LongBench v2 / 66fa0d88bb02136c067c5a8a / A developing African nation, rich in fossil fuel resources and dependent on…

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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CASE STUDIES.......................................................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES	������...............................................................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES	���..............................................................................................................................................................viii
FOREWORD	������������................................................................................................................................................................ix
ABOUT THE STUDY................................................................................................................................................................x
ABOUT THE NETWORK OF AFRICAN SCIENCE ACADEMIES.
.........................................................................xiii
ABOUT THE INTERACADEMY PARTNERSHIP.
.........................................................................................................xiii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.
.....................................................................................................................................................xiv
COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................................xxiii
GLOSSARY OF TERMS.....................................................................................................................................................xxiv
CHAPTER ONE:
DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
	
1.1	
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................1
	
1.2	
Current Status of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa.
..............................................................................6
	
1.3	
Strategies for Decarbonising Road Transport..................................................................................................8
	
1.4	
The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience Approach to Decarbonisation of Transport.
......................9
	
1.5	
Benefits of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa.
......................................................................................12
	
	
1.5.1	
Environmental Benefits.
....................................................................................................................12
	
	
1.5.2	
Economic Benefits.
............................................................................................................................12
	
	
1.5.3	
Social Benefits....................................................................................................................................13
	
1.6	
Challenges in the Transition to Decarbonised Transportation.
..................................................................14
	
	
1.6.1	
Systemic Barriers.
...............................................................................................................................14
	
	
1.6.2	
Electricity Supply and Infrastructure.
..............................................................................................14
	
	
1.6.3	
High Cost and Accessibility of Electric Vehicles..........................................................................15
	
	
1.6.4	
Insufficient Policy Frameworks and Incentives.............................................................................15
	
	
1.6.5	
Workforce and Industry....................................................................................................................15
	
	
1.6.6	
Underinvestment in Public and Active Transport........................................................................15
	
	
1.6.7	
Poor Coordination and Non-inclusivity.........................................................................................16
CHAPTER TWO:
ACCELERATING DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN AFRICA
	
2.1	
Policies and Regulations....................................................................................................................................17
	
2.2	
Policy Instruments...............................................................................................................................................20
	
	
2.2.1	
Market-Based Instruments...............................................................................................................20
	
	
2.2.2	
Regulatory Instruments.
....................................................................................................................20
	
	
2.2.3	
Direct Provision.
..................................................................................................................................21


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2.2.4	
Information Provision........................................................................................................................21
	
2.3	
Business Models and Solutions.
.......................................................................................................................22
	
	
2.3.1	
Local Assembly and Manufacturing.
..............................................................................................22
	
	
2.3.2	
Auto Parts Manufacturing.
................................................................................................................25
	
	
2.3.3	
Battery Swapping Stations...............................................................................................................26
	
	
2.3.4	
Localised Battery Storage.
................................................................................................................27
	
	
2.3.5	
Pay-As-You-Go Charging.
.................................................................................................................28
	
	
2.3.6	
Solar Charging Stations....................................................................................................................28
	
	
2.3.7	
Vehicle-to-Grid...................................................................................................................................29
	
	
2.3.8	
Battery Recycling.
...............................................................................................................................30
	
	
2.3.9	
Conversion of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles to Electric.
.............................................31
	
2.4	
Data-Driven Decision Making.
..........................................................................................................................34
	
2.5	
Findings and Recommendations.
....................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER THREE:
SAFEGUARDING VULNERABLE ELECTRICITY GRIDS: ACCESSIBILITY, GENERATION,
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
	
3.1	
Current State and Challenges of Electricity in Africa.
...................................................................................38
	
3.2	
State of the Electrical Grid and Potential Burden from Electric Vehicles.
.................................................39
	
3.3	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity Distribution System..........................................41
	
3.4	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity Transmission System........................................41
	
3.5	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity Generation................................................................42
	
3.6	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity Accessibility.
..............................................................42
	
3.7	
Findings and Recommendations.
....................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER FOUR:
DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION
IN AFRICA
	
4.1	
Defining Sustainable Transportation...............................................................................................................44
	
4.2	
Decarbonisation of Transport and Sustainable Development Goals in Africa.......................................45
	
4.3	
Sustainable Urban Transport Development..................................................................................................47
	
4.4	
Smart Cities and Intelligent Transport Systems.............................................................................................47
	
4.5	
Compact Land Use and Transit-Oriented Development............................................................................49
	
4.6	
Mass Rapid Transit.
..............................................................................................................................................49
	
4.7	
Integrated Urban Planning and Policy Making.
.............................................................................................57
	
4.8	
Rural-Urban Connectivity.
..................................................................................................................................58
	
4.9	
Finding and Recommendation........................................................................................................................61
CHAPTER FIVE:
POLICY OPTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
	
5.1	
Disrupting Dominant Regimes in the Transport Sector.
..............................................................................62
	
5.2	
Promotion of Electric Vehicles..........................................................................................................................64
	
5.3	
Cost-Benefit analysis of Electric Vehicles Compared to Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles.........64
	
5.4	
Minimising Tax Revenue Losses.......................................................................................................................68
	
5.5	
Transport Sector Governance, Institutional Framework and Policy Ownership.....................................69


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
	
5.6	
Investments in Public Transport.
.......................................................................................................................70
	
5.7	
Investments in Renewable Energy.
..................................................................................................................71
	
5.8	
Promote Non-Motorised Transport.................................................................................................................72
	
5.9	
Technology, and Innovations for Sustainable Mobility................................................................................75
	
5.10	 Transition Principles............................................................................................................................................77
	
5.11	 Sustainable Electric Vehicle Supply and Value Chains................................................................................79
	
5.12	 Environmental and Social Impacts of Electric Vehicles...............................................................................80
	
5.13	 Financing Decarbonisation of Road Transport in Africa.
.............................................................................81
	
	
5.13.1	 Concessional Climate Finance.
.......................................................................................................81
	
	
5.13.2	 Grants and Subsidies........................................................................................................................83
	
	
5.13.3	 Carbon Markets.
.................................................................................................................................83
	
5.14	 Findings and Recommendations.
....................................................................................................................84
CHAPTER SIX:
CONCLUSION	
���������..............................................................................................................................................................86
REFERENCES	����������..............................................................................................................................................................88
Appendices
Appendix A:
	
National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicles in select African countries by 2030........................101
Appendix B:
	
Guest Practitioners at Working Group workshop in Nairobi, Kenya and list of presentations.......................102
LIST OF CASE STUDIES
Case Study 1: BasiGo —pioneering electric public transportation in Nairobi, Kenya..............................................23
Case Study 2: Electrifying paratransit vehicles in Stellenbosch, South Africa...........................................................32
Case Study 3: Implementing net zero transport in Kigali, Rwanda.............................................................................50
Case Study 4: Light rail train in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
.................................................................................................52
Case Study 5: Electric mass rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal.
.........................................................................................55
Case Study 6: Enhancing the walking environment in Kisumu, Kenya.
......................................................................60
Case Study 7: Roam, electrifying motorcycles in Africa.
................................................................................................76
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Transport-sector emissions reduction targets of select African countries:.
....................................................7
Table 2: The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience framework and its application to sustainable transport
	
in Africa	������������������...............................................................................................................................................................10
Table 3: Simulation of electric vehicle energy consumption.........................................................................................36
Table 4: Projected electric vehicle power system impacts in African countries.
........................................................40
Table 5: Contribution of decarbonised transport towards select sustainable development goals......................46
Table 6: Comparing cost elements for electric and internal combustion engine vehicles in Thailand................65
Table 7: National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicle adoption in select African countries by 2030.
.....66
Table 8: Comparing cost elements for electric vs fossil fueled motorbike.................................................................67
LIST OF Boxes 
BOX 1: Questions that framed the study on decarbonisation in Africa.
........................................................................xi


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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1: Global transport emissions by region (1990–2020)..........................................................................................2
Figure 2: Transport sector emissions in select African countries.....................................................................................3
Figure 3: Mode of transport in selected African cities (2013)..........................................................................................3
Figure 4: Popular paratransit vehicles in Africa and their names.....................................................................................4
Figure 5: Motorcycles in the streets of Kigali, Rwanda......................................................................................................5
Figure 6: Transport sector GHG emissions mitigation and adaptation actions............................................................6
Figure 7: Mitigation actions by enable-avoid-shift-improve approach.......................................................................11
Figure 8: BasiGo bus in Nairobi, Kenya.............................................................................................................................23
Figure 9: Local manufacturing of electric buses in Nairobi, Kenya..............................................................................24
Figure 10: Two- and three-wheelers in Mombasa, Kenya.
.............................................................................................24
Figure 11: Key components of an electric vehicle..........................................................................................................25
Figure 12: Ampersand’s electric vehicle battery swapping station in Kigali, Rwanda.............................................26
Figure 13: Trailer-based battery swapping model for long-distance transport........................................................27
Figure 14: Example of a battery bank used to charge electric vehicles in Berlin.
.....................................................27
Figure 15: Electric vehicle roaming.
...................................................................................................................................28
Figure 16: Solar powered charging station for electric vehicles in Kigali, Rwanda..................................................29
Figure 17: Electric vehicle with solar charging components........................................................................................29
Figure 18: Illustration of the vehicle to grid concept......................................................................................................30
Figure 19: The electric retrofitted minibus taxi (original model from 2009)..............................................................32
Figure 20: Vehicle with combustion-related components removed.
..........................................................................33
Figure 21: Comparison of per-vehicle power profiles from passenger-based tracking.........................................34
Figure 22: Comparing energy efficiency models in paratransit vehicles...................................................................35
Figure 23: Access to electricity in Africa as a share of population in 2020.
................................................................39
Figure 24: Linking transport to sustainable development goals.
.................................................................................45
Figure 25: Integrated intelligent transport system in smart cities................................................................................48
Figure 26: Car free day exercise in Kigali, Rwanda.........................................................................................................50
Figure 27: Impact of limiting vehicular traffic on air pollution in Kigali, Rwanda......................................................50
Figure 28: Light rail system in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia....................................................................................................52
Figure 29: Dar rapid transit system, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.......................................................................................53
Figure 30: Electric-powered bus rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal.................................................................................55
Figure 31: Dedicated bus rapid transit lane in Dakar, Senegal....................................................................................56
Figure 32: Motorcycles navigating diverse rural terrain in Africa.
................................................................................59
Figure 33: Artist’s impression of a pedestrian friendly transportation terminus in Kisumu, Kenya.......................60
Figure 34: Example of a microcar.
......................................................................................................................................61
Figure 35: The multi-level perspective framework for complex sustainability transitions.
......................................63
Figure 36: Modes of transport used in Nairobi, Kenya..................................................................................................72
Figure 37: Pedestrian footpath in Nairobi, Kenya.
...........................................................................................................73
Figure 38: Non-motorised policies in African countries................................................................................................74
Figure 39: A motorcycle rider charging his own battery at a Roam hub....................................................................76
Figure 40: Cost of implementing Nationally Determined Contributions in Africa (2020–2030), USD billions.......82


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Globally, transportation contributes about a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions. 
While major carbon-emitting economies receive much attention, Africa offers a unique 
opportunity to explore reduction strategies. Despite low motorisation rates, the continent 
could emerge as a leader in decarbonising transport. Shifting away from fossil fuels 
offers economic, environmental, health, and infrastructural advantages. Africa’s abundant 
renewable energy and youthful workforce make electrifying transport promising. Though 
some governments have taken steps to reduce fossil fuel use, coordinated efforts are 
needed to secure the continent’s energy future. This entails policies and transport plans that 
promote sustainable mobility, including by promoting affordable electric vehicles, reliable 
electricity, and supportive infrastructure in urban and rural areas. This report aligns with the 
African Union’s Agenda 2063, which envisions an energy system powered predominantly 
by renewable sources, bolstered by a robust local manufacturing sector. It also supports 
Sustainable Development Goal 7 of the United Nations’ Agenda 2030, which seeks to 
guarantee universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy.
This report focuses on the role of road transportation in reducing GHG emissions in Africa. It 
examines the broad spectrum of challenges and opportunities, covering policy, institutional 
capacity, strategic and technological considerations, financial and social factors, and legal 
and regulatory frameworks. Most importantly, the report provides a perspective on how 
policymakers and key stakeholders can effectively navigate and manage the complex 
transition towards a net zero-carbon transport system in Africa. The genesis of this report 
was a collaborative effort involving the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) 
and the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP). It builds upon previous work by the European 
Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC), published in 2019 and a 2021 workshop co-
organised by NASAC and IAP
.  The study aimed to leverage current research to harmonise 
transport decarbonisation policies across Africa, identify knowledge gaps, and suggest 
practical policy measures at local, national, and regional levels. Through rigorous analysis 
of the continent’s potential, real, and exigent demand for transport, the report postulates 
findings and recommendations that acknowledge the diverse and complex landscape 
of the continent. It underscores the necessity for customised strategies in decarbonising 
transport, which may vary significantly by country, based on national circumstances.
We extend our deepest gratitude to all contributors, especially the dedicated working group 
members whose innovative approaches helped achieve the report’s goals. We also thank 
the peer reviewers for their invaluable feedback, which ensured the recommendations 
were merit-based and scientifically sound. Special thanks to the staff of the NASAC and 
IAP secretariats, whose dedication made this report possible, and to the ClimateWorks 
Foundation and the African Climate Foundation for their financial support. Thank you very 
much!
	
Prof. Mahouton Norbert	
Dr. Margaret Hamburg	
Prof. Masresha Fetene
	
Hounkonnou	
Co-President, IAP	
Co-President, IAP
	
President, NASAC
FOREWORD


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This study aims to assess the challenges and opportunities for the decarbonisation 
of transport in Africa by addressing cross-cutting issues of policies, institutional and 
technical capacity, strategies, technologies, financing, and social considerations as well 
as legal and regulatory frameworks. It was carried out collaboratively by the Network of 
African Scientific Academies (NASAC) and the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) with the 
sponsorship of the Climate Works Foundation and the African Climate Foundation. The 
study emerged out of a November 2021 workshop organised jointly by IAP and NASAC 
and builds on other studies focused on issues related to decarbonisation of transport in 
Africa.
The questions that frame this report are shown in Box 1. Except for question (7), which 
relates to transportation during the COVID-19 pandemic and had become irrelevant by 
the time of the writing of this report, these framing questions are addressed in Chapters 
2 to 5 of this report.
BOX  1: Questions that framed the study on decarbonisation of transport in Africa
1. How can governments in Africa harness the economic, environmental, and social 
benefits of decarbonisation of transport?
2.
What would it take to accelerate electric vehicle adoption consistent with 
national climate goals? Will other forms of low carbon fuels and fuel efficiency 
play a significant role?
3. How can planning and urban design help drive transformation of the transport 
sector?
4. What are the best solutions for rural areas, and for maintaining rural-urban 
connectivity in an environmentally sustainable manner?
5. What lessons can be learnt and adopted/scaled-up from regional and global 
best practices?
6. How can non-motorised transport be further utilised?
7. Which transport reforms could COVID-19 help accelerate?
8. How can informal bus networks and local rideshare apps be incentivised to use 
electric vehicles? How can digitisation help support this transformation?
9. How can legal and regulatory mechanisms promote investment in low-carbon 
transport?
10. How can opportunities for local vehicle manufacturing support a long-term 
vision for sustainable transportation?
The study builds on the success of a similar project by IAP’s European Academy Network 
 
(EASAC, 2019) and is therefore the second of IAP’s regional reports on the topic. Funding 
permitting, regional reports would be produced in a similar manner for the Americas and 
ABOUT THE STUDY 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Asia by IAP’s constituent regional networks for those regions, namely, the InterAmerican 
Network of Academies of Science (IANAS) and Association of Academies and Societies 
of Science in Asia (AASSA). If funds are available, the project will culminate in an over-
arching global report and a final workshop to review the similarities and differences 
among the four regions.
Working Group Members and Project Secretariat Profiles
1.	 Prof. Kouzou Abdallah, (Working Group Chair) is full professor at Djelfa University, 
Algeria, head of the research team on Power Electronics and Power Quality, 
collaborator researcher and member of the Smart Grid Center at Texas A&M in Doha, 
Qatar (SGC-Q).
2.	 Prof. Thinus Booysen is professor and the Chair of the Internet of Things at the Faculty 
of Engineering at Stellenbosch University, South Africa. He is the Director of the MTN 
Mobile Intelligence Lab and a partner in the Stellenbosch Smart Mobility Lab.
3.	 Dr. Samuel Bwalya is a green economy consultant for the government of Zambia and 
the immediate past Managing Director of the Development Bank of Zambia (DBZ). 
Bwalya is a past UNDP Country Director and Resident Representative for Nigeria and 
Ethiopia.
4.	 Prof. Chux Daniels is associate professor at the Graduate School of Technology 
Management (GSTM), University of Pretoria (South Africa) and a Research Fellow 
in Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) Policy at Science Policy Research Unit 
(SPRU), University of Sussex Business School (UK). 
5.	 Dr. Mafini Dosso (PhD, PMP®) is an economist of innovation and industry, former project 
leader at the European Commission Joint Research Centre (Spain), senior expert in 
inclusive territorial development, intellectual property and sustainable innovation 
policies, co-founder & head of research at Organisation Internationale de l’Innovation 
pour des Territoires et Industries Durables (OIITID) in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. 
6.	 Mr. Daniel Essel is the deputy director with the policy, planning, monitoring and 
evaluation Directorate of the Ministry of Transport, Ghana. 
7.	 Prof. Akii Ibhadode is distinguished professor of Manufacturing Engineering and a 
former Shell professor of Lightweight Automobile Engine Development (2016–2020). 
He is the former vice-chancellor of the Federal University of Petroleum Resources, 
Effurun, Nigeria, from 2015–2020.
8.	 Ms. Irene Iradukunda is a sustainable Development & Climate Change scientist who 
works at UNDP
. She previously contributed to the development of climate impact 
calculation tools of different transportation modes at Vuba Corp. She is former 
Business Development Manager at Yego Innovision, a Rwandan startup in the public 
transportation industry. 
9.	 Ms Irene Karani is currently a Ph.D researcher in climate change. She was formerly the 
Africa Climate Director at the Children’s Investment Fund Foundation and the NIRAS 
Africa Regional Director. She has contributed to climate policy and programme 
implementation at regional and national levels.  
10.	Dr. Ahmed Osama is the director of the Centre of Mobility Research in Egypt. He 
received his PhD in transportation engineering from the University of British Columbia, 
where he had been a research assistant at the Bureau of Intelligent Transportation 
Systems and Freight Security. 


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Rigorous peer-review is a hallmark of both NASAC and IAP studies. We are grateful to the 
following reviewers for their constructive comments: 
• 
Prof. Abubakar Sani Sambo, former Director-General, Energy Commission of Nigeria.
• 
Mr. Chris Kost, Africa Director, Institute for Transportation and Development Policy.
• 
Prof. Kefa Otiso, Department of Geography, Bowling Green State University, USA.
• 
Prof. Wim van Saarloos, President, European Academies Science Advisory Council 
(EASAC) (2023–2025). 
• 
Prof. Winnie V. Mitullah, Institute of Development Studies, University of Nairobi, 
Kenya.
• 
Prof. Zarina Patel, Associate Professor of Human Geography, Department of 
Environmental and Geographical Science, University of Cape Town, who coordinated 
the review process.
Project Secretariat
Dr. Evans Avedi
Study Co-Director
Network of African Science Academies
Kenya
Mr. Moses Ogutu
Study Co-Director, 
InterAcademy Partnership
United States
Dr. Jackie Kado
Executive Director 
Network of African Science Academies
Kenya
Dr. Ourania Kosti
Executive Director 
InterAcademy Partnership
United States
Mr. Jack Omondi
Project Officer 
Network of African Science Academies
Kenya
Ms. Sophia Nordt
Research Associate
InterAcademy Partnership
United States


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ABOUT THE NETWORK OF
AFRICAN SCIENCE ACADEMIES
The Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) is a network of 30 merit-based 
national academies in Africa. NASAC’s main objective is to unite science academies and 
facilitate discussions on the scientific aspects of challenges of common concern, make 
joint statements, and provide science-informed advice to policy and decision-makers 
in Africa. Additionally, NASAC creates awareness of the value of science academies to 
socio-economic development and works with scientists to establish science academies in 
countries where none exist. NASAC’s networking capacity serves as an effective resource 
for communicating appropriate thematic information and coordinating efforts among 
different sectors and stakeholders in academia, policy, and society. Specifically, through its 
membership, NASAC continues to provide advice to regional bodies and organisations 
on science-related issues of importance to Africa’s development. It has also enhanced the 
capacity of academies in Africa to improve their roles as independent science advisors 
to governments and to strengthen their national, regional, and international functions. 
NASAC is the affiliate network for the InterAcademy Partnership in Africa. The secretariat 
of NASAC is based in Nairobi, Kenya. More information is available at www.nasaconline.
org. 
ABOUT THE
INTERACADEMY PARTNERSHIP
The InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) is a global network of 150 academies of science, 
engineering, and medicine. With its four regional networks—in Africa (NASAC), 
the Americas (the InterAmerican Network of Academies of Sciences, IANAS), 
Asia/Oceania (the Association of Academies and Societies of Sciences in Asia, 
AASSA) and Europe (the European Academies Science Advisory Council, EASAC), 
IAP provides a platform for mobilising regional and national expertise on wide-
ranging issues of global importance, and for facilitating cooperation with other 
key stakeholders and potential partners. IAP’s secretariat offices are hosted by The 
World Academy of Sciences in Trieste, Italy, and the National Academy of Sciences 
in Washington, DC, USA. More information is available at www.interacademies.org. 


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The transportation sector is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, 
accounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also a critical 
enabler of Africa’s economic transformation and is featured prominently in Africa’s 
Agenda 2063. As climate change concerns continue to grow it is critical to decarbonise 
transportation in Africa, where future carbon emissions are expected to grow rapidly. 
This study, undertaken collaboratively by the InterAcademy Partnership and the Network 
of African Science Academies, assesses the challenges and opportunities for the 
decarbonisation of transport in Africa. It also reviews policies, institutional and technical 
capacities, strategies, technologies, financing, and social factors, as well as requisite legal 
and regulatory frameworks that need to be implemented to achieve decarbonisation of 
transport. The report reaffirms the dual response of decarbonisation to the escalating 
threats of climate change and the development of sustainable transportation in Africa.
Currently, Africa contributes 4% of global transport emissions, however, emissions are 
projected to increase rapidly over the next two decades spurred by rapid urbanisation, 
economic growth, and rising motorisation rates in Africa. Therefore, the continent 
needs to adopt and proactively implement decarbonisation strategies to generate 
significant environmental, economic, and social benefits. Environmentally, the shift from 
fossil fuel-dependent vehicles to cleaner alternatives, such as electric vehicles (EVs) 
powered by renewable energy sources like hydropower, solar, or wind, will significantly 
reduce air pollution, diminish reliance on imported fossil fuels, and enhance Africa’s 
energy independence. A transition to decarbonised transportation will contribute to 
the preservation of Africa’s rich biodiversity and natural landscapes, that are currently 
under threat because of rising pollution and their unsustainable utilisation. Economically, 
decarbonised and sustainable transport solutions can spur economic development, 
alleviate poverty, and improve transport accessibility, while reducing carbon emissions 
to safeguard the environment. Socially, sustainable transportation improves access to 
transport for all communities, promotes public health, and creates new job opportunities. 
It also presents an essential strategy for countries to meet their Nationally Determined 
Contributions (NDC) targets.
With improvements in the availability and access to clean energy sources (electricity), 
widespread adoption of electric mobility presents a viable alternative to traditional fossil-
fuel-based transport and has the greatest potential to reduce carbon emissions. In this 
vein, Africa’s developing transport infrastructure and rich renewable energy resources 
offer the opportunity to adopt cutting-edge, low-emission technologies such as EVs 
without the significant overhaul required in more entrenched transport systems. In terms 
of economic growth and opportunities, Africa could become an exemplar in developing 
efficient new mass transportation systems with low carbon emission.
This report highlights the critical role of enhancing public transportation systems through 
the development of mass rapid transit (MRT) systems, including bus rapid transit (BRT) and 
light rail trains (LRT), recognised as a bedrock of sustainable urban mobility. Furthermore, 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
it underscores the need to promote non-motorised transportation methods, such as 
cycling and walking, as indispensable elements of a sustainable, inclusive, and efficient 
transport system in Africa.
Decarbonising road transport inherently disrupts the established and often entrenched 
regimes within the transport sector. These include the fossil fuel industry, transport sector 
operators, and institutions and institutional frameworks that govern transport systems 
in Africa. Therefore, a collaborative approach among governments, industry, public, 
and civil society actors is essential to achieving a holistic, inclusive, and transformative 
transition. Research and innovation, alongside enabling policies and regulations, are vital 
inputs in the transition to low-carbon transport systems.
The goal of a decarbonised transport sector in Africa requires comprehensive policy and 
regulatory reforms, increased investment in green technologies and innovations, and 
incentives. It also requires a change in mindset, culture, and a shift in consumer behaviour 
to foster sustainable transport practices as well as institutional, infrastructural, and cultural 
barriers head-on. The report provides strategic insights and innovative solutions for 
overcoming these challenges and for fostering partnerships for sustainable transport.
In addition to a focus on passenger vehicles and urban transportation — owing to their 
immediate potential for impactful decarbonisation — the report recognises the broader 
spectrum of transportation modes, including heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), rail transport, 
and the disparities between urban and rural transportation infrastructure. HDVs are 
instrumental for Africa’s logistics and freight systems, and present their own unique 
challenges and opportunities for decarbonisation. While rail transport currently faces 
significant barriers such as underinvestment, inadequate infrastructure, and regulatory 
hurdles, it holds immense potential when it comes to development of sustainable 
transport. Improving existing rail transport systems can significantly reduce road 
congestion, lower emissions, and foster regional connectivity.
Given the long-term nature of systemic changes required for transitions such as 
decarbonisation, and mindful of the varied contexts across African countries, this 
report intentionally avoids specifying implementation timelines. Each country’s journey 
towards sustainable transport will be unique, influenced by its specific socio-economic, 
geographical, and political landscapes. The absence of rigid timelines provides a flexible 
approach that allows for tailored national strategies and approaches to decarbonisation, 
based on the insights and recommendations of the report. 
FINDINGS
1.	 Decarbonisation of transport is already taking place across Africa. There are 
numerous ongoing projects aimed at decarbonising transport in different cities and 
in the sub-regions of Africa. These projects, such as the growing adoption of electric 
mobility solutions, bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, and light rail transport (LRT). 
There is also an emphasis on non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling 
demonstrate local successes in decarbonisation, with significant economic, social, 
and environmental benefits. 


