncommissioned by the New Energy and Industrial \\nTechnology Development Organization (NEDO).\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t kagaku@rite.or.jp\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.rite.or.jp\\nRESEARCH INSTITUTE OF INNOVATIVE \\nTECHNOLOGY FOR THE EARTH\\nIndustrial use second plant\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n224\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSOLID SORBENT\\nWe are developing novel solid sorbents (porous sorbents \\nmodified with amines that are used in chemical solvents). \\nOptimum amines and porous supports are chosen \\ndepending on the CO2 concentration. We are working on \\neffective CO2 separation from coal-fired power plants (CO2 \\nconcentration: around 13%), natural gas power plants (CO2 \\nconcentration: around 4%), and the air (CO2 concentration: \\naround 0.04%).\\nESTABLISHMENT OF A COMMON EVALUATION \\nSTANDARD FOR CO2 CAPTURE MATERIALS\\nWe promote efforts to establish common evaluation \\nstandards for CO2 capture technologies. We are \\ndeveloping standard evaluation methods for various CO2 \\nseparation materials, while keeping pace with international \\ntrends in this field. In addition, we will found a real gas \\ntest center at RITE and support the development of CO2 \\nseparation materials by domestic companies, research \\ninstitutes, and others.\\nSCOPE\\nWe will further actively participate in the development of \\ntechnology for CO2 separation and recovery, including \\nchemical absorption, solid sorbents, and membrane \\nseparation. \\nThe \\nchemical \\nabsorption \\nprocess \\nwill \\nbe enhanced by the development of practical high-\\nperformance chemical solvents. For solid-sorbent-based \\ntechnology, a pilot-scale test capturing 40t-CO2 per \\nday from flue gas at a coal-fired power plant has been \\nscheduled for second half of FY 2023–2024, while a new \\nproject aims to develop innovative solid sorbents for CO2 \\ncapture from natural gas power plants will be started. \\nRegarding the DAC technology, we will accelerate its \\ndevelopment toward a small-scale on-site demonstration at \\nExpo 2025 Osaka, Kansai. As for membrane separation, in \\nFY 2023, we will complete the fabrication of a prototype \\nfor a commercial-size membrane module and develop \\na plan for a field test, aiming to move forward into the \\ndevelopment phase. About the Real Gas Test Center, its \\ndetailed design will be conducted in FY 2023. We will \\nsurvey potential users to determine the key configurations \\ndesired and to make the center user-friendly for domestic \\nresearchers working on CO2 separation materials. It will be \\nopen by the end of FY 2024. \\nIn the future, RITE will be fully committed to the above-\\nmentioned \\nresearch \\ntopics. \\nFor \\ncarbon \\ncapture \\ntechnologies in a stage very close to practical applications, \\nwe will conduct scale-up studies and tests under real-gas \\nconditions with the aim of establishing the technology at \\nan early stage. In sustainable development scenarios for \\ndecarbonization, negative emissions technologies, such \\nas DACCS (direct air capture with carbon storage), are \\nexpected to make significant contributions. Therefore, \\nit is necessary to handle these low-concentration CO2 \\nemission sources. As the CO2 concentration decreases, \\nthe amount of gas to be treated increases, and the \\noxygen concentration also increases. The development \\nof materials at low cost with superior stability and a \\ncorresponding system is highly important. We will \\naccelerate the development of these technologies so that \\nwe can implement low-cost, energy-saving CO2 capture \\ntechnologies into our societies as soon as possible. \\nEfforts will also be devoted to effectively use the captured \\nCO2. We will develop the technology of CO2 fixation \\ninto carbonates using steel slag and waste concrete \\nand explore technology for recycling CO2 into fuel and \\nchemical feedstocks.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n226\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nADVANCED TRAFFIC LIGHT SYSTEM (ATLS)\\nThere are concerns about earthquakes induced by the \\nformation pressure increase from CO2 injections. This has \\nled CO2 injection sites to undertake various monitoring \\nactivities such as seismic monitoring. To leverage the data \\nacquired from these monitoring systems, the CO2 storage \\nresearch group has been developing a management \\nsystem for CO2 injections called the advanced traffic light \\nsystem (ATLS). For hot dry rock geothermal power or \\nenhanced geothermal systems (EGS), a traffic light system \\n(TLS) has been developed to label a level of safety using \\ntraffic light colors, i.e., green, yellow, and red, judging by the \\nobserved data of microseismicity. The proposed ATLS is a \\nsystem equipped with advanced functions to utilize data \\nfrom all monitoring systems such as seismic observations \\nat a CO2 injection site and the injection status there.\\nThe ATLS is designed to identify any irregularities as early \\nas possible and send the feedback to the CO2 injection \\noperation. The system would enable the operator to \\ncontrol the CO2 injection rates in accordance with the \\ninformation provided by the ATLS and to undertake the \\nnecessary countermeasures.\\nThe figure below illustrates a schematic view of the \\nworkflow of the ATLS. After obtaining the ground \\nmotion data, the extraction of the seismic events and \\nthe identification of their locations are automatically \\ncarried out. In parallel, the latest hypocenter catalog is \\nobtained from the Japan Methodological Agency (JMA) \\nwhich is used to exclude the natural earthquakes from \\nthe catalog generated in the ATLS. Using the continuous \\nobservation data for two years or more in Tomakomai, \\nit was demonstrated that the ATLS has the capability to \\nautomatically analyze the ground motion data and to locate \\neach of the detected microseismic events at the injection \\npoint.\\nThe frequency and locations of the micro- and natural \\nearthquakes in the monitoring area and the colors of traffic \\nlight determined by the ATLS are displayed.