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 2.	 The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) approach is an appropriate 
strategy for the decarbonisation of transport across Africa. The EASIR approach’s 
holistic nature, combining enabling policies, mechanisms to reduce travel demand, 
the promotion of sustainable transportation modes, improvements in vehicle and fuel 
efficiency, and enhancing the resilience of transportation systems directly addresses 
the multi-dimensional challenges of transport decarbonisation on the continent. The 
EASIR framework aligns with Africa’s specific needs and global sustainability goals, 
underscoring its suitability. This finding is supported by analysis of successful case 
studies within the continent where elements of the EASIR approach have already 
been implemented, demonstrating tangible benefits in reducing carbon emissions 
and enhancing sustainable mobility. Case studies described in this report include the 
adoption of enabling policies such as EV incentives in Morocco and Kenya, the shift 
towards sustainable modes such as Rwanda’s investments in cycling infrastructure, 
and South Africa’s push for biofuel usage to improve fuel efficiency. 
3.	 Policy and regulatory instruments can facilitate the decarbonisation of transport. 
African governments are employing a diverse range of policy instruments to accelerate 
the decarbonisation of transport at continental and local levels. These are categorised 
into four main types: (1) market-based instruments (such as taxes, subsidies, fees, 
quotas, import duties, and penalties) (2) regulatory instruments (licenses, limits, 
prohibitions, laws); (3) direct provisions (governments directly providing goods or 
services to its citizens); and (4) information provisions (dissemination of relevant, 
accurate, and timely information to the public). Market-based tools, like subsidies for 
electric vehicle purchases in Morocco and carbon taxes in South Africa, incentivise 
cleaner transport options. Regulatory measures, including emissions standards 
and vehicle import restrictions, have been implemented in Egypt and Kenya to 
curb pollution and encourage the adoption of cleaner vehicles. Direct provisions 
are evident in Ethiopia’s investment in the Addis Ababa light rail system, directly 
enhancing public transport infrastructure. Information provisions play a crucial role 
in raising awareness and changing public behaviour towards sustainable transport 
options, as seen in Nigeria’s campaigns promoting electric motorcycles. These varied 
policy tools, backed by strategic planning and investments, are critical to boosting 
the effectiveness of decarbonisation efforts across the continent.
4.	 Decarbonisation of transport has the potential to drive industrial growth and 
create green job opportunities across Africa. There is growing local assembly and 
manufacturing of EVs in Africa, as well as initiatives to convert gasoline-powered 
vehicles, including Africa’s paratransit vehicles, to electric propulsion in African 
countries including Kenya, South Africa, and Nigeria. The conversion of ICE vehicles 
to EVs particularly presents enormous potential considering the vast amount 
of used vehicles in Africa. Meanwhile, with the necessary infrastructure already 
present, existing ICE vehicle manufacturers could pivot to EV production if properly 
incentivised. These examples demonstrate that the continent’s abundance of skilled 
mechanics, combined with ingenuity and resourcefulness that African innovators 
demonstrate, provide the groundwork for a sustainable, scalable model of EV 
development tailored to the unique needs and opportunities of the rapidly emerging 
African EV market, while contributing to the global advancement of electric mobility. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Opportunities extend into EV auto parts and battery manufacturing, leveraging 
Africa’s critical mineral resources, alongside innovative business models like pay-
as-you-go charging and solar charging stations, taking advantage of the continent’s 
abundant sunlight. While strategic policies to support local vehicle manufacturing are 
emerging in various African countries, the realisation of broad industrial ambitions 
requires a commitment to building the necessary human capital by skilling, up-
skilling, and re-skilling, especially among the youth, women, and unemployed.
5.	 Transport electrification in Africa will increase the demand for electricity, and the 
current fragility of the electric grid poses a critical concern for the viability and 
sustainability of electric mobility. Adopting EVs will have significant impact on the 
electricity system in terms of generation, transmission, distribution, and accessibility. 
While EVs could also play a role in stabilising the grid, for example, through a vehicle-
to-grid (V2G) approach, understanding the current state of power systems in Africa 
is crucial in evaluating the impact of EV deployment across African countries, as 
electricity is a central pillar of Africa’s energy infrastructure. The capacity, reliability, 
and reach of these systems play a key role in determining how effectively EVs can 
be integrated and supported. Increased demand from EVs necessitates robust and 
diverse generation facilities and power sources. Transmission networks will need to 
be upgraded to handle the increased load, especially during peak charging times, 
requiring a resilient infrastructure. On the other hand, the distribution system will 
face changes in load patterns, particularly in residential areas with home charging, 
demanding smarter and more responsive grid solutions. In the meantime, despite 
the strong case for the electrification of transport in Africa, the lack of adequate 
investment in the power sector and insufficient research on the impacts of this 
electrification hinders the development of innovative solutions, the exploration of 
technology applications, and the conceptualisation, design, and implementation of 
effective strategies.
6.	 Prioritising electrification of transport for the less costly, higher mileage, and 
extensively used vehicle segments in Africa could streamline the adoption of EVs, 
maximising environmental benefits and economic efficiency. Analysis indicates 
that two- and three-wheelers, along with passenger buses on high-use routes, are 
attractive candidates for the first stages of transport electrification efforts. Similarly, 
four-wheelers, taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and other commercial fleets are identified 
as more suitable for early electrification compared to less intensively used private 
family cars. 
7.	 An integrated sustainable transport strategy that includes mass rapid transport 
and non-motorised transport can enhance decarbonisation of transport. A holistic 
approach to sustainable transport can not only reduce carbon emissions but also 
has the potential to alleviate negative traffic externalities, thereby contributing to a 
healthier environment and improved quality of life. In Africa, where urbanisation is 
rapidly increasing, the need for efficient and sustainable transportation systems is 
more pronounced than ever. The implementation of mass rapid transit systems, such 
as the bus rapid transit (BRT) systems in Lagos, Nigeria, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 
exemplifies proactive steps towards sustainable urban mobility. Additionally, the 
development of light rail projects, like the Addis Ababa Light Rail in Ethiopia, serves not 


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only to decrease reliance on individual car usage but also to spearhead the transition 
towards electrification of public transport networks. Similarly, the development and 
adoption of non-motorised transport (NMT) infrastructure plays a crucial role in 
shaping sustainable urban mobility landscapes. In Africa, several examples highlight 
the progress and commitment towards enhancing NMT facilities. For instance, Nairobi 
in Kenya, and Cape Town in South Africa have taken significant strides in developing 
bicycle paths and pedestrian walkways, inspired by the success of Rwanda’s Kigali 
Car-Free Days, which promote active transport and raise environmental awareness.
8.	 Inadequate financial frameworks hinder decarbonisation efforts in Africa, limiting 
the continent’s ability to leverage transport decarbonisation as a catalyst for 
industrial growth and innovation. The establishment of a robust EV ecosystem, 
already stimulated by the emergence of local assembly and manufacturing of EVs, 
ambitious innovations such as the conversion of gasoline-powered vehicles to electric 
propulsion, battery swapping, and investments in renewable energy systems, as well 
as in inclusive non-motorised transport infrastructure, are constrained by inadequate 
financial frameworks. The success of these transport sectors, which are crucial for 
creating a new economic paradigm, generating green jobs, fostering technological 
innovation, and establishing new markets within the automotive industry, depends 
heavily on the availability of funding and investment. The scarcity of robust financial 
structures and investment may stem from multiple factors, including African countries’ 
challenges in developing comprehensive financial policies and frameworks such 
incentives for EV buyers, and the hesitation of investors, who may not fully recognise 
the opportunities within the continent’s evolving EV market. Therefore, addressing 
these financial barriers and enhancing investor confidence is crucial for unlocking 
the transformative power of decarbonisation through electrification in Africa.
9.	 Decarbonisation efforts compete with existing transport and oil industry regimes 
that benefit from the manufacture, sale, maintenance, and deployment of fossil fuel-
based vehicles. Entrenched regimes often have established powerful interests that are 
resistant to change due to financial, political, or ideological reasons. Decarbonisation 
involves reducing dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, which are the primary 
energy sources for conventional ICE vehicles. For transport sector operators such as 
the companies and organisations involved in manufacturing, operating, or maintaining 
transportation systems, decarbonisation will require adoption of new technologies, 
change of business models, and compliance with appropriate regulations. Similarly, 
policies, regulations, and incentives that encourage the adoption of cleaner 
transportation modes will disrupt institutional frameworks such as subsidies that 
have historically supported the fossil-fuel industry and transport systems or the 
associated fuel tax revenues for governments. Crucially, decarbonisation policies 
inherently challenge the status quo and can lead to significant economic, social, and 
institutional changes and tensions. To navigate competing interests, it is essential to 
actively engage stakeholders from traditional transport and fuel industries in crafting 
a shared vision for the future of transportation on the continent, while highlighting 
the economic, environmental, and social benefits. Such collaborations might include 
engagement with fuel industry representatives to explore the development of electric 
charging infrastructure as a new business venture, and shifting the perspective 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
from competition to complementary roles in the evolving transport ecosystem. 
Engaging stakeholders not as adversaries but as partners in progress can facilitate 
the development of integrated solutions that address economic, environmental, and 
social goals.
10.	Progress towards decarbonised and sustainable transportation can be achieved 
and accelerated by adopting a common position on sustainable transport across 
Africa. While the African Union’s Climate Change and Resilient Development 
Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 already provides a comprehensive 
framework for climate action, including in transport, a distinct strategy or position 
dedicated to sustainable transport does not currently exist. Such a strategy would 
align with overarching continental and global objectives for climate change priorities 
and enable Africa to capitalise on economies of scale and enhance its collective 
bargaining power on issues related to decarbonisation and overall improvement of 
the transport sector. Adopting a common position on sustainable transport across 
Africa does not imply a one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, a common framework should 
be based on shared principles that recognises the diversity of national circumstances 
and allows for flexibility in implementation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.	 City and regional authorities in Africa should promote local decarbonisation efforts. 
City and urban authorities should actively share insights and best practices on local 
decarbonisation efforts within Africa to accelerate their adoption continent-wide. 
This includes creating platforms for knowledge exchange, setting up pilot projects, 
and establishing benchmarks for success. Regional authorities should spearhead 
the establishment of agencies to enhance governance and collaboration within 
Africa’s transport sector. The formation of such bodies, exemplified by the African 
Association of Urban Transport Authorities (AAUTA), demonstrates a commitment 
to improving urban mobility across several countries. The AAUTA is a collaboration 
between the Greater Abidjan Urban Mobility Authority and the Africa Transport 
Policy Programme, incorporating over 40 urban transport leaders from 13 African 
countries. It aims to facilitate the exchange of best practices and lessons learned 
in urban transport system management, promote public-private partnerships, and 
strengthen cooperation with development partners.
2.	 Governments in Africa should implement the Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-
Resilience (EASIR) approach for sustainable transport. This approach combines 
enabling policies, mechanisms to reduce travel demand, promotion of sustainable 
transportation modes, and enhancements in vehicle and fuel efficiency. It aligns with 
global best practices and supports Africa’s strategic sustainable development goals. 
3.	 Governments in Africa should provide incentives to industries to promote and 
support local manufacturing. This includes local manufacturing of electric batteries 
and production and assembly of EVs, including two- and three-wheelers (motorcycles 
and tuk-tuks, respectively) as well as buses. This can be done through the provision 
of both policy and regulatory incentives such as tax breaks, subsidies, and facilitating 
partnerships between local industries and international companies. Such incentives 


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will not only help achieve decarbonisation of transport goals but also drive inclusive 
economic growth in line with Africa’s Agenda 2063 and the United Nations SDGs. 
4.	 Governments in Africa, industry, and academia should establish research 
partnerships to investigate energy demands and expected impact of EVs on the 
grid. These research collaborations can also assess the potential for charging EVs 
with renewable energy sources as well as on increasing local contents on EVs. In 
doing so, policy decisions on EV adoption and charging infrastructure will be context-
specific, evidence-informed, and based on actual data. 
5.	 Governments in Africa should develop comprehensive financing and policy 
instruments to support the upgrade of power grid systems, the construction of EV 
charging networks, and overall improve the public transport infrastructure. Innovative 
climate financing instruments can include infrastructure funding, blended finance, 
and green bonds, alongside taxes. This type of financing and policy instruments will 
encourage the acquisition of EVs, foreign investment, and inclusive business models 
that foster participation of SMEs and start-ups in the EV business ecosystem. In 
addition, governments can expand policy support to foster international cooperation, 
resource mobilisation, and the development of sustainable business models for 
electric mobility, leveraging existing approaches such as the Green Climate Fund 
aimed to use flexible financing solutions and climate investment expertise. 
6.	 Governments in Africa should prioritise the electrification of vehicle segments that 
provide the most immediate and highest decarbonisation benefits. Decarbonisation 
efforts should focus on electrifying two- and three-wheelers, as well as passenger 
buses operating on high-use routes, due to their lower costs, high mileage, and 
extensive use. These segments present a significant opportunity for immediate 
impact. Additionally, four-wheelers such as taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and other 
commercial fleets should be targeted in early decarbonisation efforts, given their 
frequent use and greater potential for reducing emissions. However, it is also critical 
to consider the role of private family cars. While these vehicles may not have the same 
high usage as commercial fleets on a per-vehicle basis, their cumulative impact due 
to sheer volume can be substantial. Tailored strategies based on vehicle use patterns 
and ownership costs are needed for this vehicle segment, as part of a comprehensive 
approach to electrifying four-wheelers.
7.	 Governments in Africa should implement stricter policies and regulations that 
support emission reduction during the transition to decarbonising the transport 
sector. While the transition towards EVs presents a significant opportunity for 
emission reduction, the potential of regulatory measures to curb emissions from 
existing ICE vehicles also needs to be a priority. Stricter emission standards for 
vehicles, as well as the introduction of policies that discourage the importation of 
older, more polluting cars, could significantly support emission reduction goals. 
Policies banning or restricting old and high-emitting vehicles from metropolitan 
centres have been shown to reduce urban pollution and encourage the adoption 
of cleaner transportation alternatives while also improving air quality, and enhancing 
public health and the quality of life in urban areas. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
8.	 Governments in Africa and other stakeholders should implement just transition 
principles to foster a holistic and socially inclusive decarbonisation of transport. 
Just Transition Principles advocate for a shift towards a sustainable economy that 
prioritises equity and access for all, including vulnerable groups and marginalised 
communities such as women, persons with disabilities and older persons, indigenous 
communities, low-income populations, and residents of rural areas. Just transition 
principles also safeguard against exacerbating existing inequalities by adopting 
gender and socially inclusive approaches when formulating transportation policies, 
for example by addressing safety issues that prevent women from engaging in active 
transportation, such as walking, and by addressing equity between women and men 
in the transport workforce. Developing accessible infrastructure such as sidewalks, 
ramps, and elevators in bus parks and on vehicles caters towards the needs of 
persons with disabilities and older persons. Finally, just transition principles promote 
investing in infrastructure that supports both urban and rural transportation needs 
and rural urban connectivity, ensuring that decarbonisation benefits are equitably 
distributed across all regions. 
9.	 Governments in Africa should improve existing transportation systems and adopt 
sustainable land-use development. Improving existing transport systems and 
adopting sustainable land-use developments such as compact and mixed-use 
development and transit-oriented development, are essential strategies for African 
governments to promote economic prosperity, social inclusion, environmental 
sustainability, and resilience. By prioritising these measures, African countries can 
create more liveable, equitable, and sustainable cities and communities for current 
and future generations. For instance, by investing in more efficient and accessible 
public transit options, including mass rapid transit options such as BRT and light 
rail transit systems, cities can significantly lower their carbon footprint. In addition, 
creating safer and more appealing conditions for active transportation, like walking 
and cycling, through dedicated bike lanes and pedestrian zones not only promotes a 
healthier lifestyle, but also reduces emissions. 
10.	Governments in Africa should actively foster strategic collaborations, robust 
advocacy, and innovation to advance sustainable transport across the continent. 
Partnering with industry, academia, and global civil society can enable governments 
to harness the power of advocacy and strategic collaborations in amplifying the call 
for the adoption of low-carbon transport technologies and practices. In this case, 
governments can utilise targeted policies, regulation, and financial incentives to 
challenge and disrupt the dominance of fossil fuels and support businesses in their 
transition to environmentally friendly operations. 
11.	Governments in Africa should establish a unified framework for decarbonised 
and sustainable transport aligned with continental aspirations and global climate 
change targets. This framework can build on existing blueprints, including the 
African Union’s visionary policies, and agreements such as the Climate Change and 
Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032, the 2023 
Nairobi Declaration, Agenda 2063, Programme for Infrastructure Development 
in Africa (PIDA), the African Renewable Energy Initiative, the Paris Agreement, and 


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its Nationally Determined Contributions and national long-term climate strategies 
of various African countries. A common position on sustainable transport not 
only aligns with overarching continental and global objectives but also leverages 
collective bargaining power in negotiations to secure technology transfers, financial 
investments, and international support essential for the transition. Moreover, a pan-
African consensus on sustainable transport can pave the way for the establishment of 
harmonised policies and interoperable infrastructure tailored to the continent’s unique 
challenges and opportunities. A common approach with time-bound objectives will 
serve as milestones, guiding the phased implementation of sustainable transport 
initiatives across Africa, ensuring that progress is both measurable and aligned with 
the overarching goal of fostering environmental sustainability and overall sustainable 
development, in line with Africa’s Agenda 2063.


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COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS 
AASSA Association of Academies and Societies of Sciences in Asia
EASIR Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience
AU African Union
BRT Bus Rapid Transit
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
EASAC European Academies Science Advisory Council
EU European Union
EV Electric Vehicle 
GHG Greenhouse Gas
IANAS InterAmerican Network of Academies of Sciences
IAP InterAcademy Partnership
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
IEA International Energy Agency
MRT Mass Rapid Transit
NASAC Network of African Science Academies
NDC Nationally Determined Contributions
NMT Non-Motorised Transport
PIDA Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa
R&D Research and Development
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
SSATP Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program
UN United Nations
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change


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GLOSSARY OF TERMS 
Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) framework: is a sustainability approach that emphasises 
three key strategies for reducing environmental impacts and promoting sustainable 
development. The avoid strategy focuses on avoiding or minimising activities that have 
negative environmental or social consequences. The shift strategy involves shifting from 
unsustainable practices or behaviours to more sustainable alternatives. The improve 
strategy focuses on continuously improving existing processes, products, and systems to 
enhance their sustainability performance.
Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) framework: An expanded approach 
to the traditional Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) that incorporates two additional strategies 
– enable and resilience - to promote a holistic approach aimed at enhancing transport 
decarbonisation and adaptation. The enable strategy establishes the foundational 
governance, laws, institutions, and financial arrangements necessary for effective 
decarbonisation policies. Lastly, the resilience strategy aims to enhance the resilience and 
adaptive capacity of transport infrastructure to withstand environmental, technological, 
and socio-economic changes.
Battery swapping: is a technology and service used primarily in electric vehicles (EVs) 
where the depleted battery of an electric vehicle is quickly replaced with a fully charged 
one. This process is typically performed at specialised battery swapping stations rather 
than recharging the battery through conventional charging methods.
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems: are high-capacity public transportation systems that 
aim to provide fast, efficient, and reliable bus services with features typically associated 
with rail transit but at a lower cost. BRT systems generally include dedicated lanes or 
corridors, stations with off-board fare collection, level boarding, priority at intersections, 
and frequent service.
Carbon markets: are mechanisms designed to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 
by putting a price on carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases. The concept 
behind carbon markets is to create financial incentives for industries and businesses to 
reduce their emissions by allowing them to buy and sell emissions allowances.
Carbon credits: are a tradable permit or certificate representing the right to emit one ton 
of carbon dioxide (CO2) or its equivalent. They are a key component of carbon markets 
and emissions trading systems, allowing businesses and governments to buy and sell the 
right to emit greenhouse gases within a regulated framework.
Concessional climate finance: refers to financial support provided by governments, 
international organisations, or other entities at below-market interest rates or with other 
favourable terms to help countries, particularly developing nations, address climate 
change challenges and transition to low-carbon, climate-resilient development pathways. 
Electric vehicles (EVs): are vehicles that are powered, either partially or entirely, by 
electricity stored in rechargeable batteries or other energy storage devices. Unlike 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
traditional internal combustion engine vehicles that rely on fossil fuels such as gasoline 
or diesel, electric vehicles use electricity as their primary source of energy for propulsion.
Electric vehicle (EV) roaming: refers to the ability for EV drivers to use charging stations 
operated by different charging networks or providers with a single access or payment 
method. Just as mobile phone users can roam onto different cellular networks while 
traveling, EV roaming enables drivers to access charging infrastructure across various 
charging networks without needing multiple memberships or payment accounts.
Greenhouse gas emissions: refer to the release of gases into the atmosphere that trap 
heat, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming and climate 
change. 
Green bonds: are a type of fixed-income financial instrument specifically earmarked to 
fund projects with environmental benefits. They are essentially debt securities issued 
by governments, municipalities, corporations, or financial institutions to raise capital 
for projects or activities aimed at addressing climate change, promoting renewable 
energy, enhancing energy efficiency, supporting sustainable land use, improving waste 
management, or other environmentally beneficial initiatives.
Green technologies: also known as clean or sustainable technologies, refer to innovations 
and practices that are designed to reduce environmental impact, promote resource 
efficiency, and contribute to sustainable development. These technologies aim to address 
environmental challenges such as climate change, pollution, resource depletion, and 
biodiversity loss by minimising emissions of greenhouse gases, pollutants, and waste 
while maximising the use of renewable resources.
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs): are vehicles designed to transport goods or passengers 
with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) exceeding 8,500 pounds (3,855 kilograms). 
These vehicles are typically larger and more powerful than light-duty vehicles and are 
used for various purposes, including freight transportation, public transit, construction, 
and agriculture. Heavy-duty vehicles play a critical role in the global economy by 
facilitating the movement of goods and people over long distances and in diverse 
operating conditions.
Light rail transit (LRT): is a form of urban rail transit characterised by its flexibility, capacity, 
and integration into urban environments. LRT systems typically operate on a combination 
of dedicated rights-of-way, semi-exclusive lanes, and mixed traffic, allowing them to 
provide efficient and reliable service in urban and suburban areas.
Low carbon cities: also known as sustainable cities or eco-cities, are urban areas that 
prioritise environmental sustainability, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote 
resilience to climate change impacts. These cities adopt integrated approaches to 
urban planning, transportation, energy, waste management, and other aspects of urban 
development to minimise their carbon footprint and enhance quality of life for residents.
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT): refers to a high-capacity urban public transportation system 
designed to efficiently move large numbers of passengers within a metropolitan area. 
MRT systems typically consist of electrified trains that run on dedicated tracks, providing 
fast, reliable, and frequent service to commuters.


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Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): are the pledges and commitments made 
by individual countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the 
impacts of climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Change (UNFCCC). Each country submits its NDC as part of the international effort to 
address climate change, particularly in the context of the Paris Agreement.
Net zero-carbon: refers to achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse 
gases emitted into the atmosphere and the amount removed from the atmosphere. In 
other words, it means that the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse 
gases are equal to the amount that is either offset or sequestered, resulting in no net 
addition to the atmosphere’s greenhouse gas concentration.
Non-motorised transport (NMT): refers to any form of transportation that does not rely 
on motorised vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, or buses, to move people or goods. 
Instead, NMT relies on human power or animal power for propulsion. Common examples 
of non-motorised transport include walking, cycling, skating, and the use of non-
motorised carts or wagons. NMT is often considered more sustainable, environmentally 
friendly, and healthier compared to motorised transport options, as it produces fewer 
emissions and promotes physical activity.
Off-grid energy solutions: refers to systems that provide electricity independently 
of traditional utility grids. These solutions are designed to meet the energy needs of 
individuals, communities, or facilities that are not connected to centralised power grids. 
These systems typically utilise renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, 
or biomass to generate electricity. Off-grid energy solutions often incorporate energy 
storage technologies such as batteries or pumped hydro storage to store excess energy 
for use during periods of low renewable energy generation or high demand.
Paratransit system: refers to a type of public passenger transportation that is characterised 
by its flexibility and operates by demand without having fixed schedules and is operated 
by private entities with minimal oversight and investment from government.
Renewable energy: refers to energy derived from naturally replenished sources that 
are not depleted when used. Unlike fossil fuels, which are finite and contribute to 
environmental pollution and climate change, renewable energy sources are abundant, 
clean, and sustainable. They offer significant potential for reducing greenhouse gas 
emissions, enhancing energy security, and promoting economic development.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technologies: are technologies that enables electric vehicles (EVs) 
to interact with the electricity grid, allowing them to not only consume electricity but also 
to provide electricity back to the grid when needed. V2G systems essentially turn EV 
batteries into energy storage units that can be tapped into during peak demand periods 
or to help stabilise the grid.


1
Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
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CHAPTER ONE 
DECARBONISATION of TRANSPORT and
ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
The Paris Agreement set an ambitious global goal of limiting global warming to 1.5° 
Celsius above pre-industrial levels. To achieve this, global greenhouse gas emissions 
must peak by 2025, decrease by 43% by 2030, and reach net zero by 2050, as outlined by 
the United Nations. Under the Paris Agreement, parties are required to submit Nationally 
Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on 
Climate Change (UNFCCC). Transitioning to transportation systems with lower carbon 
emissions enables countries to significantly advance towards fulfilling their Paris 
Agreement commitments. Beyond the environmental, economic, and social advantages, 
the decarbonisation of transport is a crucial strategy for countries to meet their NDC 
targets. This chapter provides the necessary background, outlines the study’s objectives, 
and delves into the benefits, challenges, and strategies of decarbonising transport 
and adapting to climate change. It underscores the critical need for transitioning to 
sustainable transport systems and adapting to the rapidly changing climate realities.
1.1	 Introduction
The transport sector accounts for nearly a quarter of global energy-related greenhouse gas 
(GHG) emissions (IPCC, 2022). In 2022, worldwide carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from 
transportation were estimated at eight gigatonne, a 3% increase from 2021, according to 
the International Energy Agency (IEA). From 1990 to 2022, emissions from transportation 
grew at an average rate of 1.7% annually, faster than any other sector, except for industrial 
emissions which rose at the same rate (IEA, 2023). Transportation emissions are driven by 
the sector’s reliance on fossil fuels, which account for 90% of transport energy needs. 
Road transportation accounts for 75% of all transport sector emissions, with passenger 
vehicles, including cars and buses being the primary contributors (Tiseo, 2023). The 
health and financial impacts associated with current greenhouse gas emissions from 
transportation are enormous. It is estimated that, globally, pollution from the transport 
sector is responsible for the loss of about 7.8 million lives annually, an economic cost 
of USD 1 trillion in health damages (Anenberg, et al., 2019). In 2013, the estimated cost 
of premature deaths due to air pollution in Africa was approximately USD 450 billion 
(Ayetor, et al., 2021).
Africa is a small contributor (4%) to global transport emissions due to its small market and 
low levels of vehicle ownership (UNFCCC, 2023). As Figure 1 shows, Africa’s contribution 
to global transport GHG emissions has historically been minimal. While all regions 
have seen an increase in emissions over time, Sub-Saharan Africa’s emissions growth is 
relatively gradual and remains significantly lower compared to North America, East Asia 
and Pacific, and Europe and Central Asia. The average CO2 emissions per person per 


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2
year in Africa are only 0.8 tonnes. This is significantly lower than the global average of 4.8 
tonnes. However, emissions from Africa’s transportation are increasing at an estimated 
rate of approximately 7% annually, in stark contrast to the lower growth rates observed 
in other regions (SLOCAT, 2021). For example, in the United States the annual increase 
of transportation emission was less than 1% between 1990 and 2017, and in the United 
Kingdom 0.12% in the same period (Ayetor, et al., 2021). With the current economic and 
social growth occurring, Africa is expected to experience exponential growth in transport 
motorisation along with the concomitant increase in transport-related greenhouse gas 
emissions and adverse health effects in the coming decade.
Egypt, South Africa, Nigeria, Libya, Morocco, Kenya, and Ghana have the highest 
motorisation rates in Africa and are responsible for more than 70% of Africa’s emissions 
from the transport sector (Figure 2) (Ayetor, et al., 2021). The rapid rate of motorisation 
of African cities has led to chronic traffic congestion and high levels of pollution. The lack 
of fuel quality standards and the dumping of old and inefficient vehicles in the continent 
further exacerbates the negative impacts of increasing motorisation on air quality. 
It is estimated that 85% of vehicles in Africa are used vehicles imported from Europe, 
the United States, and Japan (Ayetor, et al., 2021). Many of these vehicles would fail 
roadworthiness tests and emission inspections in exporting countries but are dumped in 
African countries which often have weaker or no vehicle emission regulations. 
Geographical and socio-economic factors shape transportation choices in Africa. Despite 
a rapid motorisation rate, on average, 80% of the continent’s urban population lacks 
access to personal vehicles and a large proportion does not have access to motorised 
public transit services. Non-motorised modes of transport such as walking and cycling 
comprise the majority of urban trips (Sietchiping, et al., 2012). In some African cities, most 
journeys are made on foot while most motorised trips are made using informal motorcycle 
taxis or minibuses (Deeb, et al., 2022). According to Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2020), in 
2013, the average mode of transport across 14 African cities showed that walking was 
the most prevalent at 34%, followed by private cars at 22%, matatus/minibuses at 18%, 
motorcycles at 11%, buses at 9%, and other modes at 6% (Figure 3). Given the rise in 
Figure 1:  Global transport emissions by region (1990–2020)
1990
North American Region
East Asia and Pacific
Europe and Central Asia
Middle East and North Africa
Latin America and Caribbean
Sub-Saharan Africa
2.2 Gt
CO2o
1.7 Gt
1.1 Gt
500 Mt
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
2008
2011
2014
2017
2020
CLIMATEWATCH
Historical GHC emissions
 
Data source: Climate Watch; Location: East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia,
Latin America and Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America Region,
Sub-Saharan Africa; Sectors/Subsectors: Transportation; Gases: All GHG; Calculation: Total;
Show data by Regions.


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Dar es
Salaam,
Tanzania
Addis
Ababa,
Ethiopia
Accra,
Ghana
Abidjan,
Côte
d’Ivoire
Average
of 14
African
countries
Nairobi,
Kenya
(2007)
44%
2%
15%
29%
9%
Walking
KEY
Mode of Transport in Selected African Countries
Motorcycle
Private car
Minibus
Bus
Other
34%
11%
18%
27%
6%
22%
47%
19%
11%
12%
22%
52%
10%
30%
12%
20%
26%
10%
0%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Mode of share
11%
61%
35%
incomes since then, it is probable that the use of private cars has increased, as higher 
earnings typically encourage a shift towards more private forms of transportation.
Public, or semi-public transport plays a significant role in most African cities. The most 
widely used public transportation system in many urban and semi-urban areas is the 
paratransit system. Paratransit refers to a type of public passenger transportation that is 
characterised by its flexibility and operates by demand without having fixed schedules 
and is operated by private entities with minimal oversight and investment from 
government (SLOCAT, 2021).
215
445
776
987
1614
1985
2205
2561
2761
3847
6918
7287
17254
18200
35239
53034
65000
Cape Verde
South Sudan
Burkina Faso
Mauritius
Togo
Botswana
Benin
Uganda
Namibia
Ethiopia
Ghana
Kenya
Morocco
Libya
Nigeria
South Africa
Egypt
10000
0
20000
30000
Carbon Dioxide Emissions (Giga Gramme)
40000
50000
60000
70000
Figure 2: Transport sector emissions in select African countries.
Source: Adapted from Ayetor, et al. (2021) 
Figure 3: Mode of transport in selected African cities (2013)
Source: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2020)


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The local names for paratransit vehicles vary across countries; medium-sized minivans 
or buses that accommodate 9 to 25 passengers are called matatus in Kenya, minibus 
taxis in South Africa (see Figure 4), and dala dala in Tanzania. Paratransit vehicles also 
include tricycle (three-wheelers) taxis in Ghana and motorcycle (two-wheelers) taxis 
in several eastern and western regions of Africa. Approximately 98% of commuters in 
Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), 91% in Kampala (Uganda), 90% in Lagos (Nigeria), 65% in 
Yaoundé (Cameroon), 82% in Algiers (Algeria), and 70% in Johannesburg (South Africa) 
rely on paratransit transportation (Giliomee, et al., 2023).
Figure 4: Popular paratransit vehicles in Africa and their names


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The popularity of paratransit vehicles makes them critical for consideration in transport 
decarbonisation. Despite their ubiquitous nature in Africa, paratransit vehicles are 
generally old, and electrifying them could reduce their tailpipe emissions while reducing 
operating and maintenance costs for operators (see Case Study 2 in Chapter 2).
In many African countries, where road quality is often poor and urban areas are congested, 
motorcycles (two-wheelers) — locally known as boda boda in East Africa, okada in 
Nigeria, and moto in Rwanda (see Figure 5) — are the preferred mode of transport. Their 
agility allows them to efficiently navigate through varied terrains and gridlocked traffic, 
outperforming four-wheelers and other vehicles. 
Figure 5. Motorcycles in the streets of Kigali, Rwanda
Photo credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff
Two- and three-wheelers (also known as tricycles or tuk-tuks for three-wheelers) 
have become increasingly popular in Africa and other emerging markets due to 
their availability, affordability, and adaptability. These vehicle segments which are 
predominantly purchased new in Africa, are projected to become a dominant force in 
Sub-Saharan Africa’s sustainable mobility transformative agenda (Powering Renewable 
Energy Opportunities, 2023). They are particularly advantageous for low-income 
countries and cost-effective to produce and are generally cheaper to electrify than buses 
and heavy-duty vehicles, as discussed in the cost benefit analysis of EVs in Section 5.3 in 
Chapter 5. Their smaller batteries can be charged via mini grids, making them suitable 
for areas with limited access to reliable electricity grid infrastructure (see Case Study 
7 in Section 5.9). Additionally, they can benefit from a battery-swap model, wherein a 
depleted battery is exchanged for a fully charged one at a designated swap station (see 
Sections 2.3.3 and 5.9).
African countries could leverage the growing preference for two- and three-wheelers 
to decarbonise this sector. For African EV manufacturers, prioritising the development 
and production of two- and three-wheelers presents a strategic short-term approach, 
alongside the production of four-wheelers and other vehicle segments (Cash, 2022). 


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However, EV manufacturers need to design electric motorcycles suited to the needs 
and landscape of the continent as most of the electric motorcycles in the continent 
imported from China and India are not well-suited for African conditions, they are costly, 
face unreliable electric and charging infrastructure, especially in rural areas (Powering 
Renewable Energy Opportunities, 2023).
1.2	 Current Status of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa
The Paris Agreement sets an ambitious global goal of limiting global warming to 1.5° 
Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Achieving this goal requires that global greenhouse 
gas emissions peak by 2025, decline by 43% by 2030, and fall to net zero by 2050 
(The United Nations, n.d.). The Paris Agreement mandates parties to submit Nationally 
Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on 
Climate Change (UNFCCC). Although implementation is voluntary, the NDCs aim to 
reach specific targets and objectives and require periodic updates. The first generation 
of NDCs, submitted by 191 countries, covered over 90% of global energy-related and 
industrial process CO2 emissions, with certain targets conditional on international support 
for technology, finance, and means towards implementation (SLOCAT, 2022). NDCs are 
updated by each country every five years to demonstrate progression from the previous 
NDC, reflecting the country’s “highest possible ambition”.
African countries have set ambitious goals to reduce transport sector emissions in line 
with the Paris Agreement. For example, Burkina Faso, the Gambia, Guinea, Ethiopia, 
Liberia, Nigeria and South Sudan have demonstrated commitment to decarbonise the 
transport sector by setting targets in their NDCs. Moreover, Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, 
Sierra Leone, South Sudan, and Togo have defined the adoption and promotion of 
electric mobility (e-mobility) as one measure to transform their transport sector. Table 1 
indicates transport-sector emission reduction targets of select countries in Africa.
Figure 6: Transport sector GHG emissions mitigation and adaptation actions.
Source: SLOCAT (2022)
Low carbon fuels
& energy vectors
29%
Innovation
& upscaling
2%
Electrification
15%
Transport system
improvements
22%
Mode shift demand
management
32%
Informational
& educational
16%
Institutional
& regulatory
31%
Structural 
technical
53%
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(a) Transport adaptation
(b) Transport mitigation


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
As shown in Figure 6 (b), transport mitigation actions included in second-generation 
NDCs focus on mode shift and demand management (32% of all actions), followed by 
fuel and energy efficiency (29%), transport system improvements (22%) and electrification 
(15%) (SLOCAT, 2022). Countries like Cape Verde, Congo, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Seychelles, 
Sierra Leone, and South Sudan included in their NDCs’ actions to electrify public buses 
as an entry point for long term efforts towards more comprehensive electrification of 
Table 1: Transport-sector emissions reduction targets of select African countries
Country
Transport GHG emission targets in the NDC
Algeria
Committed to reduce greenhouse emissions by 22% by 2030 
relative to business as usual.
Egypt 
Aims to reduce emissions by 7% below the business as usual.
Eswatini
Aims to reduce emissions from transport by introducing commercial 
use of 10% ethanol blend in petrol and conducting studies to assess 
the adoption of electric mobility options. 
Gambia 
Intends to reduce emissions by 22% below the business as usual
Guinea
Intends to unconditionally reduce emissions by 10% below the 
business as usual.
Liberia
Intends to lower emissions by 15% below the business as usual. 
Mauritania
Intends to lower emissions by 1%, of which 5.21% of the target is 
unconditional, below the business as usual.
Namibia 
Intends to reduce emissions by 7% below the business as usual.
Mauritius 
Intends to reduce emissions by 8%, below the business as usual.
Rwanda 
Intends to reduce emissions by 9% through adoption of EVs and 
10% through improved vehicle standards below the business as 
usual.
Seychelles
Intends to reduce emissions by 30% by focusing on gasoline 
vehicles.
Sierra Leone
Commits to implementing low GHG fuels and incentives for vehicle 
demand reduction.
Somali
Intends to lower emissions by 56%, below the business as usual.
South Sudan
Intends to reduce emissions by 44% below the business as usual.
Sudan 
Intends to reduce emissions by 1% below the business as usual.
Uganda 
Intends to reduce emissions by 29% below the business as usual.
Zimbabwe 
Intends to reduce emissions by 1% through transport economy fuel 
policies and fuel efficiency improvements; and 1% by shifting from 
private to public transport. 
Source: UNFCCC NDC registry. https://unfccc.int/NDCREG 


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transport (SLOCAT, 2022). Figure 6 (a) shows transport adaptation actions which relate 
to road infrastructure resilience, majorly incorporated into design and planning of the 
transport systems and infrastructure. 
Supporting transport electrification with renewable energy is crucial for reducing 
emissions in the transport sector. Despite the mitigation benefits of using renewable 
energy to electrify the transport sector, few countries have linked transport electrification 
with using renewable energy for manufacturing and operating the vehicles. Only 10% of 
transport mitigation actions in Africa pertain to alternative fuels, and less than 3% mention 
the use of renewable energy. Among the submitted NDCs, Burkina Faso, Morocco, 
Namibia, South Sudan, and Tanzania stand out for linking transport to renewable energy. 
Meanwhile, Cape Verde has set a target to electrify at least 25% of its land-borne transport 
fleet (new road vehicles) by 2030, supported by renewable energy sources (SLOCAT, 
2022). To enhance transport resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change 
impacts, countries are expected to communicate their adaptation strategies in their 
NDCs. Thus, many African countries have featured transport adaptation actions in NDCs 
submitted, with 25 NDCs incorporating such measures. Notably, over half of these actions 
are geared towards enhancing the resilience of road infrastructure. Additionally, close 
to one-third of all transport adaptation actions revolve around integrating adaptation 
strategies into the design and planning of transport systems and infrastructure (SLOCAT, 
2022).
1.3	 Strategies for Decarbonising Road Transport
Replacing technologies that use fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) for 
electrification with those based on renewable energy sources (like solar, wind, and 
hydro), can play an important role in the decarbonisation of transport. Electric vehicles are 
generally more environmentally friendly than their petrol or diesel counterparts, producing 
fewer greenhouse gases, pollutants and noise. While EVs have higher emissions during 
the production stage, this is offset by lower emissions over their lifespan. Currently, 
electric vehicles emit 17-30% less GHG than traditional cars (European Environment 
Agency, 2018). With advancements in manufacturing efficiency and cleaner electricity 
production, the life-cycle emissions of electric vehicles could be reduced by at least 73% 
by 2050 (European Environment Agency, 2018). Except for the initial capital cost, currently 
between 30–40% higher than an equivalent ICE vehicle (Gallizzi, 2022), EVs also have 
lower operational and maintenance costs, making them cheaper overall (see Section 5.3).
Approximately 14% of all new vehicles sold in 2022 globally were EVs, a rise of 9% 
compared to 2021 (IEA, 2023). China, the European Union, and the United States, three 
major global automotive markets, have the highest rates of adoption of passenger EVs. 
China accounted for 47% of EV sales in 2021, followed by the EU (37%) and the United 
States (12%) (Kendall, et al., 2023). China, the EU, and the United States are expected 
to only sell EVs by 2035, and by 2050, 80% of the world’s vehicle sales are expected 
to be electric (Mckinsey, 2022). As global vehicle manufacturers move towards phasing 
out internal combustion engines within the next few decades, it becomes increasingly 
important for developing countries, including those in Africa, to follow the trend of 
transition to electric mobility. This shift is crucial to prevent these nations from becoming 
repositories for high-emission vehicles phased out in advanced economies, and to 


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ensure alignment with global trends towards more sustainable transportation.
Demand for EVs in Africa is rising, but data are limited. In 2021, Africa’s EV market had an 
estimated value of USD 11.94 billion and is projected to reach USD 21.39 billion by 2027 
(MordorIntelligence, 2023). South Africa, for example, is expected to have high demand 
for EVs, including from the paratransit transport sector (see Case Study 2 in Chapter 2). A 
recent study demonstrated significant interest among South African paratransit owners 
and drivers to adopt EVs in the future but emphasised the need to address concerns 
related to EV vehicle performance, safety, reliability, environmental impact, and operating 
costs (Hull, et al., 2023).
While adoption of electric vehicles can help address pollution, it does not necessarily 
resolve other transport sector challenges in Africa such as congestion and road safety, or 
the large amount of land that transport infrastructure may require. Consequently, while 
imperative, electrification of transport needs to be considered as an integral component 
of a broader, more comprehensive strategy for developing sustainable transport systems 
in Africa, such as the EASIR approach. Implementing a holistic approach that includes 
effective urban planning, the adoption of mass rapid transit (MRT), bus rapid transit (BRT) 
and non-motorised transport (NMT), along with the transition to EVs, is crucial not only 
for mitigating climate change, but also for assisting countries in achieving their Nationally 
Determined Contributions (NDC) targets. Overall, transitioning to a decarbonised 
transport sector offers an opportunity for broader environmental consciousness and the 
adoption of sustainable practices across various sectors.
 
1.4.	 The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience Approach 
to Decarbonisation of Transport 
Decarbonisation of the transport sector requires robust political frameworks and policies 
that aim to reduce emissions from transport, such as deployment of EVs, along with a 
consistent plan to eliminate ICE vehicles while establishing safer, reliable, and accessible 
non-motorised transport infrastructure in the continent. The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-
Resilience (EASIR) approach provides a framework for the strategies for decarbonisation 
of transport in Africa.
Initially developed in the early 1990s as the ASI approach, the framework sought to (1) 
improve access to jobs, goods and services while enabling users to avoid motorised trips 
by smarter land use and logistics planning; (2) shift the transport of goods and persons to 
the most efficient mode; and (3) improve the efficiency and environmental performance 
of transport systems through improved vehicle, fuel, and network operations and 
management technologies. The successful development and implementation of any 
policy depends on the existence of effective institutional or governance frameworks. 
The Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP), an international partnership 
administered by the World Bank, proposed a fourth action pillar—Enable—to complement 
the ASI approach based on the specificities of the African context. Since enable actions 
are the prerequisites that make other actions in ASI possible, SSATP has proposed 
putting enable first, thereby converting ASI into the EASI policy framework, guiding 
decarbonisation of transport and transport accessibility reforms in Africa. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The 2022 World Bank report Pathways to Electric Mobility in the Sahel: Two- and Three-
Wheelers in Bamako and Ouagadougou, proposed the addition of another pillar—
resilience. The report, which assessed the potential for electrification of two-wheelers and 
three-wheelers due to their dominance in the African market highlighted the resiliency 
of these modes of transport despite the challenges they face. Like most parts of Africa, 
in Bamako, Mali, two-wheelers are used for private travel, commercial passenger travel, 
freight transport, and in motor taxis, while in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, they are used 
primarily as private vehicles. In both cities, three-wheelers are used predominantly for 
freight transport. The inclusion of a Resilience pillar thus recognises the necessity of 
creating or enhancing the resilience and adaptive capacity of transport systems and 
infrastructure to withstand various stresses and shocks, including those exacerbated by 
climate change, environmental degradation, and social changes as exemplified by two- 
and three-wheelers in Africa (World Bank, 2022).
The EASIR approach can be adopted by individual transport users, companies, and 
policymakers as shown in Table 2. For individual consumers of transport services such as 
passengers, there is a need for awareness of the impact of the transport sector in climate 
change as well as a mindset shift, and the adoption of sustainable modes of transport. 
For companies, adopting the approach requires a transformational shift in the way they 
operate — how they source, use, consume, and think about energy, and how they engage 
with multiple stakeholders. For governments and investors, there is a need for significant 
policy and financial commitments. 
Climate adaptation and mitigation actions adopted by African countries in their NDCs 
(see Section 1.2 of this Chapter) align with elements of the EASIR approach. Applications 
of EASIR actions through integrated, intermodal, and balanced approaches are vital to 
achieving sustainable low carbon transport. Relative to NDCs globally, EASIR actions in 
Africa are slightly more balanced, with 30% representing shift actions compared to 25% 
at the global level. Improve actions such as vehicle improvements make up 53% of all 
actions in the region, which is the lowest among all regions and slightly below the global 
level (58%) (SLOCAT, 2022), as outlined in Figure 7. 
Figure 7: Mitigation actions by enable-avoid-shift-improve approach.
Source: Adapted from GIZ (2022)
Avoid
4%
4%
33%
52%
53%
30%
First-generation NDCs
Second-generation NDCs
Shift
Improve
Mitigation actions by Avoid–Shift–Improve


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1.5 Benefits of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa
The benefits of decarbonising transport in Africa can be broadly categorised into 
environmental, economic, and social. These are discussed in some detail in the following 
sections.
1.5.1	 Environmental Benefits
Transitioning from fossil fuel-dependent vehicles to cleaner alternatives such as EVs 
supported by renewable energy sources like hydropower, solar and wind power will not 
only decrease air pollution, but also lessen reliance on imported fossil fuels, promoting 
energy independence. The environmental benefits also extend beyond immediate 
emission reductions. Embracing green transportation technologies can contribute to 
the preservation of Africa’s rich biodiversity and natural landscapes, often threatened 
by pollution and unsustainable development practices. The abundant sunshine and 
vast landscapes offer an ideal setting for harnessing solar energy, a potentially pivotal 
source for powering EVs and the necessary charging infrastructure. Another positive 
impact includes a decrease in noise pollution as EVs are significantly quieter than ICE 
vehicles. Moreover, as discussed in Chapter 4, decarbonising transport also offers an 
opportunity for sustainable transport and urban development, in line with the United 
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
 
1.5.2	 Economic Benefits
Sustainable transport solutions can promote economic development, reduce poverty, 
and improve access to transport while also reducing carbon emissions and protecting the 
environment (see Chapter 4). Unlike developed regions facing the difficult challenge of 
transitioning from an “old economy,” Africa has an advantage in that it can directly invest 
in a green economy, bypassing traditional, emission-heavy models of development. 
Within the transportation sector, current low motorisation rates mean that the continent 
can more easily focus on adoption of clean transportation models, for both personal cars 
and mass transit systems. Moreover, the continent is endowed with vast natural resources 
and a wealth of untapped renewable energy potential. These assets, if leveraged 
effectively, have the potential to not only contribute to reducing emissions but also to 
create substantial job opportunities, drive technological advancements, and stimulate 
sustainable economic growth.
 
One area with significant economic potential is the automotive sector. In developed 
markets, established auto manufacturers hold a dominant position, making it challenging 
for new vehicle manufacturers to enter the market, unless they showcase significant 
innovations in product development. Conversely, the African market remains untapped 
and offers promising opportunities for new entrants. The relative simplicity of EV 
production and the significant localisation of several key components (excluding batteries) 
offer opportunities for domestic production in many low-and middle-income countries. 
Innovative start-ups in Kenya (for example, BasiGo, Roam, Kiri, and Kuza Automotive), 
Uganda (for example, Kiira Motors Corporation), Rwanda (for example, Ampersand), and 
South Africa indicate the viability of diversifying the vehicle manufacturing industry in 
Africa (see Chapter 2).


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The emerging EV component supply and value chain thus offers significant economic 
advantages. As the demand for traditional ICE vehicle components wanes, a new market 
for EV-specific components, particularly batteries and electric drives, is rapidly expanding. 
With its rich reserves of essential minerals like cobalt and lithium, crucial for battery 
production, Africa is already recognised as a vital source of raw materials. Investing in 
local manufacturing of EVs and EV components could further provide opportunities for 
the development of automotive exports, which would stimulate economic growth and 
innovation in the automotive and related supply and value chains.
Transition to electric transportation also offers an opportunity to reduce the import bill 
and foreign exchange outflows associated with imports of fuel and used vehicles, since 
countries may save up to 50% in refuelling costs by transitioning to EV fleets (Scott, et 
al., 2023). Meanwhile, export of automotive products will result in associated foreign 
exchange earnings, potentially bolstering foreign reserves and further strengthening 
economic resilience and reducing macroeconomic vulnerabilities to energy-induced 
external shocks. Conversely, these positive macroeconomic effects will not be the same 
for all African countries. Fuel-importing countries stand to reap significant economic 
benefits from substituting hydrocarbon imports with domestically generated renewable 
energy forms. For petroleum-exporting African countries, fuel exports are a significant 
source of public revenue that drives economic growth and prosperity. As a result, they 
will have to invest in alternative revenue sources by diversifying hydrocarbon value 
chains to sustain the positive effects of the petroleum sector on public finances and on 
the domestic economy. In many countries, petroleum taxation is a dependable source 
of public revenue, although the level of dependence and flexibility to shift to other 
sustainable tax revenue sources vary widely across Africa. For example, tax revenues on 
petroleum products accounts for as much as 60% of total tax revenues in Nigeria, Gabon, 
Equatorial Guinea, and Angola, and less than a third in oil-importing countries such as 
Kenya and Botswana. Regardless, all countries will need to make fiscal adjustments to 
accommodate these changes and to proactively transition their public revenues systems 
away from hydrocarbons to new and more sustainable alternatives.
 
1.5.3	 Social Benefits 
The social benefits of sustainable transportation include improved accessibility of transport 
for all people and benefits related to public health and job creation. Sustainable mobility 
solutions promote accessible and affordable transportation options for all members of 
society, including those with limited mobility or financial resources, compared to transport 
systems focused on serving private vehicles. Public transportation, cycling infrastructure, 
and walking paths are examples of inclusive transportation modes that can be utilised 
by people of different socio-economic backgrounds. For urban residents, the use of low-
emission vehicles such as EVs and alternative modes like walking and cycling can reduce 
air pollution, leading to improvements in the quality of life for all. Meanwhile, the transition 
to decarbonised transport could result in increased social equity across socioeconomic 
groups in towns and cities across Africa. Designing or adopting new buses presents 
an opportunity to consider the needs of persons with disabilities in the design of the 
bus itself as well as in bus-parking infrastructure, following the Just Transition Principles 
(discussed in Chapter 5). Moreover, since transport decarbonisation will impact urban 


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design, it presents an opportunity to consider the needs of low-income communities 
and vulnerable groups in urban development and transport planning. Furthermore, EVs 
operate more smoothly and quietly than ICE cars since electric motors generate less 
noise and vibration, which may lead to a safer, more pleasurable and relaxing driving 
experience.
 
1.6	 Challenges in the Transition to Decarbonised 
Transportation
The transition to decarbonised transport in Africa faces several challenges, which can be 
categorised into issues related to electric vehicles (EVs), public and active transport, and 
broader systemic challenges.
1.6.1	 Systemic Barriers
The entrenched nature of fossil fuel energy systems, traditional transportation operators, 
and existing governance systems creates significant systemic barriers to decarbonisation. 
These entities often have established, powerful interests that are resistant to change 
due to financial, political, or ideological reasons. Overcoming these barriers requires 
not only technological innovation but also changes in policy, consumer behaviour, 
and investment patterns. The challenge is to dismantle these entrenched systems in 
a way that is economically and socially sustainable, while rapidly advancing towards 
greener alternatives. The multi-level perspective framework for understanding complex 
sustainability transitions involving multiple regimes and stakeholders (discussed in 
Chapter 5, Section 5.1) offers insights into how to disrupt these regimes and the complex 
transition to decarbonisation.
 
1.6.2	 Electricity Supply and Infrastructure
A stable and ample supply of electricity is a prerequisite for EVs. However, many countries 
in Africa struggle with inconsistent power supplies which could potentially limit the 
effectiveness of a transition to electric vehicles (see discussion in Chapter 3). The lack of 
infrastructure and irregular power supply results in high electricity costs. 
Although not unique to Africa, the sparsity of charging stations results in range anxiety 
(the fear of running out of power while driving with no place to recharge). Range anxiety 
is one of the main reasons cited as limiting large uptake of e-mobility by many private 
vehicle owners. Solutions such as battery swapping can address range anxiety, especially 
for long-distance travel and in rural areas of Africa where electricity supply may be 
intermittent. Battery swapping is the process of removing depleted batteries from an 
EV and replacing it with a charged one (see discussion of business models in Chapter 
2). Battery swapping ensures that the ‘recharge’ is almost instant, ensuring the user can 
continue their journey, minus the minimal time taken to replace the battery. Meanwhile, 
some countries, like Egypt and Rwanda, are mitigating high electricity costs through 
special tariffs for charging stations. Egypt offers set prices for EV charging (operators are 
provided with official licenses) and Rwanda has capped tariffs for charging stations with 
charge point operators at USD 10 cents/kWh (instead of 20 cents/kWh) and reducing 
tariffs for charges during off-peak hours.