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nProcedures and detection technology to monitor offshore CO2 leakage in case of emergency\\n•\\t\\nOperational control system to detect abnormal signs during CO2 injection and prevent induced seismicity\\n•\\t\\nOptical fiber sensing technology to monitor CO2 and reservoir conditions to ensure safe CO2 geological storage\\n•\\t\\nCO2 microbubble injection technology that drastically creates efficient CO2 injection\\nPRACTICAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR CARBON DIOXIDE GEOLOGICAL STORAGE \\nResearch Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth \\n(RITE) has been engaged in the research and development \\nof carbon dioxide (CO2) geological storage for a quarter \\nof a century. We have conducted Japan’s first CO2 \\ngeological storage project in the 2000s and set the stage \\nfor the feasibility of CCS through fundamental research \\non monitoring technology, analysis, and prediction of CO2 \\nbehavior in geological formations based on observational \\ndata and analysis of rock properties. In the first half of \\nthe 2010s, the fundamental technologies for CCS were \\ndeveloped, and in the latter half of the 2010s, technological \\ndevelopment was promoted with the aim of establishing \\ntechnologies that can be utilized in commercial-scale \\nprojects.\\nFor the implementation of CCS in society, it is important to \\nestablish not only technology but also social acceptance \\nand improvement of the economy. Social acceptance \\nof CCS is related to the possibility of induced seismicity \\nand the environmental concerns. RITE provides various \\nsafety management technologies to reduce the risk of \\nCO2 geological storage, increase social acceptability, and \\nimprove the economy.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t co2srg@rite.or.jp\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.rite.or.jp\\nRESEARCH INSTITUTE OF INNOVATIVE \\nTECHNOLOGY FOR THE EARTH\\nAn example of the output from ATLS\\nFlow diagram of ATLS\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n228\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nMICROBUBBLE CO2 INJECTION TECHNOLOGY\\nMicrobubble CO2 injection is a technology to generate \\nmicrobubble CO2 by supplying CO2 into a special filter \\nand to inject the bubbles into a pore space in formation. \\nUsing the microbubble technology, we have collaborated \\nto improve CO2 storage efficiency with Tokyo Gas.\\nThe features of this technology have the potential to \\nmaximize the pore space utilization in geological CO2 \\nstorage, use low-permeability formations that have not \\nbeen considered storage formations, and enhance the oil \\nrecovery rates.\\nWe, in collaboration with JAPEX, conducted a field test to \\nexamine the level of storage efficiency at their Sarukawa \\noil field in Akita. The selected formation was a 900 m deep \\nsand formation, which bears oil. The oil is trapped in the \\nformation with little natural flow. We did a Haff and Puff test, \\ninjecting CO2 and water at a ratio of 9:1 and then pumping \\nthe formation fluid out.\\nThe results are summarized in the table below. This shows \\nthat the microbubble CO2 injection technique has the \\npotential to improve the efficiency of the CO2 injection, \\nCO2 storage, and oil recovery in comparison with the \\nconventional methods.\\nstorage complexes, to the sea. Reservoirs are generally \\nat the depth of around 1 kilometer or deeper under the \\nseabed. According to a simulation conducted previously, \\nthe amount of time that CO2 migrates from a reservoir to \\nthe seabed right above would be more than 5 years. As \\nthe pathway of the CO2 migration would depend on the \\ncharacteristics of the formations between the reservoir \\nand the seabed, the CO2 would not necessarily leak into \\nthe sea in the area right above the reservoir. Taking this \\ninto consideration, we propose the following strategy for \\nmonitoring. Initially, we should direct the focus on the deep \\nformations including the reservoir to detect signs of CO2 \\nmigration from the reservoir. Then, if detected, we move \\nto the in-depth investigation, targeting the overburden, to \\nnarrow the potential area for CO2 to leak out. Finally, we \\nprove a narrowed area to detect the signals of the leaked \\nCO2 in the water column.\\nThe leaked CO2 must be in the gaseous phase under the \\ntemperature and pressure conditions at the seabed of \\nthe shallow sea to ensure that CO2 should not go out as \\nbubbles from the seabed if it gets leaked. Monitoring to \\nconfirm that there are no bubbles from the seabed can be, \\ntherefore, an option for leakage monitoring.\\nSonar is used extensively to detect bubbles in the sea and \\nbubbles of gases such as methane. We have developed a \\nmethodology to use the side-scan sonar (SSS) technology, \\nwhich is applicable in wide-area scanning to detect CO2 \\nbubbles. SSS is a tool to produce images of objects in the \\nwater column and topographic features of the seabed by \\nemitting sonic pulses from both sides of the SSS to the \\nvertical section perpendicular to the direction of its travel \\nand receiving its reflection.  We conducted an experiment \\nto test whether the SSS can detect CO2 bubbles released \\non the seabed under various conditions. Our findings \\ndemonstrate that the SSS is capable of detecting the \\nbubbles released at a rate of higher than 2–4 tons per \\nannum and that the distance between the neighboring \\nobservation lines in the monitoring should be shorter than \\nthe altitude of the SSS, i.e., the distance between SSS and \\nthe seabed beneath it.\\nINTO THE SEA\\nAs CO2 storage sites are deliberately selected to store \\nCO2 stably and safely, it is considered that CO2 leakage \\nfrom geological reservoirs is remotely possible. However, \\nmonitoring CO2 behavior is essential as there are public \\nconcerns regarding CO2 leakage. In addition, when storing \\nCO2 in the sub-seabed geological formations in Japan, it \\nis mandated to assess the marine environmental impacts \\nbased on the supposition of the CO2 leakage and to \\nmonitor and verify that there are no signs of CO2 leakage \\nor migration from the reservoir. To identify the signs of \\nCO2 leakage, the scope of monitoring should cover an \\nextensive range from deep geological formations, including \\nSystem concept of DFOS\\nAn example of formation strain measurement \\nResults of the field test\\nSide-scan sonar used in the experiment \\nCO2\\nCONVENTIONAL\\nMICROBUBBLE\\nInjection\\n5.6t\\n(0.6t/day x 10 days)\\n20.0t\\n(2.0t/day x 10 days)\\nCollected\\n2.1t\\n3.9t\\nStored\\n3.5t\\n16.1t\\nRate of Stored\\n62%\\n80%\\nOPTICAL FIBER SENSING TECHNOLOGY\\nIn geological CO2 storage, it is essential to monitor not only \\nthe location of CO2 plume but also the area of the pressure \\npropagation. There are number of technologies suitable \\nfor such monitoring, for example, distributed fiber optical \\nsensing (DFOS).