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
1.6.3	 High Cost and Accessibility of Electric Vehicles
The initial high cost of EVs makes them less accessible in a continent with significant 
economic constraints. Financial institutions view the EV market as risky, offering high-
interest rates for EV financing, discouraging uptake. As a result, many EVs on the market 
remain more expensive than ICE vehicles. For example, in South Africa, an electric car is, 
on average, twice as expensive as a new ICE vehicle (Valero & Wink, 2022). 
In addition, there is a dependency on imported technology and expertise in the EV sector, 
hindering local industry development and innovation. Local EV industry development, 
innovation, design, and production can help counteract this dependency challenge. Two 
such examples are the electrification of public buses in Kenya (see Case Study 1, Section 
2.3.1), and the conversion of paratransit vehicles from ICE to EVs in South Africa (see 
Case Study 2, Section 2.3.9).
1.6.4	 Insufficient Policy Frameworks and Incentives
Robust policy frameworks and incentives are essential to support the widespread 
adoption of clean transportation. These measures should include VAT and custom duty 
exceptions, alongside initiatives to encourage financial institutions to develop accessible 
vehicle-financing packages for EV buyers. While such policy frameworks and incentives 
are in development, as discussed in Chapters 2 and 5 of this report, they remain 
insufficient or entirely lacking in many countries. Chapter 5 specifically outlines how 
these frameworks, including financial institution engagement strategies, can effectively 
promote the uptake of clean transportation models.
1.6.5	 Workforce and Industry
The shift from traditional automotive manufacturing and maintenance to greener 
technologies is a complex transition for the workforce and industry. The transition 
requires retraining workers, adapting existing manufacturing facilities, and developing 
new skill sets aligned with green technologies such as EV production and maintenance, 
or management of renewable energy systems. Moreover, the transition must be 
managed in a way that minimises job losses in traditional industries and creates new 
employment opportunities in the green sector. This requires significant commitment 
from all stakeholders.
1.6.6	 Underinvestment in Public and Active Transport
The lack of sufficient investment in public and active transport infrastructure severely 
restricts the development of sustainable transport options. This underinvestment 
leads to inadequate, unreliable, or non-existent public transit systems and discourages 
active transport modes like cycling and walking due to safety concerns and lack of 
supporting infrastructure. Expanding and maintaining efficient public transit systems, as 
well as developing infrastructure for non-motorised transport, are crucial for reducing 
dependency on personal vehicles and lowering emissions (see discussion in Chapter 4). 
This requires not only financial investment but also strategic urban planning to integrate 
different modes of transport effectively.


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1.6.7	 Poor Coordination and Non-inclusivity
Many African countries struggle with poor transport planning, coordination, and 
implementation, leading to fragmented and inefficient systems. This issue is compounded 
by non-inclusive infrastructural development, which often fails to consider the diverse 
needs of all population segments, including women, the elderly, and persons with 
disabilities. There is a critical need for integrated transport planning that considers the 
unique needs of different groups, thereby ensuring equitable access to transport services. 
This includes designing safe, accessible, and user-friendly transportation systems that 
cater to the needs of vulnerable populations and promote inclusive mobility.
These challenges highlight the critical need for coordinated efforts among governments, 
industry stakeholders, and international partners to successfully navigate the shift towards 
a decarbonised transport sector. A holistic approach that addresses technical, economic, 
social, and political dimensions is essential to overcome these obstacles and achieve 
sustainable transport solutions. 


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ACCELERATING DECARBONISATION OF
TRANSPORT IN AFRICA
African countries are already engaged in efforts to decarbonise road transport. This 
chapter explores some of these efforts and how to accelerate them. It highlights business 
models and solutions that are necessary in addressing issues that hinder uptake of 
electric vehicles such as lack of affordability and unreliable charging infrastructure. 
These include local manufacturing of EVs, innovative charging models, and financing 
mechanisms. This chapter also underscores the importance of adopting data-driven and 
evidence-based approaches in policy planning and decision-making to hasten the shift 
towards decarbonised transport across the continent.
2.1	 Policies and Regulations
Policies and regulations to decarbonise transport in Africa have been adopted across 
various levels—continental, regional, and national. At the continental level, the African 
Union’s Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) aims to facilitate 
regional integration by improving physical infrastructure in Africa by developing road 
networks, railways, ports, and airports to enhance connectivity between countries. PIDA 
also looks to expand the electric grid network across Africa, focusing on both renewable 
and non-renewable energy sources to ensure a sustainable and reliable power supply 
(AfDB, n.d.). The programme is crucial for addressing Africa’s infrastructure deficit, which 
is a major barrier to trade, economic growth, and development.
 
Similarly, Agenda 2063, Africa’s blueprint for developing inclusive and sustainable 
socio-economic development, includes a commitment to promote sustainable and 
efficient transportation systems across the continent (African Union, 2015). Agenda 2063 
underscores the development of sustainable transportation infrastructure, the use of 
alternative fuels, and the adoption of clean energy technologies (African Union, 2015). 
Equally, the African Renewable Energy Initiative aims to achieve universal access to 
renewable energy in Africa by 2025 (AREI, 2016). This initiative promotes the adoption 
of renewable energy technologies such as solar charging of EVs (discussed in Chapters 
3 and 5) in the transport sector. Building on these foundational efforts, the AU has 
strengthened its commitment to climate action by adopting the Climate Change and 
Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 (African Union, 
2022). CCRDSAP serves as a comprehensive framework for joint climate action at the 
continental level, enabling African countries to collectively address climate change and 
resilience. It encourages partnership development and supports the decarbonisation 
of critical sectors, including transport and energy. This strategy aligns with the African 
countries’ commitments under the Paris Agreement, drawing guidance from national 
climate efforts as outlined in the Nationally Determined Contributions and national long-
CHAPTER TWO


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term strategies for resilient development and decarbonisation. Additionally, the AU’s 
Nairobi Declaration that was adopted at the inaugural Africa Climate Summit emphasises 
the urgent need for decarbonising the global economy, advocating for equality and 
shared prosperity (African Union, 2023). The Declaration urges African countries to 
accelerate decarbonisation in transport, electricity, and industrial sectors by adopting 
smart, digital, and efficient technologies, such as battery storage, synthetic fuels, and 
renewable energy sources (African Union, 2023).
 
As noted previously, 85% of vehicles imported in Africa are used vehicles (Ayetor et al., 
2021). Until recently, there were no uniform vehicle standards across Africa (Kithome, 
2019). To align with the trade policy requirements as outlined in the African Continental 
Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA), the African Organisation for Standardisation 
(ARSO) and the African Export-Import Bank (Afreximbank) collaborated to harmonise 
standards and conformity assessment in the automotive sector to stimulate and boost 
trade among vehicle and parts manufacturers. The partnership led to the alignment 
of 13 standards, encompassing roadworthiness, automotive fuels, transportation of 
hazardous goods by road, classifications of motor vehicles and trailers, cross-border 
road transport management, vehicle homologation, and suggestions to embrace global 
standards (Kithome, 2021). This harmonisation was also in line with recommendations 
of a 2020 UNEP report on the climate effects of the vehicle-import industry. The report 
recommended the development of coordinated regulations at the global or regional 
levels to regulate trade-in used vehicles to end the trade of unsafe, obsolete, dirty, and 
faulty used vehicles (United Nations, 2020).
 
Regulations play a crucial role in driving the decarbonisation of transport in Africa 
and can have either positive or negative impacts on the process. At the national level, 
several countries have developed policies and regulations to promote and facilitate the 
decarbonisation of transport. Kenya’s National Climate Change Action Plan includes a 
focus on promoting electric vehicles, investment in non-motorised transport and public 
transport, and reducing emissions from the transport sector (Ministry of Environment and 
Forestry, 2021). In addition, Kenya’s National Automotive Policy aims to develop national 
capacities for competitive automotive products manufacturing anchored on training, 
innovation, research, and development. The strategy aims to increase the exports of 
automotive products to the East African region from 5% in 2018 to 15% by 2022 (Kenya 
National Assembly, 2022). To achieve this target, the government introduced incentive 
plans on locally assembled vehicles with the aim of replacing imported vehicles with locally 
assembled ones. However, due to increased competition from used vehicle markets and 
weak domestic vehicle production facilities, this target was not met (ReportLinker, 2023).
 
South Africa’s Automotive Production and Development Programme (APDP) aims to 
stimulate the expansion of the automotive production sector by providing incentives 
for both domestic and foreign manufacturers. While the primary goal is to boost local 
production, promoting the local automotive industry can facilitate the introduction and 
adoption of cleaner and more fuel-efficient vehicle technologies. South Africa also 
provides EV incentives, which, if integrated with local production strategies, can foster 
cleaner transportation. In addition, the South African Automotive Masterplan (SAAM, 
2021–2035) aims to support the production of 1% of global vehicles, or 1.4 million 
vehicles (both electric and non-electric) per annum in South Africa by 2035, which will 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
enhance the country’s status in the global vehicle production ranking (International 
Trade Administration, 2024).
 
In Rwanda, a 2010 Ministerial Order mandated that exhaust fumes of motor vehicles be 
included in the annual roadworthiness test and traffic police have acquired emissions 
inspection equipment, including those that can perform on-the-spot emissions checks 
(see Figure 8). In March 2022, Rwanda National Police (RNP), the body mandated with 
implementing motor vehicle emissions standards, together with other environmental 
institutions, launched the “Healthy Vehicle, Cleaner Skies,” a campaign to reduce air 
pollution in Kigali (Rwanda National Police, 2022). The campaign targeted operators 
of fossil-fuel powered vehicles and machinery, encouraging them to ensure that these 
vehicles and machines are kept in optimal working conditions, thereby minimising 
emissions.
 
Meanwhile, Rwanda’s strategic plan on electric mobility adaptation aims to have 20% of 
buses, 30% of motorcycles, and 8% of cars electrified by 2030 and provides substantial 
savings on fuel imports (Republic of Rwanda, 2021). Rwanda’s government also 
invested USD 900 million and USD 190 million for EVs and vehicle emissions standards, 
respectively (UNEP
, 2022). Rwanda has also launched a pilot project in partnership with 
Volkswagen to manufacture EVs locally (Volkswagen, 2019). 
 
In Nigeria, the National Automotive Industry Development Plan (NAIDP) 2023–2033 aims 
to revive the automobile industry by providing incentives for local vehicle production and 
assembly through tax breaks and import restrictions on second-hand vehicles (NADDC, 
2023). It imposes a 40% local content requirement and aims to ensure 30% local 
production of EVs by 2033 (NADDC, 2023). This decreases reliance on older, imported 
vehicles, which are often less fuel-efficient and more polluting. This shift becomes 
particularly impactful as local producers begin to transition towards the production of 
electric vehicles.
 
In Morocco, the National Energy Strategy targets a significant reduction in the transport 
sector’s reliance on fossil fuels, aiming for a 24.5% decrease in energy consumption 
by 2030 (Rim et al., 2021). The National Logistics Strategy seeks to enhance the 
sustainability of the government fleet by increasing the share of green cars (defined 
as hybrid or electric) by 30% (Benabdelaziz, n.d.); for example, the Post Office 
committed to electrifying a fleet of about 225 of its vehicles. Through the Programme 
for the Improvement of Urban Public Transport, Morocco aims to renew taxi fleets and 
extend tramway lines in Casablanca and Rabat to reduce public transport emissions 
(Benabdelaziz, n.d.). Tax incentives, infrastructure development, and training initiatives 
have also positioned Morocco as an attractive location for automotive investment, 
especially for manufacturing of EVs and hybrid vehicles.
 
Ghana’s Automotive Development Policy (GADP) aims to position the country as a 
fully integrated and competitive industrial hub for the automotive industry in the West 
Africa region. This includes attracting major global vehicle manufacturers to establish 
assembly plants in the country. By promoting local assembly and reducing the reliance 
on imported used vehicles, Ghana can influence the type and efficiency of vehicles on its 
roads, potentially favouring cleaner, low-emission options (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 
2019).
 


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The policies highlighted above offer a strategic blueprint for promoting sustainable 
transport solutions across Africa. They underscore the critical role of well-crafted policy 
instruments as accelerators in the continent’s transport sector decarbonisation, a 
theme that is further elaborated in Section 2.2 which categorises various types of policy 
instruments.
2.2	 Policy Instruments
Policy instruments play a critical role in advancing decarbonisation efforts in Africa. 
There are generally four types of policy instruments that are utilised or can be utilised 
by African governments: (1) market-based instruments (such as taxes, subsidies, fees, 
quotas, and penalties); (2) regulatory instruments (licenses, limits, prohibitions, laws); (3) 
direct provisions; and (4) information provisions. These policy instruments can be used 
to spur or stifle transport decarbonisation and are discussed below.
2.2.1	 Market-Based Instruments
Market-based instruments seek to alter incentives of economic agents to promote 
desirable behaviour and action to foster economic efficiency and promote social equity 
and environmental sustainability. Market-based instruments normally take the form 
of taxes and public subsidies incentivising private investment. For EVs, they include 
incentives that promote local manufacturing, distribution, purchase, and assembly of EV 
charging infrastructure and services needed to encourage electric mobility. As noted in 
Section 1.6, a challenge with accelerating EV adoption is slow market development of 
charging services; often only established when adoption rates reach the level required 
to support a commercial charging service model. Conversely, consumers are unlikely to 
adopt EVs in the absence of reliable and affordable EV charging services. For NMT, they 
include incentives that enhance the development of accompanying infrastructure such 
as bike lanes, pedestrian walkways, and bike-sharing programmes to make the more 
accessible and appealing to the public. Local governments should encourage the use of 
NMT, and public transportation, for example, through subsidies for the poor instead of 
building infrastructure for private vehicles as seen in many African cities (UN-Habitat, 2022). 
For MRT, governments can implement land use policies that encourage development 
around MRT stations, such as higher density zoning or improved permitting processes 
for transit-oriented developments. This can create vibrant, mixed-use communities that 
are easily accessible by MRT, driving ridership and increasing property values.
2.2.2	 Regulatory Instruments
Regulatory instruments include a wide range of command-and-control instruments 
implemented in the form of rules and regulations, standards and limits, restrictions 
placed on access, extraction and production, trade, and consumption of certain goods 
and services in the economy. Regulatory instruments that have been deployed in the 
transport and allied sectors need to be assessed for consistency with supporting efforts 
to transition to carbon neutral transportation to achieve the net-zero targets as outlined in 
the 2015 Paris Agreement. Such an assessment can identify regulations that run contrary 
to these efforts and possible reformation. It is critical to ensure that the regulatory 
instruments are holistic and foster policy coherence while also being cost-effective.
 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Several countries, including Algeria, Chad, Kenya, Mauritius, and Seychelles, have used 
regulatory instruments to prohibit importation of second-hand vehicles of a certain 
age in a bid to reduce carbon emissions (UNEP
, 2017). For example, in Algeria, Chad, 
Mauritius, and Seychelles, an imported diesel vehicle cannot be older than three years; 
in Kenya, Mauritania, and Namibia, eight years; in Benin, Democratic Republic of Congo, 
and Eritrea, 10 years; and in Liberia, Nigeria, and Eswatini, 12 years (UNEP
, 2017). Other 
countries have also banned use of ordinary diesel in preference of low sulphur diesel to 
reduce carbon emissions (UNEP
, 2017).
 
EVs and charging service ecosystems require specific supporting regulatory instruments 
that address various aspects of usage. This may include standards for the construction 
and operation of charging stations, guidelines on the sourcing and disposal of EV 
batteries, safety protocols, and incentives to encourage EV adoption. Moreover, 
regulations can also consider the integration of EV infrastructure with existing urban and 
rural environments, to ensure accessibility and convenience for users.
 
Infrastructure standards and regulations can also enhance road safety and promote the 
integration of different transport modes, such as linking NMT with public transportation 
systems in African countries. These could include implementing urban speed limits, 
establishing clear rules for yielding to pedestrians at crossings, and setting penalties for 
reckless driving that endangers NMT users. Additionally, regulations could support NMT 
integration with public transport by mandating the provision of bike racks on buses and 
trains and ensuring that transit stations are accessible by foot or bike.”
2.2.3	 Direct Provision
Direct provision instruments occur when governments directly provide goods or services 
to its citizens, rather than through market mechanisms or private sector entities. These 
instruments are often used in areas where the government deems it essential to have 
direct control to ensure equitable access, quality, and efficiency, or where the market may 
fail to provide these goods or services adequately.
 
Direct provision instruments offer an alternative option for African governments to 
support critical aspects of decarbonised transport, such as the adoption of EVs. In 
addition to market- and policy-based instruments, governments can play an important 
role in providing enabling infrastructure needed to make public and non-motorised 
transport, mass rapid transit, and electric mobility business models profitable and 
sustainable. Governments can directly invest in and build EV charging stations across 
cities and along major highways, and in rural areas to support the lack of commercial 
provision. This will alleviate range anxiety and position EVs as a more viable option for 
consumers. Moreover, direct provision of electric public transit and the electrification of 
government fleets (official government vehicles) can also set positive precedents for EV 
adoption while creating a stable demand for EVs and charging infrastructure, ultimately 
attracting private investors.
2.2.4	 Information Provision
Information provision entails the dissemination of relevant, accurate, and timely 
information to the public or specific target groups to increase public education and 


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awareness. This provision can play an important role in shaping and changing public 
preferences and behaviour in the selection of transport options. For instance, some 
consumers perceive electric vehicles as expensive and have adopted a “wait and 
see” approach while continuing to use ICE vehicles (Alanazi, 2023). Even in countries 
with incentives for EV purchases, consumers may be unaware of such incentives. The 
utilisation of efficient strategies for information sharing on EVs, including the promotion 
of existing incentives for EVs, and e-mobility modes in general, will assist the transition 
to sustainable transport. Furthermore, to change consumer attitudes and behaviour 
(preferences) on walking and cycling when appropriate infrastructure is available, public 
awareness and campaigns to battle misinformation are required.
 
2.3	 Business Models and Solutions
EVs have high upfront cost compared to ICE vehicles and current EV charging 
infrastructure is inadequate, causing range anxiety amongst potential customers and 
hindering uptake. New business and financing models can address both the issue of 
affordability and access to charging infrastructure to accelerate adoption of EVs in Africa. 
Business models and solutions include local assembly and manufacturing, conversion 
of ICE vehicles to EVs, auto parts manufacturing, battery swapping, Pay-As-You-Go 
charging, solar charging stations, vehicle to grid, integrated mobility platforms, and 
battery recycling and are discussed below. The business models can incorporate EVs 
charging at large supermarket complexes and large hospitals, as well as private charging 
at homes and offices.
2.3.1	 Local Assembly and Manufacturing
Local manufacturing of EVs can create jobs and reduce the cost of EVs, making them 
more accessible to consumers. Policies that support local manufacturing, coupled 
with the infusion of technology and skills into the local market, could position Africa as 
a potential EV hub for local and regional markets. Several countries, including Egypt, 
Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, and South Africa have policies supporting local 
vehicle manufacturing (see Section 2.1), and have attracted both global automakers and 
new innovative e-mobility companies.
 
Global companies involved in the manufacturing or assembly of electric vehicles in Africa 
include Nissan and BMW in South Africa, Volkswagen in Rwanda, Hyundai Kona in Nigeria, 
and Renault in Morocco. BYD (Build Your Dreams), a Chinese multinational company 
known for affordable EVs and batteries, has shown interest in the African market through 
partnerships with local companies. Aside from the popular brands, Africa is increasingly 
developing its own vehicle brands. Emerging African manufactured brands include Kiira 
Motors (Uganda), Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (Nigeria), Katanka (Ghana), Mobius 
(Kenya), Laraki (Morocco), and Birkin Cars (South Africa). Companies like Kiira Motors 
in Uganda, Mobility for Africa in Zimbabwe, Ampersand in Rwanda, and BasiGo and 
Roam in Kenya (see Case Study 1 and Figure 9) aim to develop and manufacture electric 
vehicles tailored to the specific needs and conditions of the continent. 
Unlike all other vehicle segments, two-wheelers, or motorcycles (called boda bodas 
in much of East Africa, okadas in Nigeria, and taxi-motos in most English-speaking 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Figure 8. BasiGo bus in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: BasiGo (2023)
Case Study 1
BasiGo — pioneering electric public transportation in Nairobi, Kenya
Rapid urbanisation in Nairobi and other major Kenyan cities has led to an influx of vehicles 
on the road. The prominence of matatus and buses has significantly contributed to the 
escalating issues of traffic congestion and air pollution. Launched in Kenya, BasiGo’s 
mission centres on transforming public transportation by introducing electric buses, 
contributing to sustainable urban mobility, and reducing carbon emissions. BasiGo 
initiated operations by importing electric buses and setting up charging infrastructure 
in strategic locations along busy transit routes and points where buses typically stop for 
the night, ensuring buses could be conveniently charged overnight or during off-peak 
hours. Through a partnership with the Chinese EV manufacturer BYD, BasiGo introduced 
two 25-seat buses to kickstart a pilot project. The company adopted a business model 
that allows bus operators to pay for the buses and their batteries under a Pay-As-You-
Drive system. Under this system, operators have two options for adopting electric buses: 
purchasing the bus without the expensive battery and leasing the battery or leasing the 
entire bus including the battery with a small initial deposit. Both options include free 
access to BasiGo charging stations and maintenance services from BasiGo’s technicians. 
This approach treats the battery, a significant part of an EVs cost, as a service rather than 
a one-time purchase and thus lowers the entry barrier for operators accustomed to the 
high upfront costs of diesel buses. BasiGo prioritised training drivers and maintenance 
personnel and launched awareness campaigns to educate the public on the multiple 
benefits of transitioning to electric transportation. According to Samuel Kamunya, head 
of business development at BasiGo, who briefed the Working Group, BasiGo faced a set 
of challenges while pioneering electrification of Kenya’s public transportation. The most 
significant challenge was the initial investment needed to procure pilot electric buses, 
necessary parts, and to set up the essential charging infrastructure. Additionally, there 
was “range anxiety” among potential users and stakeholders, stemming from concerns 


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Figure 9. Local manufacturing of electric buses in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: ROAM (2024)
about the driving range, and availability and accessibility of charging stations. Moreover, 
the entrenched cultural and economic importance of the traditional “matatus” and buses 
in Kenya’s transportation landscape initially made it challenging to achieve immediate 
broad acceptance among transport operators. BasiGo has made a notable environmental 
impact by preventing the use of 178,307 tonnes of diesel, resulting in a substantial 
reduction of 426 tonnes of carbon emissions. Economically, operators have experienced 
tangible benefits, with a notable reduction in operational costs. The economic relief 
comes from the diminished need for regular maintenance and the complete elimination 
of fuel expenses inherent to traditional buses. Furthermore, the public’s reception of 
BasiGo’s initiative has been overwhelmingly positive. Commuters have expressed their 
appreciation for the buses, citing the quieter rides, absence of pollutants, and the overall 
enhanced comfort.
BasiGo plans to have 1,000 buses on Nairobi’s roads by 2025 and has secured more 
than 100 reservations from operators. Kenya produces over 70% of its electricity from 
renewable sources, making the transition to electric buses not only environmentally 
beneficial but also cost-effective for operators. BasiGo is exploring potential 
collaborations with renewable energy providers to ensure sustainable charging 
solutions. Despite ongoing challenges, BasiGo’s success stands as a promising 
example for other African countries considering the adoption of EVs in public 
transport. In recognition of this potential, in June 2023, BasiGo received a USD 1.5 
million grant from the US Agency for International Development (USAID) to pilot its 
pay-as-you-drive model in Kigali, Rwanda, further expanding its innovative approach 
to sustainable transportation (USAID, 2023). 
Figure 10. Two- and three-wheelers in Mombasa, Kenya
Photo credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
African countries) and three-wheelers (called tuktuks in much of East Africa) are largely 
purchased new in Africa (Kiruga, 2019) (Figure 10). The vehicle segments are easier to 
electrify and have gained more traction in Africa and other emerging markets because 
of their availability, affordability, and flexibility. For instance, two- and three-wheelers EV 
sales in East Africa are gaining traction. They are better for low-income countries and 
low-cost production since they are generally cheaper to electrify compared to buses 
and heavy-duty vehicles. They have smaller batteries which can be charged through a 
mini-grid, making them suitable for use in areas with low access to reliable electricity-
grid infrastructure. They can also benefit from a battery-swap model, in which a depleted 
battery is replaced with a fully charged battery from a designated “swap station”. Two- and 
three-wheelers can make the transition more financially feasible, especially for countries 
with limited resources (Mckinsey, 2022). For African EV manufacturers, focusing on two- 
and three-wheeled vehicles in the short term could make sense, and transition to four-
wheeled vehicles in richer areas would offer a sustainable pathway to decarbonisation of 
the transport sector (Cash, 2022).
2.3.2	 Auto Parts Manufacturing 
Auto parts manufacturing presents a viable opportunity for businesses in many countries 
interested in supplying to both domestic and international markets. The local production 
of auto parts could also generate export revenue and create new employment 
opportunities. The major parts of an electric vehicle include electric motor, DC-DC 
converter (electronic circuit or electromechanical devices that convert a source of direct 
current [DC] from one voltage level to another), power inverter traction battery pack, 
charge port controller, onboard charger auxiliary batteries, thermal system (cooling), and 
transmission, as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Key components of an electric vehicle.
Source: Sambo (2023)


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These parts are made from a combination of materials including steel, aluminium, 
magnesium, lead, nickel, lithium, petrochemicals (plastics), magnets, and copper. Africa 
is rich in these minerals, and there are also industries that trade or process these materials 
that could form both the supply and value chains for these materials for existing and 
future auto parts manufacturing.
2.3.3	 Battery Swapping Stations
Battery swapping involves replacing a depleted battery of an EV with a fully charged 
one. Instead of waiting for a battery to charge, battery-swapping stations allow users 
to simply replace the battery and go. This model, widely implemented in Asia, could 
solve problems related to long charging times and the limited availability of charging 
infrastructure in Africa. In China, one company, Nio, has established over 1,200 battery 
swapping stations, and plans to have 4,000 stations by 2025. Gogoro, a Taiwanese 
energy company, has implemented battery swapping in their operational model for 
urban electric two-wheel scooters and motorcycles, with more than 2000 swapping 
stations available in Taiwan. Ampersand, a Rwandan EV company, has implemented 
battery swapping in their paratransit system with single-passenger motorcycle taxis 
with some of its swapping stations strategically located near solar powered charging 
stations or gasoline stations, enhancing the visibility of the EV ecosystem (Figure 12). 
Meanwhile, Spiro, a Benin-based start-up, aims to deploy more than 1.2 million batteries 
for electric two-wheelers by establishing battery swapping stations (Lewis, 2023). The 
company has operations across Benin, Togo, Rwanda, and Kenya. 
Battery swapping provides an alternative to traditional charging methods and is especially 
suitable for regions such as Africa where fast-charging infrastructure might be too expensive 
or technically challenging. In addition to reducing “range anxiety,” (discussed in Chapter 
4) for potential EV owners, battery swapping could also result in battery standardisation 
(technologies and sizes to enhance the swapping process), simplifying the supply chain.
Hand-swappable batteries can be used for smaller vehicles, but pose significant 
challenges for larger vehicles. Large vehicles might require expensive and integrated 
robotic systems to swap out the battery of a larger EV. Sub-Saharan Africa has a unique 
model where the same vehicle (a minibus taxi, MBT) is used for both urban and long-
Figure 12. Ampersand’s electric vehicle battery swapping station in Kigali, Rwanda
Photo credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
distance applications, presenting challenges for electrification (Akpa et al., 2016). A 
solution to this challenge was proposed by Giliomee et al. (2023), who developed a 
hot-swappable trailer battery bank to eliminate the mechanical challenges of battery 
swapping and reduce the recharging time during long-distance travel. The group 
quantified the energy expenditure of an electric minibus taxi (eMBT) for long-distance 
travel, proposed an operational plan for routes in South Africa, evaluated the impact on 
the electrical grid, and suggested offsetting the strain with solar power installations to 
reduce net greenhouse gas emissions (Giliomee et al., 2023). 
A second study evaluates implemen-tation of battery-equipped trailers that can supply 
extra energy to the EVs and increase their range, while the depleted battery can be 
unhooked and replaced with a fully charged one — reducing recharging downtime in 
time-critical long-distance paratransit in SSA. The use of the battery bank trailer (see 
Figure 13) reduces the number of stops required and the total trip time, benefiting both 
the MBT operator and the environment. Using the battery bank trailer also protects the 
longevity of the internal battery, as the external battery is primarily used for energy and 
allows for easy upgrades.
Figure 13. Trailer-based battery swapping model for long-distance transport.
Photo credit: MJ Booysen, working group member
2.3.4	 Localised Battery Storage
Localised battery storage can be used to 
address EV charging needs, particularly in 
sunny regions like Africa where solar energy is 
abundant. These systems store excess energy 
during peak production times and release 
it as needed, ensuring a consistent charge 
rate and therefore balancing demand with 
renewable energy availability. Research has 
shown that a local storage of approximately 
half the vehicle’s battery size is sufficient to 
ameliorate the impact of each vehicle on the 
grid and to optimise utilisation of available 
renewable sources (Füßl et al., 2022). Figure 
14 shows an example of a battery storage 
solution. 
Figure 14: Example of a battery bank used to charge 
electric vehicles in Berlin. The battery bank charges slowly 
from the grid, but discharges quickly into the vehicles. 
Photo credit: JH Giliomee


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2.3.5	 Pay-As-You-Go Charging
The Pay-As-You-Go charging model is a model where users pay for charging on a per-use 
basis. This model can remove the barrier to EV adoption for those concerned about the 
costs of home charging equipment, as it offers a flexible payment structure for consumers. 
Moreover, it encourages entrepreneurs to establish more charging stations as there is a 
viable payment system. Making EVs accessible to a larger portion of the population will 
result in increased adoption rates and stimulate market competition by pushing other 
companies to offer better lease or rental deals. Pay-As-You-Go models that facilitate EV 
roaming can be particularly useful. Roaming allows drivers to charge anywhere with one 
single account instead of requiring charging at a specific brand of charger. 
Figure 15. Electric vehicle roaming
Source: EV Roaming Foundation
2.3.6	 Solar Charging Stations
Given the abundance of sunlight in most of Africa, combining solar energy with EV 
charging makes the electrification of transport more sustainable. Such stations could 
be set up in urban and rural areas, providing affordable and green energy (Figure 
16). Harnessing abundant solar energy will reduce dependency on non-renewable 
electricity sources, while the integration of clean energy with clean transport deepens the 
environmental impacts. In this instance, hybrid EVs with both solar-charging capabilities 
and traditional electric charging options, such as those illustrated in Figure 17, are more 
appropriate. This dual approach ensures vehicles can remain operational under various 
conditions, maximising their efficiency and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
2.3.7	 Vehicle-to-Grid
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology enables EVs to supply electricity back to the power 
grid, transforming them into mobile energy storage units. This system allows EVs to both 
draw electricity from the grid and supply it back, thereby stabilising and supporting the 
grid during peak times or energy shortages (see Figure 18). Denmark has demonstrated 
the viability of V2G systems through a collaboration between Nissan, the local energy 
company Enel, and EV owners. In this model, EV owners in Denmark can monetise the 
energy stored in their vehicle batteries by feeding it back into the grid at times of high 
demand, thus enhancing grid stability and facilitating the integration of renewable 
energy sources (Nissan Motor Corporation, 2016). This concept holds significant 
promise for Africa, where the abundant renewable energy resources could be leveraged 
Figure 16. Solar powered charging station for electric vehicles in Kigali, Rwanda
Source: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff
Figure 17. Electric vehicle with solar charging components.
Source: Sambo (2023)


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to create a sustainable and resilient energy system. With the appropriate infrastructure 
investments, Africa could harness its extensive renewable energy systems, such as solar 
and wind power, to support a continent-wide implementation of V2G technologies. This 
would not only aid in stabilising the energy grid but also in maximising the utilisation of 
renewable energy. 
2.3.8	 Battery Recycling
Once EV batteries are no longer fit for transport usage, they can still hold significant 
residual capacity. These batteries can be repurposed for stationary energy storage 
applications like grid support or domestic energy storage, creating a secondary revenue 
stream and enhancing sustainability. Notable examples include a partnership between 
the auto manufacturing company Nissan and the power management company Eaton. 
Eaton introduced a residential energy storage solution called xStorage, which uses 
Grid
Back-up
Storage
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Figure 18: Illustration of the vehicle-to-grid concept
Source: adapted from Ravi & Aziz (2022)


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
repurposed batteries from Nissan Leaf vehicles to store excess energy. Homeowners 
can then use these during peak periods or power outages (Nissan Motor Corporation, 
2016). Similarly, in Gothenburg, Sweden, old bus batteries are used to store energy in 
apartment buildings (AB Volvo, 2019). These batteries capture and store solar energy 
generated from panels on the building, which can then be utilised during peak times. 
These examples highlight the potential of repurposed EV batteries in providing cost-
effective, sustainable energy storage solutions, aiding in grid stabilisation, and furthering 
the goals of a circular economy. The development of these recycling formats in Europe 
was encouraged through legislative policy instruments. In China and the European 
Union, manufacturers are required to pay for the cost of collecting and recycling electric 
vehicle components, and similar laws are being considered in the United States (Lim, 
2021). Similar models could be applied in African countries. 
2.3.9	 Conversion of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles to Electric
Innovators in several African countries have pioneered the transformation of ICE 
vehicles into EVs by replacing the ICE engine with EV components. For example, in 
South Africa, researchers at Stellenbosch University have made notable strides by 
successfully converting paratransit minibus taxis from gasoline to electric power (Lacock 
et al., 2023), as discussed in Case Study 2 in this section. The continent’s abundance of 
skilled mechanics and workshops, coupled with a vast supply of used cars, combined 
with ingenuity and resourcefulness that African innovators consistently demonstrate, 
lay the groundwork for a sustainable, scalable model of vehicle conversion. In turn, this 
approach expands the different paths of achieving scalable adoption of EVs in Africa as 
it encourages local innovators, engineers, and entrepreneurs to develop solutions and 
business models tailored to the unique needs and opportunities of the rapidly emerging 
African EV market, while contributing to the global knowledge pool of electric mobility. 
To illustrate further, even BasiGo (Case Study 1) discussed in Section 2.3.1 in this chapter, 
represents conversion of existing gasoline vehicles to EV powertrain. BasiGo works with 
the same traditional manufactures of ICE vehicles in Kenya. The only exception is that 
instead of using an ICE component, the vehicle is fitted with EV components.
The infrastructure required for this transformative manufacturing route is thus already in 
place since many conversions are being carried out in general mechanical workshops 
already equipped with some of the necessary, albeit basic tools and equipment. To 
achieve scalable production, only moderate expansions will be required. This might 
include, for example, the introduction of materials handling equipment like cranes 
and conveyors, which can help accommodate increased volume and complexity of 
operations.
In addition to creating a new economic paradigm, generating jobs, fostering technological 
innovation, and establishing new markets within the automotive industry, the conversion 
of ICE vehicles to EVs potentially positions the continent as a world leader in sustainable 
transport. This could, for example, result in foreign investment, partnerships, collaborative 
projects on electric mobility, and overall impact in shaping the future of transportation.


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32
Figure 19. The electric retrofitted minibus taxi (original model from 2009)
(a) Completed retrofitted taxi. (b) Retrofitted electric vehicle’s electronic dashboard
and controls (Drive (D), Neutral (N), Reverse (R) (Lacock, et al., 2023)
Case Study 2
Electrifying paratransit vehicles in Stellenbosch, South Africa
Despite South Africa’s ongoing electricity challenges, there is an interest among paratransit 
industry operators to transition to electric transportation. However, their willingness to 
immediately transition their fleet from ICE vehicles to electric alternatives is inhibited 
by concerns related to vehicle performance, safety, reliability, environmental impact, 
and operating costs (Hull, et al., 2023; Lacock et al., 2023). Up to 72% of commuters 
use paratransit in South Africa (Lacock, et al., 2023), therefore electrification of this sector 
would be a big step toward the decarbonisation of transport in the country.
 
Building on the study, innovators at Stellenbosch University in South Africa have embarked 
on a project to convert paratransit vehicles into EVs. The team successfully retrofitted 
(converted) a Toyota Hiace Ses’fikile, commonly used in the South Africa paratransit 
industry, from an ICE propulsion to electric propulsion. The process involved testing 
various elements such as weight, torque, and speed to verify the feasibility of retrofitting. 
Retrofitting vehicles allows older cars to stay in use while decreasing emissions, even 
Case Study continued on next page


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Figure 20. Vehicle with combustion-related components removed
(a) Front view of the stripped vehicle. (b) Empty engine compartment. (c) Bottom view of stripped vehicle before 
electric motor and prop-shaft installation. (d) Electric motor with prop shaft (protective cover not shown). (e) Radiator 
for the electric motor coolant (Lacock, et al., 2023)
though they need to comply with local and national roadworthiness standards (Lacock 
et al., 2023). The researchers computed the electric charging needs of these vehicles 
and proposed alternative charging and battery swapping models. This assessment 
involves analysing the energy efficiency of the taxis, which refers to the amount of energy 
consumed per unit of distance travelled. By examining the energy efficiency under 
various driving conditions, the researchers gained insights into the efficiency variations 
and estimated the achievable range for different battery sizes. They also analysed the 
total energy requirements of the taxis throughout a typical day of operations. 
While the adoption of this process for the paratransit industry would greatly impact the 
overall decarbonisation goals of South Africa, it is vital to also consider the impact of 
widescale EVs usage on the supply of electricity. The authors note that the electrification 
of “all minibus taxis in South Africa could add a load of 5% of what the grid can currently 
deliver” (Stellenbosch University, 2023). The issues of electric grid are further discussed in 
Chapter 3.  


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2.4	 Data-Driven Decision Making
Africa has one of the world’s fastest motorisation rates, and evidence-based policy 
planning and decision-making are critical. However, African countries lack rigorous 
collection of transport-related data and a coordinated system to disseminate data when 
available. For example, accurate data collection in analysing the energy demand of EVs in 
Africa can directly impact the successful decarbonisation of informal paratransit through 
electrification (Collett & Hirmer, 2021).
In the case of paratransit vehicles widely used in Africa, four main data capturing methods 
are used in Africa: passenger-based tracking, vehicle-based tracking, roadside-based 
counting, and household travel surveys, with the passenger-based tracking being the 
most used (Rix et al., 2022). Traditional methods for capturing transportation data, such 
as manually recording inflows and outflows of passengers or equipping passengers 
themselves to track the vehicles, have many drawbacks, including human error and 
limitations in tracking individual vehicles. Vehicle tracking technology, while more 
expensive to set up, provides more accurate and reliable data as it is not influenced by 
human behaviour. Analysis of the estimated power profile of electric vehicle charging 
conducted by Booysen et al. (2022) showed disparity between passenger-based tracking 
and vehicle-based tracking, with the vehicle-based tracking dataset providing a more 
precise representation of the vehicle’s energy requirements (see Figure 21). 
Accurate data collection is also needed to assess energy efficiency values for electric 
vehicles. (Abraham et al., 2023) compared the methodologies and simulation tools used 
in two studies on electric minibus taxis in South Africa that projected different energy 
efficiency values for these vehicles: 0.39kWh/km (Hull, et al., 2023) and 0.93kWh/km 
(Abraham et al., 2023). Hull et al., (2023) used high-frequency data, while (Abraham et 
Figure 21. Comparison of per-vehicle power profiles from passenger-based tracking
Source: Adapted from Booysen, et al. (2022)
20 k
Passenger-based
Vehicle-based
15 k
10 k
Power (W)
5 k
0 k
00:00
03:00
06:00
09:00
12:00
Time
15:00
18:00
21:00
00:00


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
al., 2023) used low-frequency data. The low-frequency data require artificial up sampling 
to capture acceleration and deceleration patterns (further referred to as simulated data), 
while high-frequency data require more bandwidth and storage. Hull et al., (2023) limited 
their study to 62 trips in different driving conditions, while Abraham et al. tracked nine 
taxis over two years, providing a more complete representation of movement patterns. 
The researchers in the Abraham study also had a more complete representation of 
microscopic acceleration, deceleration patterns, and route details. The simulation tool 
used by Abraham et al. is designed for low-frequency data, while high-frequency data 
are needed to accurately simulate an EV model. Abraham et al.’s simulation tool uses 
a driver model and road network obtained from OpenStreetMap to predict the route 
a vehicle would have taken to up sample the low-frequency data. Differences in these 
virtualisations and the effect thereof on subsequent energy analysis were pointed out by 
(Giliomee et al., 2023). The two studies also used different EV models, which calculate 
the energy requirements of the vehicles. (Abraham et al., 2023) used a well-tested and 
peer-reviewed third-party EV model by Kurczveil et al., (2014) bundled with the SUMO 
software, while Hull et al. (2023) developed their own custom EV model, which has had 
significantly less testing and public exposure.
Given that there are no electric minibuses in Sub-Saharan Africa to validate any of the 
models and assumptions, it is crucial to choose realistic and representative parameters 
for accurate planning and thus implement simulation tools that are representative of 
actual mobility. Figure 22 shows the improvement in energy efficiency between the 
models after aligning input parameters for the simulation. 
After eliminating all the discrepancies between the two simulation tools for a given data 
input, a final efficiency estimation is obtained that ranges from 0.49 to 0.53 kWh/km, as 
shown in Table 3. 
Figure 22. Comparing energy efficiency models in paratransit vehicles
Source: Adapted from Abraham, et al. (2023) 
Energy consumption (kWh/km)
Abraham data
Abraham Sim
Abraham data
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Abraham Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Original)
Hull Sim
Configuration
Abraham data
Abraham Sim
Abraham data
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Abraham Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Original)
Hull Sim
(b) Final
1.4
(a) Original (replicated)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0


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36
Decarbonisation of transport is already taking place 
 
 
City and regional authorities in Africa should
across Africa. There are numerous ongoing
promote and scale up local decarbonisation
projects aimed at decarbonising transport in
efforts. City and urban authorities should
different cities and in the sub-regions of Africa.
actively share insights and best practices on
These projects, such as the growing adoption
local decarbonisation efforts within Africa to
of electric mobility solutions, bus rapid transit
accelerate their adoption continent-wide. This
(BRT) systems, and light rail transport (LRT).
includes creating platforms for knowledge
There is also an emphasis on non-motorised
exchange, setting up pilot projects, and
transport such as walking and cycling
establishing benchmarks for success. Regional
demonstrating local successes in
authorities should spearhead the
decarbonisation, with significant economic,
establishment of agencies to enhance
social, and environmental benefits.
governance and collaboration within Africa’s
transport sector.
Policy and regulatory instruments can facilitate
Governments in Africa should implement stricter
the decarbonisation of transport. African
policies and regulations that support emission
governments are employing a diverse
reduction during the transition to decarbonising the
range of policy instruments to accelerate the
transport sector. Stricter emission standards for
decarbonisation of transport at  continental
vehicles, as well as the introduction of policies
and local levels. These are categorised into
that discourage the importation of older, more
four main types: (1) market-based instruments
polluting cars, could significantly support
(such as taxes, subsidies, fees, quotas,
emission reduction goals. Policies banning
import duties, and penalties) (2) regulatory
or restricting old and high-emitting vehicles
instruments (licenses, limits, prohibitions
from metropolitan centres have been shown
laws); (3) direct provisions (governments
to reduce urban pollution and encourage the
directly providing goods or services to its
adoption of cleaner transportation alternatives
citizens); and (4) information provisions
while also improving air quality,  and
(dissemination of relevant, accurate, and
enhancing public health and the quality of life
timely information to the public).
in urban areas.
Decarbonisation of transport has the potential
Governments in Africa should implement stricter
to drive industrial growth and create green job
policies and regulations that support emission
opportunities across Africa. There is growing
reduction during the transition to decarbonising the
local assembly and manufacturing of EVs
transport sector. Stricter emission standards for
Continued on next page
Table 3: Simulation of electric vehicle energy consumption
Hull Data
Hull Data
Abraham Data
(Downsampled)
(Original)
Abraham
Hull
Abraham
Hull
Hull
Simulator
Simulator
Simulator
Simulator
Simulator
Replicated original 
results
0.88a
0.42
0.88
0.45
0.39
Final result
0.50
0.50
0.53
0.53
0.49
The deviation from the originally reported 0.93kWh/km is addressed earlier in the paper 
(Abraham et al., 2023).
 2.5            Findings   and   Recommendations


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
in Africa, as well as initiatives to convert
vehicles, as well as the introduction of policies
gasoline-powered vehicles, including popular
that discourage the importation of older, more
paratransit vehicles, to electric propulsion
polluting cars, could significantly support
in various African countries which provide
emission reduction goals. Policies banning
enormous opportunities for industrial growth
or restricting old and high-emitting vehicles
and innovation. Opportunities extend into
from metropolitan centres have been shown
EV auto parts and battery manufacturing,
to reduce urban pollution and encourage the
leveraging Africa’s critical mineral resources,
adoption of cleaner transportation alternatives
alongside innovative business models like
while also improving air quality,  and
pay-as-you-go charging and solar charging
enhancing public health and the quality of life
stations, taking advantage of the continent’s
in urban areas.
abundant sunlight.


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38
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CHAPTER THREE
SAFEGUARDING VULNERABLE ELECTRICITY GRIDS: 
ACCESSIBILITY, GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND 
DISTRIBUTION
Africa’s electricity grids are characterised by infrastructural flaws, inefficiencies, limited 
coverage, and lack of government oversight, preventing universal access to electricity 
and hampering the continent’s development. Transmission and distribution networks on 
the continent require major improvement and are likely to become the real bottleneck in 
Africa’s sustainable development. This chapter reviews the current state and challenges 
of electricity in Africa, and the potential impact of large-scale adoption of EVs. The 
discussion highlights the need for additional research to fully understand how the 
transition to EVs might affect Africa’s electrical grid and power distribution networks.
 
3.1	 Current State and Challenges of Electricity in Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa is the least electrified region, with around 567 million people 
representing about 43% of the total population without access to electricity in 2021, 
according to the 2023 energy progress report published jointly by a group of international 
agencies, including the World Bank and the International Energy Association (IEA, 
IRENA, UNSD, World Bank and WHO, 2023). According to the report, while Africa has 
made steady progress in electrification in the past decade, the number of people 
without access has generally remained stagnant between 2011 and 2021 due to rapid 
population growth (see Figure 23). 
 
Electric shortages are frequent in many countries. For instance, in Southern Africa, except 
for Angola and Botswana, widespread power cuts have been common in the past decade 
(Crisis24, 2023). South Africa, the continent’s most industrialised economy, with the largest 
grid and access to electrification, has experienced rolling blackouts, locally known as 
“load shedding”, of up to 10 hours a day. Load shedding occurs when electricity demand 
outstrips supply. To stabilise production and maintain voltage, authorities deliberately 
turn off parts of the grid in a rotating schedule to manage and equalize distribution of 
electricity (Crisis24, 2023). Short-term power outages elevate operational risks as they 
lead to increased instances of theft, violence, road accidents, and disruptions in transport 
and communication systems.
 
Nearly four out of five firms in Sub-Saharan Africa report regular and lengthy outages as 
significant impediment to business operations, according to the World Bank Enterprise 
surveys (Oseni, 2019). A high proportion of businesses in the region (53%) own or share 
a generator, the highest rate worldwide. Using backup power systems costs triple the 
price of regular electricity in places like Nigeria and Uganda (Oseni, 2019).
 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Furthermore, certain communities — such as those in informal urban settlements or in rural 
areas — face greater challenges in obtaining reliable electricity. In 2021, approximately 8 out 
of 10 people lacking electricity resided in rural areas, most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa 
(IEA, IRENA, UNSD, World Bank and WHO, 2023). This hinders equal opportunities for 
economic development and improvement in quality of life among various societal sectors. 
The primary reason for lack of access is the high cost of electricity; even when services are 
available, they are often unaffordable (Barasa, 2021). Additionally, while there is significant 
focus on expanding the reach of the electric grid, there is less attention to making electricity 
more affordable (Barasa, 2021). Consider the cost of running a refrigerator for a year in 
African countries compared to industrialised countries such as the United Kingdom. One 
comparative study found that it costs 49% of average GDP per capita in Liberia and 13% 
in Rwanda to run a refrigerator compared to negligible cost of (less than 1%) in the United 
Kingdom (Hairsine, 2023). This disparity highlights the significant economic burden of 
basic appliance use in African countries compared to industrialised ones.
3.2	 State of the Electrical Grid and Potential Burden from 
Electric Vehicles
Adopting EVs will have significant impact on the electricity system in terms of generation, 
transmission, distribution, and accessibility (Table 4). While Africa has made progress in 
expanding its electric grid, the power utility infrastructure continues to underperform in 
many countries, subjecting the grid to fluctuations (Dioha, et al., 2022). The status of the 
power systems is a major consideration when assessing the impact of deploying EVs in 
African countries since electricity forms a central pillar of Africa’s energy infrastructure. 
The capacity, reliability and reach of these systems play a key role in determining how 
effectively EVs can be integrated and supported. 
Figure 23: Access to electricity in Africa as a share of population in 2020.
Source: World Bank (2020)


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40
Table 4: Projected electric vehicle power system impacts in African countries
Category
Impacts
African Countries context
Power 
Demand
Increased energy 
consumption leads to an 
altered daily load
curve, modified peak load 
in terms of magnitude, 
duration, and timing, as 
well as heightened load 
profile variability and 
uncertainty.
Location, weather, demographics, 
and driving patterns influence EV 
adoption, power consumption, and 
charging behaviour; electric two- and 
three-wheelers dominate; economic, 
regulatory, and geographical 
difficulties in establishing ‘public 
charging infrastructure’.
Generation
System 
Additional electricity 
generation is required, 
necessitating new capacity 
investments for security 
and adequacy, leading to 
increased power system 
emissions, high ramping 
needs from sharp power 
demand spikes, and a 
heightened demand for 
ancillary services.
Existing challenges with electricity 
access include security and reliability 
issues, high generation investment 
needs due to rapidly growing 
demand, carbon-intensive generation 
capacities that often rely on inefficient 
fossil fuel units, and poor market 
regulation coupled with difficulties in 
providing reserves.
Transmission
System
Risk of congestion and 
distortion of electricity 
prices; increased need 
for transmission capacity; 
increased need for reactive 
power.
Limited interconnectivity and cross-
border capacity; lacking regulations 
for appropriate transmission system 
to encourage investments; high 
investment needs to maintain 
adequate. 
Distribution
System
Overloading feeders and 
transformers, necessitating 
capacity upgrades; 
increased power losses; 
voltage deviations; power 
quality issues, such as 
harmonic distortion.
Weak, poorly designed distribution 
systems; high distribution system 
losses; high rate of transformer failures 
and maintenance need; insufficient 
management, standards, and 
regulations; low awareness of power 
quality issues; and high reinforcement 
needs due to growing demand.
Source: Adapted from (World Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 
2023)
Increased demand from EVs necessitates more robust and diverse generation facilities and 
power sources. Transmission networks will need to be upgraded to handle the increased 
load, especially during peak charging times, requiring more resilient infrastructure. The 
distribution system faces changes in load patterns, particularly in residential areas with 
home charging, demanding smarter and more responsive grid solutions. As EV adoption 
grows, these changes will require careful planning, investment, and innovation to ensure 
the electricity system remains reliable, efficient, and capable of meeting new demands.


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3.3	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity 
Distribution System
 
The impact on the distribution network is perhaps the most immediate and visible. 
Widespread use of EVs introduces new patterns of electricity consumption, especially 
where home charging solutions are prevalent. This shift can lead to significant changes 
in load profiles, with increased demand during evenings when people typically charge 
their vehicles at home (Dioha, et al., 2022). During the early stages of deployment of EVs, 
the impacts on power distribution was not prioritised by decision-makers (World Bank 
and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023). Utility providers assumed 
existing capacity was sufficient and the adoption would be gradual to allow network 
adaptation. Yet, as EV usage has grown, the potential effects on power distribution, such 
as transformer overloads, power losses, and voltage fluctuations, have become crucial 
issues (World Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023).
While EVs can handle intermittent supply due to their storage capacity, the additional load 
on grids, especially in countries with energy shortages, can worsen existing problems. In 
contexts like South Africa where blackouts are common, there’s growing concern about 
how to sustainably power EVs and the resulting strain on the already fragile electrical 
infrastructure given the substantial costs to the economy. The Reserve Bank of South 
Africa estimates that load shedding costs the economy approximately ZAR 899 million 
(USD 50 million) daily (Naidoo, 2023), suggesting that the economy subsidises excess 
electricity usage. With load shedding costing the economy ZAR 25/kWh (USD 1.25/kWh) 
and assuming EV efficiency is 5 km/kWh, the economic subsidy for electric mobility is 
approximately ZAR 6/km (USD 0.3/km) when charged directly from the grid, effectively 
(Booysen, et al., 2023). 
Moreover, as electric two-wheelers are introduced, they are expected to significantly 
impact local power distribution in rural areas. To effectively address these challenges, a 
comprehensive approach is needed that focuses on establishing robust infrastructure, 
installing suitable chargers tailored to local needs and gaining a thorough understanding 
of both charging behaviour and the levels of EV penetration.
 