\\nThe DFOS system is capable of acquiring spatially \\ncontinuous data and has been applied in various \\nfields. The DFOS can act as a multi-sensor system to \\ncapture temperatures, pressures, strains, and vibrations \\nsimultaneously by installing multiple fibers together. The \\nsystem is potentially considerably cheaper than a case \\nwhere several sensors are installed.\\n•\\t\\nDistributed acoustic sensing (DAS)\\n•\\t\\nMonitoring the CO2 plume in the reservoir by \\nusing an optic fiber cable as a seismic sensor\\n•\\t\\nDistributed strain sensing (DSS)\\n•\\t\\nMonitoring \\nthe \\ngeological \\nstability \\nof \\nthe \\nreservoirs and cap-rocks by measuring the strain \\nin the formations due to the pressure changes \\nassociated with the CO2 injection\\n•\\t\\nDistributed temperature sensing (DTS)\\n•\\t\\nCapturing the signs of a CO2 leakage by \\nmonitoring the temperature changes around the \\ninjection wells and CO2 pipelines \\nWe have developed the DFOS system over several years \\nand now demonstrate it in the fields in Japan and overseas, \\nas shown in the figure below.\\nWe have designed a noble optical fiber cable that contains \\nmultiple fibers filled with a resin substance in a stainless \\nsteel tube to overcome the installation challenges in the \\ndeep wells. The sensitivity of the hard steel cable was \\nvalidated with the water injection test at the domestic site.\\nAt the CCS site in North Dakota, USA, we demonstrated \\nan integrated monitoring system using DAS, DSS, and DTS \\nwith the developed optical fiber cable. We monitor the \\nintegrity of the CO2 pipeline and the injection/observation \\nwells continuously to detect any potential damage to the \\napparatus. Furthermore, we monitor the injected CO2 \\ncontinuously using the DAS-vertical seismic profiling (VSP) \\nsystem with permanent seismic sources. \\nAt the pilot test sites in Australia, we are promoting \\ndemonstration tests of the DFOS system for fault \\nmonitoring. We monitor the CO2 migration along/across the \\nshallow faults and examine the fault stability at the deep \\nfaults.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n230\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nMOSS ECO-X™\\nMoss Maritime | ECO Drilling Floaters (mossww.com)\\nThe Moss CS-series of semisubmersible catamaran \\nplatforms is one of the world’s most field-proven and \\nsuccessful platform designs for harsh environments, and \\nthe state-of-the-art ECO-X™ platform represents a quantum \\nleap in the direction of more sustainable drilling operations.\\nThe ECO-X™ is built with a focus on energy efficiency, \\nreduced emissions, and improved safety, making it an ideal \\nplatform for drilling carbon storage wells in environmentally \\nsensitive areas. The design features a state-of-the-art \\nhybrid power system, which combines diesel-electric \\nand battery power to reduce fuel consumption and CO2 \\nemissions. Additionally, the platform is equipped with a \\nhigh-performance drilling system and advanced safety and \\nautomation systems to ensure efficient and safe drilling \\noperations.\\nThe Moss CS has already been successfully utilized for \\nwell-drilling operations around the globe, demonstrating \\nits effectiveness and reliability. Its advanced design and \\ncapabilities make it an ideal platform for carbon storage \\nprojects worldwide, helping to mitigate climate change by \\nsafely and efficiently storing CO2 in geological formations.\\nDRILLING FLEET\\nSaipem owns and operates a world-class offshore drilling \\nfleet capable of conducting drilling operations in the most \\nchallenging conditions. The fleet includes several high-\\ntech and advanced drilling units, including the Moss CS \\nsemisubmersible catamaran platforms.  \\nSaipem’s offshore drilling fleet has the latest drilling \\ntechnology, ensuring clients receive safe, efficient \\nand reliable drilling services. The fleet is operated by \\nexperienced and highly skilled crews trained to handle the \\nmost complex drilling operations.\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nField-proven drilling capability in the harshest and deepest environments\\n•\\t\\nEnvironmentally sustainable drilling operations with the Moss CS ECO-X™ semi-sub catamaran platform\\n•\\t\\nEnd-to-end capabilities in CO2 storage projects\\n•\\t\\nSuccessful track record in both onshore and offshore\\nMOSS ECO-X™\\nSaipem is a global leader in the engineering, drilling \\nand construction of large projects for the energy and \\ninfrastructure sectors and provides a full range of net \\nzero-oriented services for its clients operating in both the \\nenergy transition and the offshore and onshore oil & gas \\nsectors. Saipem is highly specialized in carbon capture, \\ntransport, storage and utilization and has a proven track \\nrecord in successful CO2 projects. Saipem’s subsidiary \\nMoss Maritime has developed high-tech drilling units such \\nas the Moss CS semisubmersible catamaran platforms \\nperfectly designed for drilling operations of CO2 injection \\nwells. The company’s experience includes successful \\nonshore and offshore projects worldwide.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info.offshore.drilling@saipem.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.saipem.com\\nSAIPEM\\nSaipem Scarabeo 8, a last generation semisubmersible drilling rig\\nMoss ECO-X™\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n232\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nDESCRIPTION\\nCO2 SOLUTIONS BY SAIPEM TECHNOLOGY\\nCO2 Solutions by Saipem is a cutting-edge technology that \\nuses enzymatic carbon capture to capture carbon dioxide \\nemissions from industrial processes. The post-combustion \\ncapture process involves three columns, each with a \\nspecific role in capturing and separating CO2.\\n•\\t\\nQuench Tower: cools the flue gas, condenses much \\nof the water vapour and manages particulates and \\ncontaminants.\\n•\\t\\nAbsorber: captures the CO2 in the solvent at near \\natmospheric pressure.\\n•\\t\\nDesorber: releases the CO2 at high purity and \\nregenerates the solvent at low temperature.\\nEnzymes play a vital role as a catalyst in the CO2 capture \\nprocess. The enzyme used in the process is known as \\ncarbonic anhydrase, which accelerates the reaction \\nbetween CO2 and water to produce bicarbonate ions. The \\ncarbonate solvent used in the process is simply water, \\npotassium carbonate, and the enzyme. This solvent has \\nunique properties that make it ideal for post-combustion \\nCO2 capture. One of its most important characteristics is \\nits stability under oxidative conditions and in the presence \\nof flue gas contaminants, eliminating the production of \\ndegradation byproducts. Additionally, the non-volatile \\nsolvent is non-toxic, making it safer to handle and dispose \\nof than traditional amine-based solvents.