3.4	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity 
Transmission System
Alongside the need for increased generation capacity, the adoption of EVs necessitates 
substantial upgrades to the existing electricity transmission infrastructure. The adoption 
of electric vehicles naturally results in increased demand for electricity, especially during 
charging times, and this can strain the transmission systems. Therefore, it is imperative 
to evaluate and determine the spatial distance between areas with highest EV load 
(charging demand) and essential power units, particularly in large geographical regions 
relying on centralised power generation or transmission system. This assessment can 
help ensure efficient energy distribution and system stability.
Power transmission networks in the continent are usually unreliable and poorly 
developed, both in countries and in cross-country transmissions, leading to frequent 


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failures and high losses. Losses due to distribution and transmission cost USD 5 billion 
annually in sub-Saharan Africa (Adams, et al., 2020). Furthermore, the yearly investment 
required in Africa from 2015 to 2040 for expansion of transmission is between USD 3.2 
billion and USD 4.3 billion (AfDB, 2019). Other challenges include the risk of gradual 
oscillation or frequent control on the tie lines when power generation units stop working. 
In Nigeria, for instance, preventing deviation or strengthening frequency control is vital for 
efficient deregulation of the power market (Vanfretti, et al., 2009). Inadequate regulatory 
frameworks of market electricity trading, little involvement of private investment, or 
lack of policies of the transmission systems are some of the challenges that need to be 
considered when planning, operating, and expanding the transmission. The temporal 
and spatial availability of renewable energy sources like wind and solar can also impact 
power transmission systems and should be integrated into the accounting of EV demand 
or supply shocks when possible. In general, modernisation of transmission lines, coupled 
with the integration of advanced technologies such as smart grids, becomes imperative 
to ensure that these increased loads can be managed efficiently and reliably.
3.5	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity 
Generation 
The transition to EVs markedly elevates the demand for electricity, necessitating additional 
energy supply over and above the standard or customary distribution levels. By 2021, EVs 
used 55 million megawatt-hours of electricity, approximately 0.2% of the global energy 
consumption. It is estimated that by 2030, EVs will consume approximately 4% of total 
global energy and 10% by 2040, exerting more pressure on the national grids (World 
Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023). This heightened 
demand necessitates not only the expansion of existing power generation facilities, but 
also the development of new ones. The move towards EVs thus acts as a catalyst for the 
expansion of green energy sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, aligning with 
global efforts to decarbonise energy systems. Globally, countries that have embraced EVs, 
such as the United States, have developed strategies to bolster their energy production 
capacities, with a keen focus on sustainable sources such as renewables (US National 
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2021). The additional electricity 
needed to power electric vehicles can be harnessed from renewables (see Section 5.7). 
EVs with solar-charging capabilities such as solar roofs (discussed in Chapter 2) can even 
charge while on the road, further reducing demand for power.
 
3.6	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity 
Accessibility
The rise of EVs also brings into focus the issue of accessibility and affordability of charging 
infrastructure. For EVs to be a viable option for a broader population, there needs to 
be an adequate and easily accessible network of charging stations. This requirement 
is particularly crucial in densely populated urban areas and along major transportation 
corridors. Globally, China’s approach in creating a vast network of public charging stations 
exemplifies the efforts needed to support wide-scale EV adoption. In Africa, countries 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Transport electrification in Africa will increase the    
Governments in Africa, industry, and 
demand for electricity, and the current fragility of
academia should establish research
the electric grid poses a critical concern for the
partnerships to investigate energy demands
viability and sustainability of electric mobility.
and expected impact of EVs on the grid. 
Adopting EVs will have significant impact on
These research collaborations can also assess
the electricity system in terms of generation,
the potential for charging EVs with renewable
transmission, distribution, and accessibility.
energy sources as well as on increasing local
Understanding the current state of power
contents on EVs. In doing so, policy decisions
systems in Africa is crucial in evaluating the
on EV adoption and charging infrastructure
impact of EV deployment across African
will be context-specific, evidence-informed,
countries, as electricity is a central pillar of
and based on actual data.
Africa’s energy infrastructure.
Prioritising electrification of transport for the
Governments in Africa should prioritise the
less costly, higher mileage, and extensively used
electrification of vehicle segments that provide
vehicle segments in Africa could streamline the
the most immediate and highest decarbonisation
adoption of EVs, maximising environmental
benefits. Decarbonisation efforts should focus
benefits and economic efficiency. Analysis
on electrifying two- and three-wheelers,
indicates that two- and three-wheelers, along
as well as passenger buses operating on
with passenger buses on high-use routes,
high-use routes, due to their lower costs,
are attractive candidates for the first stages
high mileage, and extensive use. These
of transport electrification efforts. Similarly,
segments present a significant opportunity
four-wheelers, taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and
for immediate impact. However, in countries
other commercial fleets are identified as more
where it is feasible to decarbonise heavy-duty
suitable for early electrification compared to
vehicles and less intensively used cars, such
less intensively used private family cars.
efforts should be pursued concurrently.
like Rwanda (Case Study 3 in Chapter 4), Kenya (Case Study 1 in Chapter 2), and South 
Africa have been working on large scale charging infrastructures that can support large-
scale EV adoptions. Availability of large-scale public charging infrastructure can not only 
ensure the practicality of using EVs for daily commutes but also addresses range anxiety 
concerns, making EVs more attractive option for consumers.
Ensuring an affordable power supply is also essential for creating an accessible electric 
vehicle charging ecosystem. Some African countries have started to regulate their 
electricity prices for EV consumers. For instance, in March 2023, the Energy and Petroleum 
Regulatory Authority (EPRA) in Kenya approved a special e-mobility tariff effective for three 
years (Odhiambo, et al., 2023). The e-mobility tariff is set at USD 0.12 per kWh for energy 
consumption of up to 15,000 kWh during peak periods, and USD 0.06 per kWh of the 
same quantity during off-peak periods before taxes and other related charges are added 
to the total cost of consumption (Odhiambo, et al., 2023). The e-mobility tariff is lower than 
the general domestic tariff (USD 0.16 per kWh for consumption above 100 kWh) and the 
commercial tariff (USD 0.15 per kWh for the same quantity). The special electric mobility 
tariff is considered a step in the right direction towards incentivising power supply for EVs.
 3.7            Findings   and   Recommendations


Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
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DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN THE CONTEXT 
OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION IN AFRICA
Every society requires a reliable means of transport to drive its socioeconomic development 
and growth. There is a correlation between the level and quality of transport infrastructure 
and productivity and economic growth. When transport options are reliable, productivity 
and economic growth improves (Zhang & Cheng, 2023). Among the multiplier effects 
that can result from an effective transport infrastructure are enhanced market access, 
increased employment opportunities, and new investments. When transport infrastructure 
is insufficient in terms of capacity or dependability, economic losses such as diminished 
or missed opportunities can lead to a decline in the quality of life (Rodrigue, 2020). 
Moreover, availability of other essential amenities such as food and water depend on 
good transportation services. For instance, good road networks between rural and urban 
areas ensure that foods from farms reach the market in time leading to decreases in post-
harvest food losses. Decarbonisation of transport in Africa can only be achieved within 
the broader context of establishing a sustainable transportation system, in line with the 
sustainable development of goals (SDGs).
 
4.1 Defining Sustainable Transportation 
In its 2016 report, the UN Secretary-General’s High-level Advisory Group on Sustainable 
Transport defined sustainable transport as the provision of services and infrastructure 
for the mobility of people and goods — advancing economic and social development to 
benefit today’s and future generations — in a manner that is safe, affordable, accessible, 
efficient, and resilient, while minimising carbon and other emissions and environmental 
impact (UNEP
, 2016). The High-Level Advisory Group’s report, titled Mobilising 
Sustainable Transport for Development, underscored the pivotal role of sustainable 
transport in achieving the SDGs and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change.
Sustainable transport is connected to various SDG targets, either directly as a core 
element, or indirectly as a secondary factor (see Figure 24). Sustainable road transport 
aims to address societal issues, economic efficiencies, and environmental protection. In 
addressing societal issues, sustainable transportation can increase the quality of life and 
of living standards and can ensure that transportation systems are accessible to people 
of all ages, abilities, and income levels. For economic efficiency, sustainable transport 
promotes mobility systems that are adaptable, cost-effective, efficient, and which provide 
value for money over their life cycle including construction, operation, and maintenance. 
It also involves investing in infrastructure that supports sustainable modes of transport. 
Finally, sustainable transport focuses on the interplay between the industry’s practices 
and the physical environment, such as the reduction of the transportation’s environmental 
CHAPTER FOUR


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
impact—particularly in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, and air and noise pollution. 
It also encourages the use of low-emission vehicles such as EVs and car-sharing and 
promotes alternative modes of transport like trains, cycling, and walking. 
 
4.2	 Decarbonisation of Transport and Sustainable 
Development Goals in Africa 
Decarbonisation of transport in Africa can significantly contribute to sustainable 
transport’s economic, environmental, and social goals, and aligns with both the core and 
secondary SDGs described in Figure 24. Because this report focuses on road transport, 
the following discussions will focus on how decarbonisation of transport can contribute 
to select SDGs related to road transport, with a particular focus on sustainable cities and 
communities (SDG 11). Sustainable urban transportation is crucial to the achievement 
of other SDGs such as health and well-being (SDG 3), especially for urban populations 
which have the most transport pollution and climate change (SDG13). Meanwhile, 
the transition to decarbonisation can contribute to the achievement of other goals, 
such as those focused on decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), through green 
jobs that emerge during the energy transition and new industries, such as the electric 
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Core SDGs
Secondary SDGs
Health & wellbeing
Industry & infrastructure
Sustainable cities
Energy systems
Work & economic growth
Consumption & production
3
7
8
12
Climate change
Water ecosystems
13
14
Land ecosystems
15
9
11
Sustainable
Transportation
Modes
Society
Economy
Environment
Safety
Health
Disturbance
Access
Opportunity
Material
and Energy
Growth
Employment
Pricing
Competitiveness
Climate
change
Air quality
Noise
Footprint
Waste
Operations
Infrastructures
Figure 24: Linking transport to sustainable development goals.
Source: Adapted from Rodrigue (2020)


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46
vehicle manufacturing and related innovations, arise. Table 5 provides an overview of 
how decarbonisation of transport contributes to the realisation of select economic, 
environmental, and social development in Africa.
Table 5: Contribution of decarbonised transport towards select sustainable 
development goals
SDG 
Indicator
Goal
Social
Impact
•  Good Health and Well-Being (SDG 3): Decarbonised transport reduces
    air pollution, leading to lower incidences of respiratory and
    cardiovascular diseases. For example, replacing diesel buses with
    electric ones in congested cities like Lagos, Nairobi, or Cairo could
    significantly reduce air pollution, positively impacting public health.
  
•  Gender Equality (SDG 5): Safe, accessible transport systems can
    empower women by improving access to education and employment
    opportunities, including through just transition policies. 
  
•  Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG 11): Decarbonised transport
    systems, such as efficient public transit and pedestrian friendly urban
    design, enhance the quality of urban life, making cities more liveable
    and inclusive. 
Economic 
Impact
•  Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8): Transitioning to a low
    carbon transport sector can create new jobs in renewable energy,
    electric vehicle production, and infrastructure development. 
  
•  Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure (SDG 9): Decarbonisation of
    transport can drive innovation in green technology and infrastructure
    development. 
Environmental
Impact
•  Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7): Decarbonisation of transport
    involves a shift to electric vehicles powered by renewable energy
    sources, promoting the use of sustainable energy. For example, 86.98%
    of electricity is generated from renewable sources in Kenya (KenInvest,
    2023), with the majority coming from geothermal and hydroelectricity.
    This means that EVs in the country will rely on purely sustainable
    electricity. 
  
•  Climate Action (SDG 13): By reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
    decarbonisation of transport directly contributes to climate change
    mitigation. 
  
• Life Below Water (SDG 14) and Life on Land (SDG 15): Reduced
    emissions and cleaner air from decarbonised transport indirectly benefit
    marine and terrestrial ecosystems by decreasing overall pollution and
    mitigating the impacts of climate change. Though not directly related to
    transport, the Great Green Wall initiative, which focuses on the Sahel
    region, demonstrates a broad commitment to environmental
    sustainability, which decarbonised transport can complement.


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
4.3	 Sustainable Urban Transport Development
Africa is expected to experience rapid urbanisation in the coming decades, with more 
people moving from rural to urban areas (United Nations, 2017). Rapid urbanisation in 
the continent is driven largely by a host of factors, including natural population growth, 
rural-urban migration, the demographic and spatial expansion of urban settlements, 
reclassification of rural areas to urban areas, and crisis events like conflicts and disasters 
(Teye, 2018). With rapid and often unplanned urbanisation, city authorities are confronted 
with the challenges of unregulated and spiralling low-density settlements (urban 
sprawl), overcrowded inner-cities, and slums and rapid motorisation. Urban sprawl can 
complicate the planning of sustainable urban transportation. Urban sprawl occurs when 
urban populations move from higher density towns and cities to lower density and less 
developed but growing residential areas in the outskirts of a town. One major impact of 
urban sprawl is increased reliance on road vehicles, longer commute times, and longer 
daily travel distance, since the sprawled settlements are not always connected to public 
transit systems (Mwaura & Kost, 2017). A car-dependent culture results in high energy 
consumption, more emissions, and smog, and can also have health-related impacts. 
Urban sprawl can also result in development of dense and irregular settlements, such as 
slums, which make planning for public services such as transportation and other social 
services difficult (Saghir & Santoro, 2018). Studies have revealed that in cities across 
Africa, jobs are often not reachable within an hour using public transport (ITDP
, 2019; 
Brookings, 2023). This highlights a significant disconnect between urban development 
and transportation efficiency on the continent. It also suggests that despite Africa 
experiencing the world’s fastest rate of urbanisation, its cities are failing to fully harness 
the economic benefits typically associated with urban growth.
Policymakers can project future transportation needs of the cities and implement 
medium and long-term plans that incorporate decarbonisation transportation policies. 
This can involve identification of strategic hotspots where most people live, and those 
that are likely to experience future urban and transportation pressure and invest in mass 
transit systems to limit the number of personal cars (including EVs) and pressure on the 
roads. Potential approaches to achieving sustainable urban planning include: 
•	
promoting compact and mixed-use development including through the development 
of smart cities;
•	
implementing low-carbon transportation services;
•	
promoting sustainable road transport policies;
•	
ensuring road user preparedness; 
•	
integrating transport sector decision-making agencies. 
4.4	 Smart Cities and Intelligent Transport Systems
Smart cities have emerged as an efficient approach to sustainable urban development. 
Smart cities leverage technology to enhance efficiency, sustainability, and quality of life 
in the urban environment. This includes the deployment of intelligent transport systems 
(ITS) (Platzer, 2021) that encompass services like e-hailing, bike sharing, car sharing, and 


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advanced traffic management technologies. As illustrated in Figure 25, the smart city 
transportation model operates on a foundation of smart infrastructure, which includes 
connected and sustainable multi-modal transport options, such as buses, bikes, and 
trains, all working in tandem with automated systems like toll and fare collection. Data 
integration is key in this system, drawing from diverse sources like emergency services, 
weather forecasts and traffic updates to optimise the flow and safety of transport. Smart 
services are delivered through a central command centre which oversees a variety of 
systems, from smart parking and automatic vehicle locating to driver monitoring and 
vehicle health monitoring systems. These integrated services work together to minimise 
travel times, enhance route management, and improve overall traffic management. With 
real-time data and analytics, the system can promptly respond to incidents, adjust traffic 
signals to reduce wait times, and provide timely updates to commuters, contributing to a 
more resilient and adaptable urban transportation network.
 
Figure 25: Integrated intelligent transport system in smart cities
Many African countries are actively engaged in developing smart cities, a trend that 
signifies the continent’s push towards technological innovation and sustainable 
urbanisation. Kenya’s Konza Technopolis, approximately 60 kilometres south of Nairobi, 
is a comprehensive smart city project designed to spur technological innovation and 
boost the information technology (IT) sector. This ambitious project includes world-class 
infrastructure, a business district, a research-oriented university campus, and residential 
areas. In Rwanda, the Kigali Smart City Project is transforming the capital with smart 
infrastructure solutions like intelligent traffic lights to alleviate congestion and a city-wide 
Wi-Fi network to enhance connectivity. In Nigeria, Lagos is pioneering the Eko Atlantic 
Project, a city built on reclaimed land from the Atlantic Ocean. Eko Atlantic stands out for 


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its self-sufficiency and sustainability, featuring energy-efficient buildings, an independent 
clean energy supply, advanced urban water management, and integrated smart city 
technologies aimed at improving residents’ quality of life. Mauritius is another noteworthy 
example, with its series of smart city projects like Ebène CyberCity, Mon Trésor Smart 
City, Moka Smart City, Côte d’Or Smart City, and Cap Tamarin Smart City. These projects 
are at the heart of Mauritius’s strategy to modernise infrastructure and improve living 
standards, emphasising eco-friendly practices and sustainable community development. 
These initiatives demonstrate Africa’s strong commitment to leveraging technology and 
sustainability in its urban development strategies, and directly addressing the challenges 
and opportunities presented by the continent’s rapidly urbanising landscape.
4.5	 Compact Land Use and Transit-Oriented Development 
Compact and mixed-use development is an urban planning strategy that blends 
residential, commercial, and institutional land uses, promoting proximity of different 
amenities. Compact and mixed-use development are a fundamental component of 
transit-oriented development (TOD) which focuses on creating vibrant, sustainable 
communities centred around public transport infrastructure. The communities are 
designed to encourage walking, cycling and the use of public transit, while minimising 
reliance on private vehicles (ITDP
, 2017). TOD also promotes providing a range of 
affordable housing options to accommodate diverse income levels and support inclusive 
communities, establishment of transit-supportive policies, quality public spaces, and 
cycling and pedestrian-oriented infrastructure (ITDP
, 2017). By designing pedestrian 
and cyclist-friendly streetscapes and encouraging mixed-use zoning, this approach can 
foster active transport while also enhancing the walkability and accessibility of cities. This 
approach also has the potential to facilitate social equity benefits, such as affordable 
housing and improved access to services for low-income communities, which, in turn, 
can decrease transportation costs and enhance economic opportunities. The application 
of ITS in compact and mixed-use developments enhances their effectiveness. For 
instance, real-time traffic updates and data analytics provided by ITS can assist in 
optimising routing and scheduling, improving the overall transportation experience for 
both commuters and operators. City officials, armed with this data, can make informed 
decisions that further the quality of life for residents, as is the case of Kigali, Rwanda (Case 
Study 3 on this Chapter).
 
4.6	 Mass Rapid Transit 
Urban transportation systems that rely mostly on private vehicles or low-capacity transport 
vehicles such as paratransit systems, whether electric or not, will inevitably encounter 
or continue to experience challenges around congestion and parking. The solution to 
reducing the allure of private vehicle use lies in the availability of quality public transport 
systems that bypass traffic jams and road congestion (ITDP
, 2023). An example of this 
mass rapid transit (MRT) or rapid transit is a type of high-capacity public transportation 
typically developed and used in urban settings. MRT systems including metros, light rail 
train (LRT), and bus rapid transit (BRT) have emerged as vital solutions to urban transport 


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Figure 26: Car free day exercise in Kigali, Rwanda
Image Source: Ashimwe (2022) 
Time
PM2.5 [µg/m3]
0:00
2:00
4:00
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8:00
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16:00
18:00
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60
Car free days
Normal Sunday
Sunday week
Hourly mean variation of PM2.5 from 2017 to 2020 in Kigali
50
40
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Figure 27: Impact of limiting vehicular traffic on air pollution in Kigali, Rwanda
Source: Kalisa, et al. (2021)
Case Study 3:
Implementing net zero transport in Kigali, Rwanda
In 2016, Rwanda established the Kigali Car Free Day as part of efforts to make Kigali a 
more environmentally sustainable city. During the car free day, motorists are encouraged 
to ditch their vehicles and motorbikes and a road of approximately 10 km is for motorised 
transport. The car free day encourages the use of non-motorised transport such as 
cycling and walking. In addition to reducing traffic congestion and air pollution, it has 
helped cement a culture of walking and cycling among the population. Car-free days are 
found to reduce fine particulate matter (PM2.5) such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke in the 
air by approximately 15%, leading to a 3.7% reduction in total PM2.5 pollutions in the city 
annually (Figure 27) (Kalisa & Sudmant, 2022).
Other initiatives implemented by the government include deployment of electric 
vehicles and motorcycles, establishment of charging infrastructure. The government 


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challenges. MRTs offer the potential for high-capacity, reliable, and efficient public 
transportation, and contribute significantly to reducing urban congestion, pollution, and 
greenhouse gas emissions. The adoption of MRT systems can contribute to the goals of 
decarbonised transport, if they are electrified, as well as to the modernisation of urban 
transportation in Africa.
Several African cities have recognised the benefits of MRT systems and have begun 
to implement them. These include the Algiers Metro (Algeria), Addis Ababa Light 
Rail (Ethiopia) (Case Study 4), Cairo Metro (Egypt), Lagos Rail Mass Transit (Nigeria), 
Casablanca Tramway (Morocco), and the Gautrain (South Africa).
also launched the Rwandan Green Fund (FONERWA), which supports projects focused 
on climate change mitigation, adaptation, and sustainable development. Rwanda has 
also made significant positive changes in reforming its public transport system aiming 
to improve accessibility, efficiency, and sustainability such as implementation of smart 
payment systems.
Rwanda has also established car-free zones, to restrict the use of cars in certain regions 
of the city of Kigali. The purpose of these car free zones is to reduce vehicle traffic and 
promote pedestrian-friendly transportation in urban centres. Within cities, car-free zones 
contribute to reductions in both GHG emissions and air pollution. Since they encourage 
physical activity and a healthier lifestyle by providing safe and accessible spaces for 
people to walk, jog, cycle, or participate in recreational activities, they contribute to health 
and wellbeing. Furthermore, due to reduced parking facilities, they encourage use of 
public transportation systems, such as buses.
The city of Kigali has also established dedicated bike lanes, providing safe and convenient 
routes for cyclists. There are also bicycle taxis and bike rental programmes which charge 
as low as one dollar per ride. Moreover, Rwanda aims to increase the share of hybrid cars 
in its vehicle fleet, particularly in the public transport sector. There were approximately 
1,500 hybrid cars and about 5,000 electric motorbikes, respectively, in Rwanda as of 
September 2021. Affordable electric motorbikes are being introduced into the market 
through government and private initiatives. There were about 80 public and private 
charging stations as of September 2021 located in urban centres, commercial areas, 
and along major transportation routes. Solar-powered charging stations are also being 
explored to leverage renewable energy resources.
Rwanda has developed various incentives to promote e-mobility. These include tax 
incentives and import duty exemptions, subsidies, and financial support for purchase of 
EVs, charging infrastructure, reduced registration fees, and lower road taxes for hybrid 
and EVs. There are also incentives for the conversion of traditional motorcycles to electric 
motorcycles. Other measures include stricter emission standards for vehicles, integration 
of electric mobility considerations in urban planning and transportation policies, and 
development of guidelines and standards for the installation of charging stations and 
infrastructure. In 2020, Rwanda committed to invest 900 million USD and 190 million in 
electric vehicles and vehicle emissions standards, respectively.
Rwanda’s car free-day has become a reference point for healthy lifestyles and 
decarbonisation initiatives, as other African countries such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, 
and Zimbabwe are introducing their own car-free days (United Nations, 2020).  


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Figure 28: Light rail system in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Source: Assefa, et al. (2016) 
Case Study 4:
Light rail train in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
In Addis Ababa, transportation is responsible for 47% of CO2 emissions. Operational 
since 2015, the Addis Ababa light rail is Africa’s first light rail train (LRT) system. It stretches 
over 34 kilometres and has significantly improved urban mobility  in Ethiopia’s capital by 
offering an affordable and faster alternative to buses and paratransit transport (Figure 
28). Currently, the LRT service is transporting approximately 120,000 passengers daily, 
using 17 trains on both routes (Woldeamanuel, et al., 2022), though it has a capacity 
to transport up to 60,000 individuals per hour (C40 Cities, 2016). The train operates 
on Ethiopia’s predominantly renewable energy-powered grid, utilising hydropower, 
geothermal, and wind resources. 
Impacts: The project was expected to lower emissions by 55,000 tonnes of CO2 
annually in 2015 when it began operations to 170,000 tonnes of CO2 by 2030 (C40 
Cities, 2016).  Moreover, since LRT systems are less land-intensive than conventional 
roads, the project will decrease the burden of transport on urban ecosystems. 
Socially, the train significantly reduced commuting time to work because of its higher 
than average speed of 10 km/hour, while the LRT has 22 km/hour. Economic and 
social benefits such as jobs and improved health have also come from the project.  
Several cities have also adopted bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, recognising them as 
cost-effective solutions that can improve urban mobility and address congestion. BRT 
systems are characterised by dedicated bus lanes, modern stations, and priority at traffic 
signals, and offer many of the advantages of a tram or light rail system but at a fraction of 
the cost and with greater flexibility. BRT systems have become a popular option for cities 
looking to upgrade their public transport networks without the extensive infrastructure 
and investment required for rail. Examples of BRT systems in Africa include:


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a.	 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania — DART (Dar Rapid Transit): The DART system is the first 
BRT system in east Africa. It extends over 20.9 kilometres and transports 172,000 
passengers daily, providing quicker travel via high-capacity buses. Since it began 
operations in 2016, the DART has transformed Dar es Salaam city’s public transport 
system and is often touted as a model for other African countries on how to develop 
and operate BRT systems in cities with unregulated paratransit systems (ITDP
, 2017). 
In 2018, the city of Dar es Salaam became the first African city to win the Sustainable 
Transport Award due to its BRT system and other transformative improvements to 
transit, cycling, and walking (Sustainable Transport Award, 2018).
 
Figure 29: Dar rapid transit system, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2019)
b.	 Lagos, Nigeria — Lagos BRT: Launched in 2008, Lagos busway was the first BRT-
like system to be built in Africa and has continued to expand. It was designed to 
create a more efficient and organised public transportation system in Lagos. The 
system has been successful in reducing commute times, improving the reliability 
of bus services, and serving as a more affordable transport option for millions of 
Lagos residents.
c.	 Johannesburg, South Africa — Rea Vaya: This BRT system serves the Johannesburg 
metropolitan area, offering a fast, safe, and affordable public transportation option. 
Rea Vaya is known for its efficiency and safety and has significantly improved public 
transport in Johannesburg, reducing reliance on private vehicles.
d.	 Cairo, Egypt: While traditionally known for its extensive metro system, Cairo is also 
in the process of developing a BRT system to complement its existing transportation 
network. Once operational, it’s expected to significantly improve urban mobility in 
Cairo, reducing traffic congestion and providing a quicker and more reliable mode 
of transport.


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e.	 Accra, Ghana – Aayalolo: Accra’s busway, known as Aayalolo, aims to provide a 
more organised and efficient bus service to reduce travel times and improve public 
transport. Although not a BRT, it offers designated BRT-like lanes for buses and 
aims to make public transport more attractive and efficient, thereby improving daily 
commutes.
f.	 Nairobi, Kenya: Nairobi’s planned BRT system is part of an urban renewal initiative 
to address the city’s notorious traffic congestion and improve public transport. 
Once implemented, it’s expected to provide a faster, reliable, and more efficient 
transportation option for Nairobi’s growing population.
Globally, while BRT systems have been adopted widely, the majority are powered by 
traditional fossil fuels. In Africa the scenario is similar, with electric-powered BRT systems 
being a relatively new concept. Only one African country, Senegal, (see Case Study 5), 
currently has an electric BRT system. However, there is growing interest and incremental 
adoption of electric buses in public transport fleets. Considering the potential benefits 
of EVs and the evolving landscape of transportation technology, African cities have 
compelling reasons to consider adopting electric-powered BRT systems; including their 
high passenger transport capacity and ability to address the environmental and health 
concerns associated with increasing urbanisation. 
When it comes to urban development, MRT systems play a pivotal role in fostering 
compact, sustainable urban environments. They reduce the demand for expansive road 
networks and parking spaces, paving the way for increased green spaces and mitigating 
urban sprawl. For instance, well-developed and efficient MRT and BRT systems can 
encourage people to shift from private cars to public transport. This modal shift is essential 
for reducing traffic congestion, lowering emissions, and promoting more sustainable 
urban mobility. In addition to providing efficient and affordable transportation, BRT 
systems often spur economic development along their routes, encouraging investment 
and improving access to jobs and services.
While challenges such as finance remain, the continued development and expansion of 
MRT systems across the continent will be crucial for sustainable urban development and 
the overall well-being of African cities. For better function and maximised usage, these 
new and existing MRT projects, especially railways, can be integrated into comprehensive 
intermodal transport systems in three ways.
First, establishing seamless connections between rail and other modes of transport 
is crucial. This means strategically locating railway stations to ensure they are easily 
accessible from major urban centres and are well-connected to local public transport 
networks, such as bus and minibus services. Planning for last-mile connectivity, through 
options like shared taxis, biking facilities or walkable pathways, is also vital to ensure the 
smooth transition of passengers and cargo from trains to their final destinations.
Second, and especially for passenger transport, synchronisation of schedules and 
ticketing systems across different modes of transportation can greatly enhance the user 
experience and efficiency and encourage usage. Implementing integrated ticketing 
systems that cover trains, buses, and other local transport options can simplify travel for 


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Case Study 5:
Electric mass rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal
The capital city of Senegal, Dakar is one of the fastest growing cities in the world that is 
expected to have a projected population of 6.5 million by 2025. This makes it imperative 
for the city to modernise its transportation infrastructure to match its expanding needs 
and dynamic urban environment. Consequently, Dakar’s transportation landscape has 
been revolutionised with the introduction of the Dakar Regional Express Train (TER) and 
bus rapid transit (BRT), which are expected to significantly enhance urban mobility and 
promote sustainable transit. Both systems are central to Senegal’s strategy for an efficient, 
eco-friendly, and integrated urban transport network.
Bus Rapid Transit: Launched in December 2023, the Dakar BRT system (Figure 30), is the 
first all-electric BRT in Africa and signifies a major leap in enhancing clean transportation 
in African cities. The project is expected to provide a host of socioeconomic benefits, 
including improved travel and emissions reductions. Through its dedicated bus-only 
lanes (Figure 31), fixed routes and stops, predictable timetables, and a safe ride for 
up to 320,000 people daily commuters. It aims to enhance access to jobs, health, and 
education services, particularly for women and other low-income residents, with 59% of 
job opportunities in Dakar being reachable in an hour or less. The BRT also contributes to 
improved air quality and to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and align 
well with climate change mitigation efforts. 
With Dakar’s air pollutants at levels seven times higher than advisable (Dewast, 2019), 
largely due to vehicle emissions, the new BRT system aims to ameliorate air quality. 
Encouraging the switch from private cars to public transit, it is projected to significantly 
cut air pollution and greenhouse gases, with the World Bank anticipating a decrease 
of 1.2 million tonnes in GHG emissions over three decades, equivalent to removing 
260,000 cars from the roads (World Bank, 2023). The implementation of the BRT also 
comes with the introduction of the city’s first dedicated bike lanes alongside the BRT 
route, complemented by substantial eco-conscious landscape improvements such as 
trees and various plants.
Figure 30: Electric-powered bus rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal
Source: Chen, et al. (2023)


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The BRT includes performance indicators to ensure best-in-class quality of service, 
punctuality, safe operations, GPS-connected vehicles, modern payment system for users 
through contactless smart cards, improved security with video surveillance, appropriate 
signposting, and lighting systems, as well as pedestrian safety (World Bank, 2023).
Figure 31: Dedicated bus rapid transit lane in Dakar, Senegal
Source: Chen, et al. (2023) 
Since Dakar’s transport challenges are similar to other African cities’, the project serves as a 
blueprint for the introduction of electric-powered BRT systems in Africa as the experience 
and lessons learned can be shared and replicated in other urban areas. According to 
the World Bank, it demonstrates the impact of collaborative financing, involving multiple 
development partners and the private sector. The project was backed by multiple entities, 
including the World Bank, the European Investment Bank, IFC, MIGA, the government, 
and the private sector. Electrification of the BRT’s buses was made possible with USD 144 
million in private sector financing, delivered through a public-private partnership (PPP) 
implemented with the support of IFC. This exemplifies how substantial the infrastructure 
funding gap is in developing countries and illustrates the successful mobilisation of 
private capital for urban transport development.
Dakar Regional Express Train (TER): Launched in 2021, the TER is a flagship project 
under the Emerging Senegal Plan (Government of Senegal, 2023), aiming to provide 
fast, secure, reliable, and affordable transportation. The railway boasts a 36-km line 
with 13 stations, employing latest rail technologies, including the European Rail Traffic 
Management System for high-capacity operations, carrying 115,000 passengers daily at 
speeds up to 150 km/h. It significantly reduces pollution by 32%, enhancing urban health 
and mobility. The TER not only boosts economic productivity and quality of life but is also 
set to expand, further integrating into Dakar’s transportation network (AfDB, 2022).
Both the BRT and TER are critical components of Senegal’s vision for an efficient, 
sustainable, and accessible urban transportation system. They represent a significant 
investment in public infrastructure, aiming to enhance the daily lives of residents, reduce 
environmental impacts, and set a precedent for future transportation projects in Africa 
and other developing regions.  
 


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passengers, making it more appealing to use public transport. Moreover, incorporating 
digital technology and data analytics into transport planning can significantly improve 
the efficiency and attractiveness of the rail network. Utilising real-time data for managing 
schedules, predicting maintenance needs, and optimising routes can enhance the 
reliability and performance of railway systems.
Finally, effective communication and collaboration among various stakeholders — 
including government entities, private sector partners, and local communities — are 
essential for the success of these projects. This collaborative approach ensures that the 
railway developments are aligned with broader urban and regional planning goals and 
that they meet the actual needs of the populations they serve.
4.7	 Integrated Urban Planning and Policy Making 
The optimal approach to incorporating climate-friendly transport options into urban 
areas is in their planning phase. This entails implementing measures to guarantee the 
harmonisation of all sectorial plans and the integration of climate-friendly transport and 
land use considerations throughout all stages (Kumar, et al., 2016). In many cities, the 
responsibility for land use or spatial planning and transport planning rests with different 
public-sector agencies. For instance, in Ghana, national agencies like the Land-Use 
and Spatial Planning Authority and the National Development Planning Commission 
are tasked with planning and developing settlements. However, many other entities 
such as the Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Railway Development, the 
Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Local Government, Decentralisation and 
Rural Development and including the Ghana Highway Authority, the Department 
of Urban Roads, Department of Feeder Roads, the Department of Transport entities 
have responsibility for transport issues. While the National Development Planning 
Commission (NDPC) is geared towards establishing a unified framework for planning, 
other national and regional institutions continue to develop and carry out their own 
plans, programmes, and projects with minimal consultation with NDPC. To address 
institutional fragmentation and discourse, planning activities need to be streamlined for 
more effective and coordinated delivery. Transforming the transport system is possible 
through strengthening local governments’ capacities to develop and implement 
efficient urban development plans and incorporating them into the national financial and 
regulatory framework (UN-Habitat, 2009). Governments can promote transit-oriented 
development which incorporates compact and mixed-use development, cycling and 
walking designs, well-connected street networks, and affordable housing options, 
thus, fostering connectivity, inclusivity, and sustainability. Low-carbon transportation 
policies such as low-emission zones, congestion charges, and parking policies that 
discourage car use can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport 
sector. Planners and urban designers can work with policymakers to implement these 
policies by conducting research to identify the most effective strategies, engaging 
with stakeholders to build support for the policies, and monitoring and evaluating the 
effectiveness of policies.


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4.8	 Rural-Urban Connectivity 
Rural-urban connectivity refers to the capacity for connecting areas (cities, towns, and 
villages) and people, by physical and non-physical means, through transport and 
communication (Avery, 2017). It measures the distance and ease with which people, 
goods and services move between and within rural and urban nodes (locations). Rural-
urban connectivity is also highly correlated with economic development (affluence) and 
is an important indicator of transport development in Africa. High rural-urban connectivity 
is generally associated with low market integration and productivity and is an indicator 
of the depth of income disparities between rural and urban households and localities.
Africa’s rural-urban connectivity landscape varies from one country to another depending 
on the level of socio-economic development, population, rate of urbanisation, and 
geographical and climatic conditions among others. Intergovernmental Panel on 
Climate Change (IPCC) that 45% of the global population lives in rural areas and 90% 
of these reside in developing countries (IPCC, 2014). This number is higher in Africa at 
approximately 52%, with Burundi having one of the highest proportions of people living 
in rural areas estimated at about 86% and Gabon the lowest at less than 10%. 
Despite the important role that rural-urban connectivity plays in igniting the growth and 
prosperity of rural economies, most countries prioritise investment on urban transport 
networks and infrastructure at the expense of rural regions. For instance, just a third (34%) 
of the rural population in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has access to road networks, compared 
to 90% in East Asia and the Pacific countries (Workman & McPherson, 2020). Besides, the 
average length of a road connecting two geographical locations or cities, as measured by 
the circuitousness ratio, an indicator of how curvy a road connecting two cities or locations 
is also high in Africa compared to the rest of the developing world (Prieto-Curiel, et al., 
2023). This is because of Africa’s complex physical terrain. Connecting rural and urban 
locations often involves meandering road networks to avoid landscapes such as mountains, 
rivers, and wetlands. This not only increases the economic and environmental cost of 
constructing and maintaining requisite transport infrastructure networks and systems to 
ease rural-urban connectivity, but also increases travel time and subsequently carbon 
emissions from motorised road transport. In general, the quality of road infrastructure is 
relatively poor in Africa compared to other developing regions such as Asia and Latin 
America. The road quality index, developed by the World Economic Forum and used in 
computing global competitive index rates, estimates Africa’s road quality at 3.43 points in 
a 7-point scale, compared to 4.39 in Asia, and 4.95 in OECD countries. The road quality 
index in Egypt, Rwanda, Mauritius, Morocco, and South Africa ranges from 4.7 to 5.1 while 
in Chad, Mauritania, Madagascar, DRC, Angola, and Mozambique, it ranges from 1.9 to 
2.4 points. Improving rural-urban connectivity could help narrow down disparities and 
promote equitable growth between rural and urban regions.
The poor-quality road infrastructure in rural areas is in part responsible for the large 
increase in motorcycles in Africa in the last decades. In 2022, the number of registered 
motorcycles in Sub-Saharan Africa was estimated at 27 million, compared to 5 million in 
2010 (FIA Foundation, 2022). The number of registered motorcycles in Africa is expected 
to increase at an average annual rate of 9.54% between 2022 and 2030 (FIA Foundation, 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
2022). In rural areas, motorcycle taxis provide over 70% of passenger and goods transport 
 
annually (Jenkins, et al., 2021).
Motorcycles are flexible and better at navigating complex rural terrain and overcrowded 
urban streets, and in moving people from door to door with greater fuel efficiency 
(Figure 32). They are convenient, fast, affordable, and mobile phone penetration has 
made them easily accessible on-demand through a simple text or phone call within rural 
communities. However, given the unregulated nature of their operations, motorcycles 
account for more than half of road deaths (and as high as 70%) in many Sub-Saharan 
countries, in both rural and urban settings (FIA Foundation, 2022). 
 
Figure 32: Motorcycles navigating diverse rural terrain in Africa
Photo credit: Jack Omondi, NASAC staff.
Given the high usage of motorcycles in many African regions, integrating safety measures 
for motorcycles into road design could enhance their safety. Similarly, electrifying the 
continent’s large motorcycle fleet will also help Africa to achieve its climate change 
mitigation and the SDGs. In addition, promoting multimodal transport strategies such as 
integrating walking and cycling infrastructure with planned or existing public transport 
systems can enhance sustainable transport, as illustrated in Case Study 6.
Within the urban context, in addition to motorcycles and three-wheelers, electric 
microcars (Figure 34) also present a promising avenue for reducing greenhouse gas 
emissions while enhancing urban transport efficiency. Microcars are very small and 
lightweight vehicles. They are typically designed for short-distance urban travel and 
are known for their compact dimensions, which makes them well-suited for navigating 
crowded city streets and for ease of parking (Elmasry, et al., 2024). 
From a social perspective, microcars offer an affordable and accessible means of 
transportation, especially in densely populated urban areas where traffic congestion 
and limited parking are persistent challenges. Their small footprints make them ideal for 
navigating narrow city streets, thus improving urban mobility. Environmentally, microcars 
are often powered by electric or hybrid engines, which further diminishes their carbon 
footprints (Elmasry, et al., 2024). Furthermore, the production of microcars generally 
requires fewer resources than standard vehicles, contributing to a more sustainable 


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60
Case Study 6:
Enhancing the walking environment in Kisumu, Kenya
Kisumu, a key hub in western Kenya, has experienced a boom in infrastructure projects 
due to its role as a regional commercial, educational, and administrative centre. This 
growth has brought urban mobility issues common in emerging African cities, such as 
rising car traffic, inefficient public transport, and inadequate facilities for walking and 
cycling. 
In Kisumu, non-motorised transport (NMT) is predominant: 53% of daily trips are on foot, 
13% by matatu, 13% by boda-boda, and smaller percentages by other modes. Kisumu’s 
flat terrain makes it suitable for walking, cycling, and driving tuktuks and microcars. 
However, infrastructure often prioritises motorised transport. To address this, Kisumu 
introduced the Kisumu Sustainable Mobility Plan (KSMP), supported by UN-Habitat 
and the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP). The city is now 
implementing designs focusing on pedestrian and cyclist safety (Figure 33). For example, 
the USD 2.2 million Kisumu Triangle involves upgrading 1.5 km of pathways with features 
like wide footpaths, streetlights, public toilets, and measures to prioritise pedestrians. The 
project’s second phase will invest USD 6 million to enhance eight km of roads, aligning 
them with Kenya’s 2011 policy that expressly includes walking and cycling facilities in new 
urban road projects.  
Figure 33: Artist’s impression of a pedestrian friendly transportation terminus in Kisumu, Kenya
Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2020)


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An integrated sustainable transport
Governments in Africa should improve
strategy that includes mass rapid transit
existing transportation systems and
and non-motorised transport can enhance
adopt and scale up sustainable land-use
decarbonisation of transport. A holistic
development. Improving existing transport
approach to sustainable transport can
systems and adopting sustainable land-
not only reduce carbon emissions but
use developments such as compact and
also has the potential to alleviate negative
mixed-use development and transit-oriented
traffic externalities, thereby contributing
development, are essential strategies for
to a healthier environment and improved
African governments to promote economic
quality of life. In Africa, where urbanisation is
prosperity, social inclusion, environmental
rapidly increasing, the need for efficient and
sustainability, and resilience. For instance,
sustainable transportation systems is more
by investing in more efficient and accessible
pronounced than ever. The implementation
public transit options, including mass rapid
of mass rapid transit systems, such as the
transit options such as BRT and light rail
bus rapid transit (BRT) development of light
transit systems, cities can significantly lower
rail projects, and non-motorised transport
their carbon footprint. In addition, creating
infrastructure and policies  serves not only
safer and more appealing conditions for
to decrease reliance on individual car usage
active transportation, like walking and cycling,
but also to spearhead the transition towards
through dedicated bike lanes and pedestrian
electrification of public transport networks. 
zones not only promotes a healthier lifestyle, 
but also reduces emissions.
Figure 34: Example of a microcar.
Source: Moses Ogutu, IAP Staff.
manufacturing process that can also be adopted by African countries. Still, it is crucial 
to address potential challenges, such as the need for charging infrastructure for electric 
microcars and ensuring that these vehicles meet safety standards. Microcars have 
already been introduced in some African countries including South Africa which has 
many microcar models. For instance, at the Smarter Mobility Africa Summit, held in South 
Africa in October 2021, a notable highlight was the showcase of a compact electric 
microcar by Funky Electric (Piper, 2023). Further cementing this trend, in June 2023, City 
Blitz, an electric microcar was introduced in the South African market (Droppa, 2023). A 
shift towards smaller, more efficient vehicles could be particularly relevant in the context 
of Africa’s urban dynamics. 
 4.9               Finding   and   Recommendation


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POLICY OPTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Innovative policies and regulations aimed at fostering cleaner transportation alternatives 
are essential in realising decarbonised and sustainable transport objectives. The policy 
options and implications explored in this chapter seek to address the broad spectrum 
of needs and challenges associated with the decarbonisation of transport in Africa. 
Recognising that no single policy pathway suits all countries in the continent, the 
adoption and implementation of policies needs to be customised to fit the specific 
priorities and conditions of each country. Central to the transition towards decarbonised 
transport, however, is ensuring a just transition, one that is equitable and inclusive for all 
stakeholders involved.
While regulations are essential for driving the decarbonisation of transport in Africa, 
policymakers must carefully balance the need for environmental protection with 
considerations of economic viability, equity, and social welfare. Collaborative and 
inclusive policymaking processes, informed by robust stakeholder engagement and 
evidence-based analysis, are essential to maximise the positive impacts and minimise 
the potential drawbacks of regulatory interventions in the transportation sector.
Some of the positive impacts’ regulations play in decarbonisation of transport in Africa 
include emission reduction, promotion of cleaner technologies, creation of conducive 
environment for investment in sustainable transportation infrastructure and technologies 
and reduction on reliance on private vehicles and encouragement of modal shifts 
towards more sustainable modes of transport. However, stringent regulations can impose 
additional costs on vehicle manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. Distortion 
of market dynamics hinder competition, leading to inefficiencies and unintended 
consequences, and limited enforcement capacity and institutional weaknesses that can 
undermine the effectiveness of regulations aimed at decarbonising transport.
 
5.1	 Disrupting Dominant Regimes in the Transport Sector 
Policies and processes of decarbonising road transport will result in the disruption 
of existing and often dominant regimes in the transportation sector. These regimes 
include the oil or fossil fuel industry, transport sector operators, and the institutions and 
institutional frameworks that govern these transport systems. Decarbonisation involves 
reducing dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, which are the primary energy sources 
for conventional ICE vehicles. Transitioning to low-carbon or zero-carbon alternatives like 
EVs significantly impacts the demand for fossil fuels. For transport sector operators such 
as the companies and organisations involved in manufacturing, operating, or maintaining 
transportation systems, decarbonisation will require them to adopt new technologies, 
change business models, and comply with different regulations. For instance, car 
CHAPTER FIVE


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manufacturers will need to shift from producing traditional vehicles to electric ones, while 
vehicle owners and both private and public service providers will need to acquire new 
vehicles. Decarbonisation efforts will necessitate new or revised policies, regulations, and 
incentives to encourage the adoption of cleaner transportation modes. This could disrupt 
existing institutional frameworks that have traditionally supported existing regimes, 
such as subsidies that have historically supported the fossil-fuel industry and transport 
systems or the associated fuel tax revenues for governments (discussed in Section 5.4). 
Decarbonisation policies inherently challenge the status quo and can lead to significant 
economic, social, and institutional changes and tensions. 
The Multi-Level Perspective (MLP), a framework for understanding challenges associated 
with complex sustainability transitions encompassing multiple actors, including 
businesses, consumers, social movements, policymakers, academia, media, and investors 
(Geels, 2019) has been applied to assess the speeds and natures of transitions across 
countries, such as electric mobility in the UK and Germany, and offers a useful lens for 
understanding the challenges associated with decarbonising transport. Figure 35 depicts 
the MLP
, highlighting its three analytical levels (niche–regime–landscape) and temporal 
phases (emergence, diffusion, and reconfiguration). This arrangement facilitates the 
identification and visualisation of influences and interactions across various levels.
The MLP argues that for transformative innovations such as EVs to be effectively adopted, 
some essential factors need to be considered (Medina-Molinaa, et al., 2022). First, it is 
important to understand the regime—that is the dominant actors, practices, and rules 
that govern the current system—and the implications of maintaining the existing regime. 
Second, because the regime constitutes a social and technical system, it is important to 
Landscape developments put pressure on existing regime
Landscape 
Regime
Niches
Emergence
Diffusion
Reconfiguration
Time
The regime is dynamically stable
New configuration breaks through, taking
advantage of ‘windows of opportunity’.
 
Adjustments occur in regime
Small networks of actors support innovation
on the basis of expectations and visions
 
Learning and experiments take place
Markets & consumer
preferences
Industry
Policy
Technology
Culture
Science
Figure 35: The multi-level perspective framework for complex sustainability transitions.
Source: Adapted from International Science Council (2019)’s adaptation of Geels (2019).


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understand how to disrupt the regime and what the associated consequences may be. 
Disrupting the regime to usher in a more sustainable and decarbonised system may 
occur, for example, by introducing alternative (and often more sustainable) practices from 
niche actors or taking advantage of landscape pressures or “shock events” (such as the 
COVID-19 pandemic). Changes in the global contexts, such as increased awareness of 
climate change impacts by society, can also provide opportunities for destabilising the 
regime to allow transition to sustainable solutions. Third, all five subcategories of regimes 
(policy, science and technology, industry practices, market and user preferences, and 
culture) need to simultaneously change to transition successfully to a sustainable socio-
technical system. Regimes are typically stable systems and difficult to disrupt for various 
reasons: the sub-regimes are aligned, mutually dependent, re-enforcing, evolving, and 
subject to the same set of rules. This points to the importance of niches, which according to 
the MLP
, is where alternative approaches to socio-technical transformation, and innovative 
practices with potential to transform (change, disrupt, destabilise) regimes occur. 
Thus, for successful decarbonisation of transport to occur, strategies are needed to 
address these regime dimensions comprehensively, recognising that focusing on one 
area (like policy) without considering others (such as technology, market preferences, 
and culture) is unlikely to yield transformative change. 
In addition to the business models and solutions discussed in Chapter 2, the policy 
options and implications presented in this chapter attempt to address most of the 
identified needs and challenges to decarbonisation of transport in Africa. African 
countries have unique and differing needs, and no single policy pathway can meet the 
needs of all countries. The adoption and application of policy pathways for decarbonising 
transport needs to be tailored to the specific priorities and prerequisites of individual 
countries.
5.2	 Promotion of Electric Vehicles
Many countries around the world including countries in Africa such as Egypt, Kenya, 
Mauritius, Rwanda, South Africa, and Uganda have developed policies to promote 
the use of EVs such as subsidies, tax incentives, and development of affordable and 
accessible charging infrastructure (see Section 2.1). EVs offer significant cost advantages 
over ICE vehicles in terms of operating expenses. EVs have lower fuel costs, as electricity 
is generally cheaper than gasoline or diesel, leading to substantial savings over the 
vehicle’s lifetime. EVs also have fewer moving components, hence they require less 
maintenance. As a result of the electric motor’s durability relative to ICEs, they also have 
longer lifespans.
 
5.3 Cost-Benefit analysis of Electric Vehicles Compared to 
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles
The total cost approach is widely utilised to compare the costs of acquiring and operating 
EVs compared with those of conventional vehicles (Liu, et al., 2021; Wu, et al., 2015). This 
method aggregates the purchase price and operating expenses, such as maintenance, 


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battery replacement, energy, fuel, financing, and insurance costs for various electric 
mobility modes — including cars, buses, and two-wheelers — and contrasts them with 
their conventional counterparts. Additionally, it factors in the external benefits and costs 
associated with decarbonisation, such as environmental and health impacts. To enable 
cross-country comparisons, the total costs are adjusted for taxes and subsidies, which 
significantly affect the final acquisition and operational expenses of EVs. Table 6 applies 
the total cost approach to provide a comparative cost-benefit analysis of EVs versus ICE 
vehicles, using Thailand as a case study (Suttakul, et al., 2022).
Table 6: Comparing cost elements for electric and internal combustion engine 
vehicles in Thailand
Type
Total 
Cost of 
Ownership 
(TCO) 
(USD)
Deprecation 
Cost
(USD)
Energy
Cost
(USD)
Battery
Cost
(USD)
Other
Costs
(USD)
Internal
Combustion
Engine (ICE)
61,190.00
26,311.70
23,864.10
611.90
10,402.30
Hybrid
Electric
Vehicles
(HEV)
54,940.00
29,118.20
13,735.00
1,098.80
10,988.00
Plug-in
Hybrid
Electric
Vehicles
(PH)EV
55,940.00
33,564.00
7,831.60
2,797.00
11,747.40
Battery
Electric
Vehicles
(BEV)
60,890.00
34,098.40
6,089.00
10,960.20
9,742.40
 Note: Depreciation cost reflect capital cost for the vehicle over its life cycle. 
 Source: Suttakul, et al. (2022) 
Table 6 compares the costs of owning and operating an ICE vehicle against three types 
of EVs over a 15-year period: hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric 
vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). HEVs combine a petrol engine with 
a battery-powered electric drivetrain without plug-in capability. PHEVs feature both a 
petrol engine and an electric drivetrain, with the ability to recharge via plug-in. BEVs are 
fully electric with plug-in charging but do not use petrol.
The analysis shows that while BEVs vehicles have a higher initial cost, over a 15-year 
horizon they have a marginal cost advantage over ICE vehicles (60,890 vs 61,190). 
However, BEVs offer substantially lower energy costs, at just a quarter of that of ICE 
vehicles, with battery costs —18% of total EV costs — being the main expense. With 


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advancements in EV and battery technology, the costs associated with depreciation 
and batteries are expected to decrease, making BEVs much more economical than ICE 
vehicles. This shift will likely ease the transition to BEVs, assuming other concerns, such as 
range anxiety and infrastructure limitations, are addressed. Currently, HEVs and PHEVs 
face a cost advantage of USD 6,250 compared to ICE vehicles, aznd this gap is expected 
to widen as the technology becomes more affordable. It should be noted that Table 6 
focuses only on direct costs which include maintenance, battery replacement, energy 
and fuel, financing, insurance, and related expenses. The direct costs do not account for 
the environmental and social implications associated with using either type of vehicle, 
which are significant factors in the push for decarbonisation to mitigate GHG emissions 
and advance the global climate agenda. These broader impacts are detailed in Table 
7 in this section, and Appendix A, both of which compare the national aggregate cost 
advantage of EVs in select African countries. 
Table 7: National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicle adoption in 
select African countries by 2030
Countries
Charging
infrastructure Cost 
Advantage (USD)
Capital Cost
Advantage (USD)
Operating Cost
Advantage (USD) 
Subtotal (USD)
Externality (USD)
Cost Advantage 
(Economic Analysis)
(USD)
Net taxes subsidies
(fiscal wedge) (USD)
Economic Cost
Advantage plus
fiscal wedge (USD)
Egypt
-4107
-13010
15300
-1817
19019
17202
10165
8348
Ethiopia
-1512
-4692
6920
716
1330
2046
11359
12075
Ghana
-3017
-6241
10846
1588
2494
4082
9346
10934
Nigeria
-4330
-6511
10850
9
1934
1943
-1112
-1103
Rwanda
-2762
-5112
6356
-1518
1760
242
25110
23592
Source: Briceno-Garmendia, et al. (2023)
Although the upfront capital costs of acquiring EVs are high, these vehicles typically have 
a lifespan of around 15 years. Hence, the costs and benefits are calculated over this period 
using the World Bank’s approved discount rate of 7% (Briceno-Garmendia, et al., 2023). 
Egypt and Nigeria face the highest costs in providing charging infrastructure, translating 
into higher capital costs compared to countries like Ethiopia and Rwanda. The capital cost 
differential for EVs ranges from USD 5,112 in Rwanda to USD 13,010 in Egypt, relative 
to the cost of acquiring and operating an equivalent ICE vehicle, which spans between 
USD 10,000 to USD 20,000 for the countries examined. Initially, acquiring an EV is at least 
10% more expensive than an ICE vehicle, but this gap narrows to 5% when considering 
positive fiscal incentives such as lower EV taxes. In Ethiopia, the fiscal incentives are so 
substantial that they eliminate the cost disparity between EVs and ICE vehicles.