\\nThe St-Félicien first-of-a-kind carbon capture plant in \\nQuebec, Canada, tested the CO2 Solutions by Saipem \\ntechnology. It captured over 90% of CO2 emissions \\nand confirmed the solvent’s remarkable stability and \\nlow-temperature \\nperformance. \\nThe \\nplant \\noperated \\neffectively under varying process conditions and flue gas \\ncompositions, thus proving the potential of the technology \\nto mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.\\nSaipem’s CO2 Solutions technology has potential \\napplications in various industries, including power \\ngeneration, cement production, steelmaking and other \\nhard-to-abate industries. By integrating with existing \\nindustrial processes, the technology can capture CO2 \\nemissions and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Heat \\nintegration with the host site can eliminate thermal energy \\ncosts and provide additional economic benefits. While \\nfurther development and improvements are possible, such \\nas increasing the scale of the process, the non-toxic and \\nnon-reactive nature of the enzyme and carbonate system \\nused in the process makes significant technological \\nimprovements challenging. The robustness and resilience \\nof the enzyme ensure the process’s stability and efficiency \\nover long periods.\\nBLUENZYME PRODUCTS\\nBluenzyme is a revolutionary product line developed by \\nSaipem that leverages the enzymatic carbon capture \\ntechnology of CO2 Solutions by Saipem. \\nSaipem’s modular design and fabrication expertise makes \\nBluenzyme products a cost-effective and ready-made \\nsolution for industrial clients. \\nThe benefits of modular design and fabrication include:\\n•\\t\\nReduced construction time and costs: modules \\nare built off-site in a controlled environment, with \\nstandardized fabrication processes and stringent \\nquality controls, reducing in-situ construction time and \\ncosts.\\n•\\t\\nReduced environmental impact: modular construction \\ngenerates less waste and is more energy-efficient than \\ntraditional stick-built methods.\\n•\\t\\nFlexibility: modular units can be easily integrated within \\nexisting facilities with a Plug & Play concept.\\n•\\t\\nImproved safety: modular construction reduces the \\nneed for on-site work and improves safety conditions \\nfor workers.\\nCombining the benefits of CO2 Solutions by Saipem \\ntechnology \\nwith \\nmodular \\ndesign \\nand \\nfabrication, \\nBluenzyme modular products offer a sustainable, cost-\\neffective, and ready-made solution for reducing carbon \\nemissions and improving operational efficiency. The \\ntechnology’s unique features, including enzymatic carbon \\ncapture and a stable, non-toxic and non-volatile carbonate \\nsolvent, make it a powerful and environmentally friendly \\nalternative to traditional carbon capture methods. \\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nNon-toxic, non-volatile and stable carbonate solvent reducing environmental impact\\n•\\t\\nSolvent regeneration with low-grade residual heat at 80°C significantly reducing or eliminating thermal heat costs and \\nproviding higher efficiency\\n•\\t\\nLow-complexity process with fewer pieces of equipment, leading to lower CAPEX and OPEX costs and easy operation\\n•\\t\\nElimination of operational and environmental risks associated with traditional amine-based solvents\\n•\\t\\nMore tolerant to SOx and NOx than traditional technologies.\\nCO2 SOLUTIONS BY SAIPEM\\nAre you seeking how to reduce your carbon footprint \\nwith low environmental impact and financial cost? CO2 \\nSolutions by Saipem technology into Bluenzyme modular \\nproducts is the answer. These solutions use advanced \\nenzymatic carbon capture technologies that catch CO2 \\nemissions from industrial processes, making them more \\nefficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly than \\ntraditional methods. With a stable, non-toxic carbonate \\nsolvent and enzymes as a catalyst, CO2 Solutions by \\nSaipem technology eliminates many risks associated \\nwith traditional carbon capture. Moreover, with Saipem’s \\nmodular design and fabrication expertise, Bluenzyme \\nready-made products are cost-effective and sustainable. \\nEnable your energy transition today with CO2 Solutions by \\nSaipem technology and Bluenzyme modular products.\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t info@CO2solutions.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.saipem.com/en/solutions/renewables/carbon-capture\\nSAIPEM\\nBLUENZYME PRODUCTS:\\n•\\t\\nModular design for various industrial applications, including oil and gas, petrochemicals, power production and hard-\\nto-abate sectors\\n•\\t\\nUtilization of CO2 Solutions by Saipemw technology for efficient and sustainable carbon capture\\n•\\t\\nReduced construction time and costs through modular fabrication\\n•\\t\\nImproved quality control and safety with standardized processes\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n234\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nFigure 2 – Bluenzyme products: Modular approach for quick execution\\nFigure 4 – Seamless Installation: The Bluenzyme modular unit – swift to deploy, exceptionally efficient, and environmentally \\nsustainable.\\nFigure 3 – Streamlined Efficiency: Bluenzyme 200, fully operational 18 months after order, features a 35m X 40m footprint inclusive of \\nstorage and E&I modules\\nFigure 1 – Industrially-proven CO2 Solutions by SAIPEM technology\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n236\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nBENEFITS\\n•\\t\\nCO2 reporting and accounting. Flow metering will become necessary for fiscal purposes, custody transfer and \\ncompliance with future regulatory measurements. SICK provides solid experience from thousands of custody transfer \\napplications with natural gas. This experience can be transferred for each step of the CCUS value chain to ensure \\naccurate flow measurement and precise reporting. \\n•\\t\\nProcess efficiency. Carbon capture processes require a high degree of efficiency to improve their economic and \\nenvironmental attractiveness. The measurement of CO2 content and the remaining components after the capture \\nprocess is essential for control and optimization purposes. SICK has more than 10 years of experience with pilot \\ninstallations.\\n•\\t\\nQuality control. Regardless of the destination of the captured CO2 (storage or utilization), it is important to control the \\nquality of the gas and possible impurities that can have a negative influence on the later steps of the CCUS network \\nand ensure protection of the environment.\\n•\\t\\nSICK LifeTime Services. SICK LifeTime Services is a comprehensive set of high-quality services provided to support \\nthe entire life cycle of products and applications from plant walk-through to upgrades. LifeTime Services range from \\nproduct-independent consulting to traditional product services.\\nGAS ANALYSIS AND FLOW METERING FOR CCUS\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t Aurelie.Moll@sick.de\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.sick.com\\nSICK\\nFrom factory automation to logistics automation and \\nprocess automation – SICK drives industries with sensors. \\nAs a technology and market leader, SICK provides sensors \\nand application solutions that create the perfect basis for \\ncontrolling processes securely and efficiently, protecting \\nindividuals from accidents, and preventing damage to the \\nenvironment.\\nFounded in 1946 by Dr.-Ing. h. c. Erwin Sick, the company \\nwith headquarters in Waldkirch, Germany ranks among \\nthe technological market leaders. With more than 50 \\nsubsidiaries and equity investments as well as numerous \\nagencies, SICK maintains a presence all around the \\nglobe. In the 2022 fiscal year, SICK had more than 11,900 \\nemployees worldwide and a group revenue of around EUR \\n2.2 billion.\\nSensor Intelligence. For all requirements.\\nWhen movement becomes collaboration, when industrial \\nsystems have to be flexible, and when clean solutions are \\nthe key, then customer can certainly benefit from SICK’s \\nmany years of experience. As an innovation leader and \\npioneer in the development of groundbreaking sensor \\ntechnology, we offer solutions that are already up to the \\nchallenges of the future today. With intelligent sensor \\ntechnology that collects data and evaluates it in real \\ntime, adapts to its environment and communicates in the \\nnetwork.\\nProcess Automation\\nSICK’s Process Automation division offers sensors \\nand tailored system solutions as well as services for \\nanalysis and process measurement technology. When \\nmeasuring emissions, they monitor the legally prescribed \\ngas components, accurately record dust and particle \\nemissions and measure volume throughput. The ultrasonic \\ntechnology by SICK is one of the leaders in the precise \\nflow measurement of natural gas in the pipeline distribution \\nnetwork as well as for process gases and steam. SICK’s \\nmeasurement technology solutions make a valuable \\ncontribution to resource-saving plant control in the primary \\nindustries.\\nSensor solutions for CCUS\\nSICK already has solutions to support the complete CCUS \\nvalue chain, when it comes to continuous gas analysis or \\nCO2 flow metering. \\nSICK creates innovations for a sustainable future!\\nWe create completely new solutions in co-creation with our partners. Taking years of experiences from emission \\nmonitoring and gas flow measurement to overcome the challenges of precise and continuous monitoring and \\ncontrol of CO2 value streams.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n238\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nReliable turnkey solution for CO2 metering\\nThe FLOWSKID flow metering system is a full gas flow \\nmetering system. It is provided by SICK as a turnkey \\nsolution for transfer applications. The system is flexible \\nin design and provides highly accurate measurement \\ndata. With FLOWSIC600 or FLOWSIC600-XT gas flow \\nmeters as the heart of the metering skid, system reliability \\ncan be assured. The metering skid can be customized \\nwith \\ninstrumentation \\nincluding \\ngas \\nanalysers, \\ngas \\nchromatographs, and supervisory computers – system \\nsolutions made by SICK! It is manufactured according to \\nISO standards and is of the highest quality in line with the \\nlatest DIN, ANSI, and ASME standards. This means the \\nsystem will fulfil local regulations and requirements. \\nSpace and protection for measurement and analysis \\ntechnology\\nContainer solutions are primarily used to protect the \\ninstalled \\nanalyser \\nsystems \\nfrom \\nextreme \\nambient \\nconditions such as heat, cold, dust, wind, earthquakes \\nand corrosive or explosive atmospheres. They also offer \\nadvantages for transport as well as on-site installation and \\nmaintenance. At the factory, everything is coordinated \\nand pre-installed in the container in a clear manner. Each \\ncontainer can be equipped to fit individual customer \\nrequirements. The installation of transformers and UPS, \\nextinguishing, climate and gas warning systems is possible, \\nas is the implementation of sample point switching or \\ncomplex redundancy and signal concepts.\\nDESCRIPTION\\nContinuous gas analysers for quality measurement and \\nreporting\\nCarbon capture processes produce a highly concentrated \\ngas with more than 90% CO2 by volume. On the other hand, \\nthere are the low carbon emissions to the environment, \\nwhich have to be reported for taxation purposes. The gas \\nmixtures contain other components that can be considered \\nimpurities, and which can be corrosive, and either have an \\ninfluence on downstream process steps or are harmful to \\nthe environment.\\nTo control and optimize the efficiency of processes and \\nemissions along the CCUS value chain, SICK continuous \\ngas analysers accurately measure the concentrations in \\nCO2 and other components in the gas mixture. Together \\nwith SICK’s precise gas flow measurement, a true mass \\nflow output is also available. Such measurements are \\nessential prior to transportation, storage or utilization of \\nCO2. \\nDepending on the application, SICK can offer different \\nmeasuring technologies, including: \\n•\\t\\nIn-situ gas analysers accurately measuring CO2 \\ndirectly in the gas flow without gas sampling. The \\nreliability, precision and short response time offer key \\nadvantages for efficient process control.\\n•\\t\\nExtractive analysers from SICK ensure continuous \\nmonitoring of multiple components simultaneously \\nsuch as CO2, H2O, HCl, SO2, CO, NOx, NH3 and \\nO2 with high accuracy to control and optimize the \\nCCUS processes.  The most suitable analyser can be \\nselected depending on the application, the measuring \\nconditions, and the requested measuring parameters.\\nGas flow measurement for transfer and process \\napplications\\nCarbon dioxide can be captured from different emission \\nsources and then collected and transported via pipelines \\nor ships for further handling steps such as storage or \\nutilization. Gas flow measurements are necessary at each \\ntransfer point to control the quantity of captured CO2 or the \\nvolume stored or transferred. \\nAccurate gas metering allows for precise accounting to \\ncompanies or calculation of CO2 taxes and credits based \\non regulations. With our experience in custody transfer \\napplications for natural gas which can be easily transferred \\nto CO2 and our highly reliable ultrasonic gas flow meters, \\nSICK provides the precise data required to operate the \\nCCUS value chain. The FLOWSIC600/-XT gas flow meters \\ndeliver optimal measurement performance and provide \\nthe highest rated gas metering accuracy. Thanks to \\nPowerIn Technology™, the FLOWSIC600-XT also ensures \\nthat measurements continue to be taken and data is \\nstored even in the event of a power failure. The rugged \\ndesign provides both the fault-free and maintenance free \\nsystems. Due to the direct path layout, the signals are not \\nreflected inside the device and are thus not affected by \\ncontamination. This results in long-term system stability \\nand accuracy.\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n240\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nSUMMARY\\nNAME OF TECHNOLOGY SERVICE PROVIDER\\nCONTACT\\nEmail: \\t ccus@slb.com\\nWeb: \\t\\nwww.ccus.slb.com\\nSLB\\nCarbon capture and storage (CCS) is a critical component \\nof advancing decarbonization and achieving the Paris \\nAgreement’s climate change goals. As a technology \\nleader in CCS and in the development of decarbonization \\nand alternative energy solutions, SLB is actively \\nprogressing CCS technologies and business models to \\nenable widespread adoption of CCS. \\nWhat SLB brings to achieve these goals is more than \\n90 years of experience in characterizing and modelling \\nunderground rock formations and in designing and \\nconstructing wells. SLB’s acquisition of Cameron in 2016 \\nadded a rich legacy in gas processing and pressure control \\nequipment. For decades, we have been deploying digital \\ntools and sophisticated sensors to improve operations, \\nminimize risk, and monitor assets, including the use of \\nautomation, artificial intelligence, and comprehensive data \\nmanagement.\\nWe applied this know-how to become an early technology \\nleader in carbon capture for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) \\napplications. Thirty-five years ago, we helped build the \\nworld’s first commercial CO2 plant at the SACROC Field in \\nWest Texas. \\nFor over two decades, SLB has participated in more than \\n120 CCS projects around the globe, in different geological \\ncontexts and for various industry sectors. This hands-on \\nexperience, combined with our technology leadership, \\ngives us unique insights into the varied complexities \\nposed by CO2 sequestration. In order to overcome these \\nchallenges, we have united the diverse disciplines of \\ngeoscience and engineering to develop innovative, \\nintegrated end-to-end processes that enable us to deliver \\nsequestration projects anywhere in the world. \\nSLB has explored creating strategic partnerships with \\nemitters to assess, develop, and operate projects spanning \\nthe entire CCS value chain, from capture to storage. \\nThe scope of collaboration goes beyond subsurface \\nrequirements and includes project economics, technology \\nselection, business models, and permitting for a CCS \\nproject. By partnering with leaders in a range of strategic \\nsectors, we are demonstrating viable and scalable CCS \\nsolutions across a wide range of industries. For example, \\nwe are exploring with Lafarge Holcim the feasibility of \\ncapturing carbon emissions from cement plants. \\nIn addition to our deep expertise, technological leadership, \\nand experience in creating viable CCS solutions, SLB is \\nuniquely positioned to help scale up the manufacturing \\nof CCS technologies. We are leveraging our more than \\n80 technology centres and extensive manufacturing \\ncapabilities around the world to industrialize and deploy \\nCCS technologies globally. \\nSLB is developing, adapting, and applying innovative \\ntechnologies in scalable business models to provide \\nour customers and partners with economically viable \\nsolutions across the CCS value chain. In this “State of the \\nArt: CCS Technologies 2023” report, we highlight some of \\nthe advanced technologies in our portfolio that significantly \\nsupport the CCS industry today, organized into three \\nsections:\\n•\\t\\nCapture, Gas Processing, and Transport\\n•\\t\\nStorage Selection, Design, and Construction\\n•\\t\\nStorage Monitoring, Verification, and Reporting.\\nCAPTURE, GAS PROCESSING, AND TRANSPORT\\nHighlighted Technologies and Services in our Portfolio\\nCapture and gas processing technologies\\n•\\t\\nSymmetry process software platform, available in our \\nDELFI cognitive E&P environment\\n•\\t\\nCYNARA acid gas removal membrane system\\n•\\t\\nAmine gas treating systems\\n•\\t\\nSULFATREAT H2S removal adsorbent\\n•\\t\\nProcess Live data-enriched performance service\\nTransport technologies\\n•\\t\\nOLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator, available in \\nour DELFI environment \\n•\\t\\nHorizontal pumping systems for pressure boosting \\nduring transport\\n•\\t\\nLow-emission valves\\nOur Symmetry process software platform enables the \\ndesign and simulation of CO2 capture process workflows \\nin one environment that integrates pipelines, capture and \\ncompression facilities, and safety models while ensuring \\nconsistent thermodynamics and fluid characterization \\nacross the full system. The use of the Symmetry platform \\nin several CCS projects in Canada was key in rightsizing \\nthe process design and accurately modelling the phase \\nenvelope and control system integration. For each \\nproject, the Symmetry platform identified operational \\nimprovements \\nand \\nminimized \\nhealth, \\nsafety, \\nand \\nenvironment (HSE) risks.\\nThe choice of capture technology depends on the purity of \\nthe CO2 stream and whether capture is pre-, post-, or oxy-\\ncombustion. Comprehensive evaluation of these options in \\nthe Symmetry platform can achieve the optimum system in \\nterms of both technical and economic feasibility.\\nOnce CO2 is captured, a variety of treatment technologies \\nmay be needed. SLB offers both membrane systems and \\namine gas treatment systems in a range of designs and \\nsizes to meet specific project requirements. The CYNARA \\nacid gas removal membrane system works to separate \\nCO2 and H2S from natural gas via preferential permeation \\nof the smaller acid gas molecules. The separated CO2 can \\nbe transported and sequestered at a selected storage site.\\nMonitoring valves and gas membrane systems with \\nProcess Live data-enriched performance service provides \\nreal-time status reports of performance and automates \\nevent detection. These insights mitigate the risk of \\ndowntime and reduce inventory costs. Using Process Live \\nservice, we currently are providing uptime assurance and \\ntreatment optimization of 4.92 Mtpa CO2.\\nThe OLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator models \\nand simulates the transportation of CO2 from capture to \\ninjection. This enables a comprehensive understanding of \\noptimal operating conditions to ensure that CO2 remains in \\nphase.\\nWhen transporting CO2 between facilities, horizontal \\npumping systems provide the necessary pressure boost \\nto maintain it in a fluid state. SLB has more than 15 years \\nof experience with a wide variety of CO2 transport \\noperations. We understand how the selection of \\nappropriate seals, valves, production chemicals, and \\nmaintenance schedules plays a critical role in equipment \\nlongevity and operational safety.\\nTo date, SLB has installed thousands of industrial valves \\nin various CO2 and gas processing applications. In \\naddition to enabling remote operation, these low-emission \\nvalves incorporate custom seals that reinforce their \\noperational integrity. Some of the valves in this portfolio are \\nmanufactured to minimize leaks across the life of the valve.\\nTo reduce maintenance downtime, our production \\nchemistry technologies address specific problems of \\ncorrosion and hydrate formation.\\nSTORAGE SELECTION, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION\\nSLB has developed a wide range of risk assessment \\nmethods for screening geological formations and for \\nidentifying the most suitable site by conducting site \\ncharacterization assessments. This in-depth assessment \\nand evaluation of key criteria (such as storage capacity, \\ninjectivity, and containment) enables our customers to \\nminimize cost while ensuring secure long-term CO2 \\nstorage. \\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n242\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nIntegral to our involvement in CCS projects is our more \\nthan 35 years of petrotechnical software development \\nexperience paired with deep domain knowledge. End-\\nto-end digital technologies harness this experience and \\nexpertise to drive workflows that screen, rank, design, \\nmodel, simulate, and analyse every phase of the CCS \\nproject’s life cycle.\\nBy conducting the workflows within the DELFI cognitive \\nexploration and production (E&P) environment, we leverage \\nartificial intelligence and machine learning. For example, \\nthe interpretation workflows used to build a model of a \\nstorage site benefits from a 10× to 20× acceleration in \\nworkflow time by employing machine learning. Reservoir \\nsimulations benefit from high performance computing \\ncapabilities that reduce simulation time so that the \\nengineers can focus on analysing results and exploring \\nthe full uncertainty space. The DELFI environment was \\nrecently selected by the Northern Lights joint venture \\nbetween Equinor, Shell, and TotalEnergies to streamline \\nsubsurface workflows and longer-term modelling and \\nsurveillance of CO2 sequestration.\\nOnce the storage site has been selected and the project \\ncommissioned, we leverage our decades of expertise \\nin well construction to optimize construction operations, \\nincluding the selection and installation of monitoring \\nmethods. \\nWell integrity has been identified as the biggest risk \\ncontributing to leakage of CO2 from underground carbon \\nstorage sites. EverCRETE CO2-resistant cement system \\nenables more efficient and secure underground storage \\ncompared with ordinary Portland cement. Whereas \\nordinary Portland cement is not resistant to CO2 fluids and \\ncan degrade in a few weeks or less, the reaction between \\nCO2 fluids and the EverCRETE system results in a stable \\nstructure after two weeks, and mechanical and chemical \\nproperties are no longer affected.\\nSLB designs and manufactures specialized wellheads, \\nseals, and gate valves for achieving permanent \\nunderground sequestration of CO2. Our corrosion-\\nresistant equipment is constructed with a customized \\ncoating to withstand aggressive environments under any \\ntemperature conditions. The metal and elastomer seals \\nused in these wellhead systems are proved to endure \\ndemanding \\npressures, \\ntemperatures, \\nand \\ncorrosive \\nenvironments.\\nSTORAGE MONITORING, VERIFICATION, AND \\nREPORTING\\nSecuring CO2 storage and containment over long periods \\nof time requires properly monitoring the CO2 plume and \\nintegrity of the wells. A cost-effective combination of \\nsensors and monitoring protocols can deliver optimum \\nperformance control and risk management in compliance \\nwith regulatory requirements.\\nMonitoring strategy design must address\\n•\\t\\nwhat is to be monitored \\n•\\t\\nwhat are the property variations\\n•\\t\\nhow will those variations occur\\nFor a monitoring strategy to meet its objectives in terms \\nof assurance, verification, and cost optimization, a holistic \\nsolution design and modelling workflow is required. \\nCritical to the success of the monitoring strategy design \\nis the incorporation of dynamic geomechanical modelling, \\nsuch as using our ECLIPSE, INTERSECT, and VISAGE \\nsimulators, for predicting subsurface behaviour and \\nidentifying the key parameters and their uncertainties. \\nThis informs the design and planning of appropriate \\ngeophysical measurements. A successful monitoring \\nstrategy is able to history match the dynamic modelling \\nagainst field observation to identify anomalies and \\nupdate the subsurface model, monitoring strategy, and \\nrisk model accordingly in real time.\\nUpdating models requires timely measurements, for which \\na primary objective is to minimize data acquisition time and \\neffort without adversely affecting interpretation quality. \\nOur versatile and highly sensitive distributed fibre-optic \\nsensing technology plays a significant role in achieving \\nthis balance by providing continuous data in both time \\nand space. Optiq fiber-optic solutions bring multidomain \\ndistributed sensing capabilities to CCS projects for \\nsignificant \\nefficiency \\nimprovements \\nin \\ntime-lapse \\nreservoir monitoring through permanent fibre installation \\nor temporarily deployed fibre wireline cables.\\nIn a 2016 project with the US Department of Energy and \\nArcher Daniels Midland Company (ADM), we installed \\nmodular intelligent completion equipment and Optiq \\nsolutions to enable real-time monitoring and control of the \\nsubsurface storage. Together, we captured from ADM’s \\nethanol facility more than 2.5 Mt CO2 over a period of three \\nyears.  \\nHighlighted Technologies and Services in our Portfolio\\nSite selection and design digital tools, available in our \\nDELFI cognitive E&P environment \\n•\\t\\nOLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator \\n•\\t\\nPetrel E&P software platform\\n•\\t\\nECLIPSE industry reference reservoir simulator\\n•\\t\\nINTERSECT high-resolution reservoir simulator\\n•\\t\\nVISAGE finite-element geomechanics simulator\\n•\\t\\nSymmetry process software platform, available in our \\nDELFI environment\\nFormation evaluation technologies \\n•\\t\\nLitho Scanner high-definition spectroscopy and \\nlaboratory \\nservices \\nfor \\nX-ray \\ndiffraction, \\nX-ray \\nfluorescence, \\nand \\nFourier \\ntransform \\ninfrared \\nspectroscopy\\n•\\t\\nMR Scanner expert magnetic resonance and CMR-\\nMagniPHI high-definition NMR service; triple-combo \\nmeasurements for porosity, permeability, and capillary \\npressure; and laboratory services for routine and \\nspecial core analysis, tight rock analysis, and mercury-\\ninjection capillary pressure measurement\\n•\\t\\nFMI-HD high-definition formation microimager, Quanta \\nGeo photorealistic reservoir geology service, and \\nlaboratory services for whole core description, core \\nfracture description, and goniometry\\n•\\t\\nSonic Scanner acoustic scanning platform, MDT \\nmodular formation dynamics tester minifrac, XL-\\nRock large-volume rotary sidewall coring service, \\nand laboratory services for unconfined compressive \\nstrength, triaxial stress testing, and pore volume \\ncompressibility\\n•\\t\\nMDT modular formation dynamics tester, Ora intelligent \\nwireline formation testing platform, and laboratory \\nservices for water analysis\\n•\\t\\nPressureXpress \\nreservoir \\npressure-while-logging \\nservice\\n•\\t\\nCoreFlow digital rock and fluid analytics services\\n•\\t\\nHigh-resolution well testing services\\nWell construction technologies\\n•\\t\\nDrillPlan coherent well construction planning solution\\n•\\t\\nEverCRETE CO2-resistant cement system\\n•\\t\\nWellhead equipment: compact wellheads, monoblock \\nChristmas trees, coated FLS extreme-service API 6A \\nslab-style gate valves, elastomer seals, metal-to-metal \\nseals, MRD recessed-bore metal-to-metal seals\\nWell integrity technologies\\n•\\t\\nWellbarrier well integrity life cycle solution\\n•\\t\\nIsolation Scanner cement evaluation service\\n•\\t\\nPS Platform production services platform multifinger \\nimaging tool (PMIT)\\n•\\t\\nSlim cement mapping tool (SCMT)\\n•\\t\\nUCI ultrasonic casing imager, USI ultrasonic imager, \\nand PowerEcho and PowerFlex annular barrier \\nevaluation services\\n•\\t\\nEM Pipe Scanner electromagnetic casing inspection \\ntool\\nMonitoring, verification and reporting technologies\\n•\\t\\nOptiq SLB fiber-optic solutions\\n•\\t\\nPulsar multifunction pulsed neutron service and CHFR \\ncased hole formation resistivity tool\\n•\\t\\nOptiq StreamLINE polymer-locked fiber-optic wireline \\nconveyance\\n•\\t\\nPermanent gauges and pressure falloff (PFO) testing\\n•\\t\\nIsolation Scanner cement evaluation service and UCI \\nultrasonic casing imager\\nSLB as a Partner\\nYour company does not have to embark on its CCUS \\njourney alone. SLB is a global technology company with \\nthe reach and resources to support your company’s CCUS \\ninitiatives. Whether you require assistance evaluating \\nthe feasibility of your assets for carbon storage, services \\nfor CCUS well design, engineering and construction,or \\ndiscrete CCUS technologies for your CCUS well \\nconstruction, monitoring, measurement, or verification \\nrequirements,SLB has the technologies and services your \\nCCUS project requires.\\nCHFR, CMR-MagniPHI, CoreFlow, CYNARA, DELFI, DrillPlan, \\nECLIPSE, EM Pipe Scanner, EverCRETE, FLS, FMI-HD, INTERSECT, \\nIsolation Scanner, Litho Scanner, MDT, MRD, MR Scanner, OLGA, \\nOptiq, Optiq Seismic, Optiq StreamLINE, Ora, Petrel, PowerEcho, \\nPowerFlex, PressureXpress, Process Live, PS Platform, Pulsar, \\nQuanta Geo, Sonic Scanner, Symmetry, SULFATREAT, UCI, USI, \\nVISAGE, Wellbarrier, WellWatcher PS3, and XL-Rock are marks of \\nSLB or a SLB company. \\nIllustration of the Northern Lights CCS project (Courtesy of \\nEquinor)\\nADM Overhead View\\n\\n\\nSTATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023\\n244\\nBACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nAMERICAS \\nWashington DC, United States\\namericasoffice@globalccsinstitute.com\\nAUSTRALIA\\nMelbourne, Australia\\ninfo@globalccsinstitute.com\\nCHINA\\nBeijing, China \\nchinaoffice@globalccsinstitute.com\\nEUROPE\\nBrussels, Belgium\\neuropeoffice@globalccsinstitute.com\\nJAPAN\\nTokyo, Japan\\njapanoffice@globalccsinstitute.com \\nMIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA\\nAbu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates\\nmenaregion@globalccsinstitute.com\\nUNITED KINGDOM \\nLondon, United Kingdom\\nukoffice@globalccsinstitute.com\\n \\nGET IN TOUCH\\nTo find out more about the Global CCS Institute including Membership and our Consultancy services, visit \\nglobalccsinstitute.com or contact us.\",\"difficulty\":\"hard\",\"domain\":\"Multi-Document QA\",\"length\":\"long\",\"question\":\"A developing African nation, rich in fossil fuel resources and dependent on their export for over 60% of its GDP, aims to meet its 2050 carbon-neutrality pledge. The country faces significant challenges, including limited fiscal space, an underdeveloped transport infrastructure, and a workforce heavily reliant on fossil fuel industries. To meet its sustainability targets, the government is considering integrating both Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies and transportation decarbonisation strategies. However, the country must balance its short-term economic stability with long-term sustainability and avoid the risk of stranded assets in fossil fuel industries.\\n\\nGiven the technological advancements in CCS and the financial and infrastructural constraints around transport decarbonisation, which of the following integrated policy strategies would best support this country in balancing economic growth, job security, and decarbonisation?\",\"sub_domain\":\"Financial\"}","display_format":"text","language":"","answer_status":"published","assets":[],"source_url":"https://huggingface.co/datasets/zai-org/LongBench-v2","history":"initial import","indexing_mode":"noindex","subproblems":[],"grids":[]}