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EVs are preferred for their minimal GHG emissions, which translates to significant 
environmental and social benefits over ICE vehicles. These benefits, or externalities, 
are computed and presented in column 6. When these external benefits are added to 
the operating costs of EVs, the net cost advantage under the 30x30 decarbonisation 
scenario target becomes positive for all countries studied. Egypt, in particular, sees 
higher external benefits due to its dense population. This scenario posits a net social 
advantage in acquiring and operating EVs, supporting the goal of 30% of new cars and 
buses and over 70% of two- and three-wheelers being electric by 2030. 
The fiscal benefits of adopting EVs, which result in lower taxes for importers compared to 
ICE vehicles, range from USD 8,348 in Egypt to USD 23,592 in Rwanda, where favourable 
taxes on EVs significantly reduce their purchase price compared to ICE vehicles. The 
Rwandan case shows how effective fiscal policies can internalise environmental costs to 
promote electric mobility, sustainability, and social inclusion through improved health 
outcomes.
Similar to four-wheeled electric vehicles (EVs), electric motorcycles offer notable cost 
savings compared to their fossil-fueled counterparts. These savings manifest across 
various operational aspects, highlighting the financial benefits of adopting electric 
mobility in two-wheeled transportation. One of the most significant areas of savings is in 
energy (fuel vs. electricity), service and maintenance costs. Data based on models like the 
Roam Air — an electric motorcycle — illustrate a marked reduction in these expenses (see 
Table 8). Electric motorcycles incur service and maintenance costs of just USD 0.035 per 
10 kilometres, a stark contrast to the USD 0.05 per 10 kilometres required for traditional 
motorcycles. This represents a 33% reduction in service and maintenance expenses, a 
saving attributed to the simplified mechanical design of electric vehicles. The reduction 
in service and maintenance expenses increases over the product lifetime from 33% up 
to 70%, due to faster deterioration of parts requiring lubrication and higher vibrations in 
fossil fuel vehicles. The absence of conventional engine components reduces the need for 
regular oil changes and minimises the number of moving parts susceptible to wear and 
tear. Moreover, the operational or running costs of electric motorcycles further emphasise 
their economic advantage. Operating at a cost of only USD 0.08 per 10 kilometres, electric 
motorcycles present a significantly cheaper option than fossil-fueled motorcycles, which 
have running costs of USD 0.288 per 10 kilometres. This 68% reduction in running costs 
can accumulate to substantial long-term savings for owners, particularly beneficial for 
those who frequently rely on their motorcycles for daily commutes or leisure.
Table 8: Comparing cost elements for electric vs fossil fueled motorbike
Aspect
Fossil Fueled 
Motorcycle
Electric
Motorcycle
Improvement
Service & Maintenance Cost (per 
10 KM)
USD 0.05
USD 0.035
33% cheaper
Emissions (CO2 per KM)
27g
0g
97% reduction
Running Cost (per 10 KM)
USD 0.288
USD 0.08
68% reduction


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In conclusion, a cost-benefit analysis that encompasses environmental and social costs 
can powerfully inform public policy options and the design of optimal fiscal incentives for 
promoting electric mobility. It underscores the critical role that fiscal and monetary policies 
play as economic instruments in fostering electric mobility and the decarbonisation of 
transport, both in Africa and beyond.
5.4	 Minimising Tax Revenue Losses 
Fuel tax losses represent one of the biggest challenges for most governments with the 
transition to EVs. In January 2022, the United Kingdom projected losses of about USD 
6.8 billion annually in fuel duty within eight years due to the transition to EVs (Goodrich, 
2022). As fuel duties comprise approximately a third of yearly revenues in the country, 
this posed a great threat to the tax income used to enhance, operate, and maintain 
motorways, with EVs already representing over 10% of the domestic vehicle market.
Similarly, fuel is an important tax revenue base in many African countries. For instance, 
the government of Ghana collects eight different taxes on each litre of fuel sold. These 
comprise of levies for energy debt recovery, energy fund, energy sector recovery, 
price stabilisation and recovery, road fund, sanitation and pollution, special petroleum 
tax and unified pricing petroleum fund (Acheampong, 2022). The fuel pump price is 
therefore higher for Ghanaian motorists at about USD 1.14 per litre, relative to those 
paid by motorists in Nigeria (USD 0.169), Togo (USD 0.91), and Ivory Coast (USD 1.076) 
(Goodrich, 2022). Reduced consumption of fuel through the introduction of EVs would 
thus result in reduced tax income. While some governments may hesitate to adopt 
EVs due to this reduction, the lost income can be recovered by shifting tax handles to 
alternative broad-base taxes, such those on telecommunication and mobile financial 
services. Governments will get more revenues through the surge in electricity purchases 
to charge EVs and the import taxes of EVs. Other compensating revenue sources would 
include increasing carbon taxes on hydrocarbons uses and excise duties, road taxes, 
and other levies on motor vehicles more generally where a motor vehicle becomes a 
new alternative tax base. Road pricing schemes in which motorists pay based on the 
time, distance and location travelled can also be adopted. In this case, road toll fees can 
be an alternative compensating tax base for fuel. 
African governments heavily subsidise fossil fuels, at an average cost of 1.4% GDP to 
cushion consumers against rising global oil prices. But this creates heavy fiscal debt. 
For instance, Nigeria spent more than USD 30 billion on fuel subsidies in the past 15 
years, resulting in a significant budget deficit (Goodrich, 2022). On the other hand, 
Kenya’s petroleum expenditure in 2021 was about USD 2.6 billion, widening the trade/
balance of payments deficit (Brookings, 2023). If EVs can gain traction in these countries, 
government spending could be channelled away from fossil fuel subsidies towards other 
sectors such as clean energy development and other poverty reduction initiatives. 
Oil producing countries like Angola, Equatorial Guinea, and Nigeria may be hesitant 
about global and continental phase-out of ICEs in the near future because of the need 
to safeguard the oil exports that sustained their economies. In 2019, the Nigerian senate 
unanimously rejected a bill which sought to phase out ICEs by 2035 (IOA, 2022). While 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
reforms that seek to regulate petroleum products such fuel prices will remain fraught with 
economic and political contestations, in the longer term, EVs are expected to replace 
ICE vehicles, leaving oil-producing countries with no choice but to support the adoption 
of EVs and pursue other pathways for diversifying petroleum value chains away from 
fossils. Besides, there are numerous uses of oil and gas apart from its use as fuels for 
transportation, electricity generation, and in industries.
5.5	 Transport Sector Governance, Institutional Framework 
and Policy Ownership
A major challenge in governing road transportation in Africa is the absence of sustained 
actions and long-term strategic planning in the sector (Sustainable Mobility for All, 2022). 
Often, national and subnational governments struggle to effectively tackle mobility 
issues due to a lack of comprehensive planning. Moreover, even when such plans are in 
place, their implementation is frequently inadequate. It is common for new plans to be 
introduced, only to be replaced when a change in administration occurs. The incoming 
authorities often disregard the efforts made by their predecessors and hastily modify or 
halt ongoing programmes rather than sustain them for political expediency.
Furthermore, the effectiveness of these programmes is hindered by the lack of 
coordination and monitoring among the various entities involved in road transport 
(Sustainable Mobility for All, 2022). Responsibilities are frequently dispersed among 
different national, subnational, metropolitan, or local entities without clear delineation, 
leading to confusion, neglect, and even duplication of roles leading to inefficiencies 
in programme implementation. These factors contribute to an environment where 
private stakeholders can easily overstep boundaries and take advantage of the poorly 
regulated context.
One way to address these challenges is to establish a transport planning and regulatory 
metropolitan agency, particularly for major cities and metropolitan areas. This institution 
would assume the role of the lead authority for transport planning, regulation of public 
transport supply, and improvements to the transport system, including parking and 
traffic management. Examples of successful initiatives include the Lagos Metropolitan 
Area Transportation Authority (LAMATA), which has broad powers and independent 
resources over transport planning in Lagos, Nigeria. LAMATA is recognised for reviving 
a previously dysfunctional and unregulated transport system (Gomez-Ibanez, 2015). The 
implementation of such agencies can be difficult, and strong political commitment and 
sufficient resources are necessary to ensure their effectiveness. 
African countries have also explored the formation of regional transport infrastructure 
agencies encompassing several countries including the establishment of the African 
Association of Urban Transport Authorities (AAUTA) in February 2023 (Kaori & Malgrace, 
2023). The initiative emerged through a collaboration between The Greater Abidjan 
Urban Mobility Authority (AMUGA), or Autorité de la mobilité urbaine dans le Grand 
Abidjan, and the Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP), which is an international 
partnership administered by the World Bank (Niina & Annin, 2023). The AAUTA brings 
together over 40 urban transport leaders from 13 African countries. It aims to serve as a 


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dedicated platform for African urban transport authorities (UTAs) to meet and exchange 
lessons learnt and good practices related to planning, coordinating, regulating, financing 
and managing urban transport systems, and promote public-private partnerships that 
provide the best conditions for mobilising resources and strengthening cooperation 
with partners in development (Kaori & Malgrace, 2023). Regional initiatives such as 
these can foster learning and collaboration in transport sector governance across 
Africa, especially in the context of the renewed urban designs that are necessary to 
accommodate electric mobility. 
In addition to the AAUTA initiative, city authorities can also follow the example of the C40 
Cities Climate Leadership Group, which unites 96 cities globally in a concerted effort to 
combat climate change. Through this platform, cities share strategies, innovations, and 
actionable plans, thereby cultivating a global network of municipal leaders committed to 
the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the development of resilient, low-carbon 
urban environments. The C40 initiative demonstrates the potential of collaborative 
platforms to inspire similar efforts within Africa, thereby enhancing the continent’s capacity 
for transport decarbonisation. By leveraging collective expertise and initiatives, such 
collaborations can drive significant progress in regional sustainable development efforts.
5.6	 Investments in Public Transport
Investments in public transport systems such as mass rapid transit modes (light rail 
and bus rapid transit (discussed in Section 4.6) are an effective way of reducing carbon 
emissions in the transport sector. Cities across the world, in both developed and emerging 
economies such as Bogota (Colombia), Sao Paulo (Brazil), and Jakarta (Indonesia) have 
invested in these systems, and have seen significant emissions reductions and improved 
public transportation. To benefit from the environmental and social benefits associated 
with public transportation systems such as mass rapid transit, countries need to:
•	
Prioritise investment in public transit infrastructure: Investing in public transit 
infrastructure, such as bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, light rail, and commuter rail, 
can significantly improve public transit in Africa, in turn reducing transport sector 
emissions as populations reduce reliance on personal cars. Countries such as 
Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania have already made progress in this area by investing 
in BRT systems, expanding existing rail networks, and building new commuter rail 
systems (as discussed in Section 4.6). 
•	
Develop integrated transportation systems: Integrated transportation systems 
connect different modes of transportation, such as buses, taxis, and trains, and 
improve the efficiency and convenience of public transit. Cities such as Lagos, 
Nigeria, have implemented integrated transportation systems that allow passengers 
to use a single ticket to access multiple modes of transportation (AfDB, 2019), making 
it convenient and attractive to users. 
•	
Encourage public-private partnerships: Public-private partnerships can help increase 
private investment in public transit and improve the quality of service and innovation 
in transport systems. For example, in Rwanda, the government has partnered with 
private companies to establish a new dedicated bus lanes (DBL) system. Dedicated 


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bus lanes for public transport in the country are expected to be operational on a pilot 
basis in mid-2024 (TRT Africa, 2023). Public-private partnerships have successfully 
been utilised to enhance public transport systems around the world, including in 
infrastructure financing and development. 
•	
Prioritise safety and security: Improving safety and security of public transit systems 
can help to increase ridership and improve the overall perception of public transit. 
Measures such as installing CCTV cameras, hiring security personnel, and improving 
lighting in and around transit stations can help to enhance safety and security (Lierop 
& El-Geneidy, 2016). 
•	 Implement innovative fare collection systems: Implementing innovative fare 
collection systems, such as smart cards and mobile payments, can help to improve 
the efficiency and convenience of public transit. For example, Kenya has proposed 
to implement a smart card system for its upcoming BRT system, which could help 
reduce fare evasion and improve the overall customer experience (The World 
Bank, 2017).
5.7	 Investments in Renewable Energy
Electric vehicles could maximise their contribution towards decarbonisation efforts if 
the electricity used for charging them comes from renewable energy sources such as 
geothermal, hydroelectric, solar, wind power or biofuels. Africa is naturally endowed with 
these renewable energy sources. For instance, hydropower is widespread, particularly in 
east and central Africa, with countries like Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo 
harnessing river systems to generate hydroelectricity. Solar and wind power are also 
increasingly being utilised due to Africa’s abundant sun and favourable wind conditions, 
especially in the north and in parts of East Africa. Geothermal energy is also being tapped 
in the Rift Valley, notably in Kenya, which is the top geothermal power producer in Africa. 
Increased adoption of EVs can drive the demand for cleaner energy, acting as a catalyst for 
further investment in renewable energy infrastructure. Increased adoption of EVs can also 
create a positive feedback loop, where the growth of e-mobility spurs decarbonisation 
of the electric grid itself. In addition to supporting regulation, investments in renewable 
energies can be enhanced through innovative financing mechanisms such as green 
bonds, which are specifically destined for the funding or refunding of green projects — that 
is, projects that are sustainable and socially responsible in areas as diverse as renewable 
energy, energy efficiency, clean transportation or responsible waste management (AfDB, 
2019). 
Off-grid energy solutions that provide electricity independently of the traditional 
centralised electrical grid can also serve areas where it is either too expensive or 
impractical to connect to the grid. Examples of common off-grid energy solutions 
include solar photovoltaic systems, wind turbines, micro-hydro power, biomass and 
biogas systems, battery storage systems, and hybrid systems that combine two or more 
of power systems to ensure a consistent and reliable power supply. Off-grid solutions are 
crucial for enhancing energy access in remote or underserved areas and are also a part 


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of the strategy for many regions to increase the use of renewable and sustainable energy 
sources (Nyarko, et al., 2023).
5.8	 Promote Non-Motorised Transport
Non-motorised transport (NMT) such as cycling, walking, and other human-powered 
transport can significantly reduce carbon emissions in the transport sector. Many cities 
in Europe have invested in cycling infrastructure, such as bike lanes and bike parking 
facilities, which have encouraged people to cycle instead of drive. A study by the European 
Cyclists’ Federation (ECF) found that increased cycling could reduce carbon emissions 
from the transport sector by up to 10% by 2050 (European Cyclists’ Federation, 2015). 
NMT, especially walking, is the dominant mode of transport in Africa, since between 33% 
and 90% of trips are made as a pedestrian (Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program 
(SSATP), 2015). Walking is popular in Africa because of many factors including favourable 
weather, short trips, poverty, and the high cost of private and public transit (Hernandez, 
et al., 2021). Figure 36 compares modes of transport in Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. 
 
Walking
 
Public transport
(Bus/minibus/
matatu)
Cycling
Two-wheeler
(Bodaboda)
Own private car
Three-wheeler
*Bajaj/Tuktuk)
Own private
motorcycle
Office transport
service
Taxis (Uber, Bolt)
Daily
1–2/3–4 days a week
1–3 days a month/ Once a month
1–2 times a year
never
90%
3% 3%
30%
13%
7%
49%
10%
84%
4%
2%
19%
7%
3% 3%
68%
8%
21%
23%
5%
43%
2%
81%
8%
2%
6%
3%
13%
1%
56%
25%
5%
91%
3%
2%
3%
1%
95%
2%
1%
Figure 36: Modes of transport used in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: Mitullah (2023)
NMT infrastructure remains underdeveloped in Africa. In many countries, it is common 
to find pedestrians walking across and along major arterials and highways, as there are 
often no secondary roads that could be used as an alternative. When NMT infrastructure 
such as footpaths are available they are sometimes poorly designed or frequently ill-
maintained, leading to secondary problems such as inaccessibility for people with 
mobility challenges (e.g., those in a wheelchair or with a walking stick) drainage problems, 
inadequate lighting, and poor landscaping that make them unsafe or unattractive for 
users (Vanderschuren, et al., 2022). Figure 37 shows a finished walkway in Nairobi; 
instead of the pathway being located on the sides of the road, it is in the centre of a busy 
road, forcing pedestrians to cross the street to utilise it (IDS-VREF MAC study 2020–2021, 
pedestrians in Nairobi). 
 


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Many who opt for non-motorised transport thus suffer from challenges such as road 
injuries and fatalities. Africa has the highest proportion of pedestrian and cyclist deaths, 
accounting for 44% of the total number of road deaths (United Nations, 2023). Many 
of these can be prevented by implementing policies that promote NMTs. NMT policies 
in Africa, though increasing, are limited to a few countries. As Figure 38 illustrates, 
NMT policies are either adopted at the national level (for example, as part of a national 
transport master plan) or sub-national level (for example, by a local city), with some 
countries having both. 
 
African countries can adopt and improve non-motorised transport in several ways 
including:
•	
Developing a cycling and walking infrastructure that is safe, comfortable, and 
accessible: Providing dedicated and well-designed bike lanes and pedestrian paths 
can encourage more people to walk and cycle. Amsterdam and Copenhagen have 
shown that investing in cycling infrastructure can result in significant increases in 
the number of people cycling (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Access to high-quality bike 
lanes is key since it can enhance a shift to a near-zero carbon form of transport and 
improve the health and safety of people. A study of European cities found that even 
occasional cyclists (once or twice weekly) had 84% lower CO2 emissions per person 
from all daily travel than non-cyclists (Systems Change Lab, 2023). The study noted 
that if 10% of the population was to change travel behaviour from driving to cycling, 
emissions from transportation would be expected to drop by about 10%. 
•	 Implementing policies that support active transportation: Governments can 
implement policies such as active transportation plans, complete streets policies, 
and incentives for employers to promote active transportation. Complete streets 
is a transportation policy and design approach that requires streets to be planned, 
designed, operated, and maintained to enable safe, convenient, and comfortable 
travel and access for all anticipated roadway users, regardless of their age, 
Figure 37: Pedestrian footpath in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: Moses Ogutu, IAP.


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abilities, or mode of travel. This can help create a culture of walking and cycling 
and encourage more people to choose active modes of transportation. One 
such example is Rwanda (see Case Study 3). Moreover, African countries should 
design manuals for urban areas to mainstream proven practice street designs that 
promote the use of sustainable modes of transport and enhance the safety of 
vulnerable road users like cyclists and pedestrians. 
•	 Involving the community in planning and design: Engaging with the local 
community and understanding their needs and preferences is essential when 
planning cycling and walking infrastructure. This can help ensure that the 
infrastructure is designed to meet the needs of the community and is, therefore, 
more likely to be used by people.
Figure 38: Non-motorised policies in African countries
Source: Adapted from Collaboration for Active Mobility in Africa


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•	
Encouraging multi-modal transportation: Encouraging people to use a combination 
of transportation modes can help reduce car use and increase the use of walking 
and cycling. Providing facilities such as bike parking and bike share schemes can 
encourage people to combine cycling with public transportation. Paths and crossings 
should also be cogniant of the specific needs of women, children, and the elderly. 
•	
Addressing safety concerns: Addressing safety concerns is crucial for encouraging 
more people to walk and cycle. This can be achieved through infrastructure 
improvements such as well-lit paths and crossings.
5.9	 Technology and Innovations for Sustainable Mobility 
Technology transfer is key to driving innovation and the shift to sustainable transport 
in Africa, particularly in regard to the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and related 
infrastructure. Technology transfer in transportation is giving rise to new forms of 
flexible, shared mobility and on-demand services. The use of such technologies has 
enabled the integration of multiple transportation modes in Africa and is facilitating 
more environmentally friendly, predictable, and high-volume trips. To scale and achieve 
this technology transfer in transportation in Africa, it is essential to create partnerships 
between developed countries which are early adopters of EVs, and emerging African 
countries. These collaborations would facilitate access to EV technologies, including 
those under copyright protections, crucial for decarbonising transport globally. African 
transport tech startups are at the forefront of this sustainable transition, with more than 500 
startups active across the continent (Briter Bridges, 2023; GSMA, 2023). These startups 
have attracted significant investment, securing around USD 1.4 billion over the past four 
years, primarily in passenger solutions, multi-tier systems, and logistics services (GSMA, 
2023). They are not only the third most attractive sector in Africa’s startup landscape, but 
are also pivotal in offering solutions to the continent’s transportation challenges, focusing 
on reliability, affordability, and reduced carbon emissions. These startups such as Roam 
in east Africa (see Case study 7 in this Section) are often adapting foreign technologies to 
suit local conditions, terrains, environmental challenges, and infrastructure needs. 
Despite their innovative approaches, including the use of intelligent transport systems 
and big data analytics, these startups face considerable challenges like inadequate 
infrastructure, funding shortages, and limited managerial expertise (Dosso, 2022). Skilled 
roles such as design engineers and solar technicians are scarce, often leading startups 
to depend on expatriate talent. To overcome these barriers and continue advancing, it is 
crucial for these startups to engage in long-term research and development, partnerships 
that integrate advanced knowledge and technologies from established companies and 
research institutions. While policy support in Africa is gradually improving, sustainable 
mobility startups still struggle to obtain localised data on market practices and demands. 
Intervening policy is needed to encourage and support these startups.
 


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Case Study 7:
Roam, electrifying motorcycles in Africa
Passenger buses and the popular two-wheelers (motorcycles or motor taxis) are the main 
public transport vehicles serving the growing population of African cities but are also 
some of the highest carbon-emitting vehicles on the market (SitatiI, et al., 2022). Founded 
in 2017, Roam is an East Africa based company with the vision of electrifying the African 
transport and energy systems. Roam initially focused on electric conversions, converting 
ICE vehicles to EVs, but later evolved to provide tailored solutions to meet local market 
demand through business segments that now include an electric motorcycle (two-
wheelers) designed in Kenya and tailored for Africa (Roam Air); electric bus production 
for Kenyan and African public transport sectors (Roam Transit), which produces the 
Roam Move and Roam Rapid; off-the-shelf energy and charging products (Roam Energy 
& Charging); and tailored software applications to fleet owners, business operators, 
financiers and others that includes a mobile application for chargers and transactions 
(Roam Canopy).
Roam’s research found that ownership of the battery and the system increases product 
lifetime, providing the best performance and the lowest total cost of ownership. In the 
case of motorcycles (Roam Air), the company provides each user with a home charger 
that allows users to charge at home and anywhere at any time (Figure 39). The company 
also established ROAM Hubs, multi-purpose electric charging stations that act as an 
ecosystem solution for motorcycle operators. The hubs offer battery rental services and 
public charging access, and are outfitted with after-sales support, including spare parts 
and maintenance services provided by skilled technicians. 
Figure 39: A motorcycle rider charging his own battery at a Roam hub
Source: ROAM (2024)


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5.10	 Just Transition Principles
The decarbonisation of the economy is reshaping labour markets and workforce skills in 
complex and dynamic ways, influenced by global trends like technological advancements 
and demographic changes (International Labour Organisation, 2022). As e-mobility 
is increasing, various segments of the conventional automobile value chain, spanning 
manufacturing, sales, and service sectors will become obsolete or undergo significant 
transformations. These changes are likely to result in job losses in the conventional ICE 
vehicle industry, while at the same time creating new job opportunities in the EV industry. 
This transition will require upskilling existing workers and training new ones. In Africa, 
where many transport jobs are informal, workers often lack social safety nets and access 
to essential resources like credit or insurance, which will make it challenging for them to 
adapt their business models to these changes.
To ensure socially equitable and inclusive outcomes alongside environmental 
sustainability, Africa needs to ensure that the transition to a net-zero economy follows a 
just transition approach. A just transition through social justice has been recognised as 
a fundamental precondition for sustainable transport (Bongardt, et al., 2023). According 
to the International Labour Organisation, (ILO) a just transition means greening the 
In line with the goal of achieving climate impact with speed and scale, home charging 
allows for deployment without the need for capital intensive charging infrastructure. 
Public infrastructure can be used assupport, rather than as a necessity. The lower cost of 
this strategy lowers operating cost by 28% to the end user. The motorcycle components 
subject to maintenance have been designed to be serviceable with common ICE 
components. This allows owners to have flexibility and low cost in maintenance. In 
addition, the hubs serve as public access locations for software and technology updates 
on the motorcycles making them one-stop-shops for the varying needs of the operators. 
The hubs are open to other EV players, with several already leveraging this infrastructure 
today. This open EV platform enables the industry to scale faster, reducing the higher 
amortisation of closed architecture charging infrastructure being pushed to the end user. 
Roam’s electric motorcycles have made a notable environmental impact, with each 
kilometre driven on the Roam Air mitigating 58 g/CO2e. The social and economic 
impacts are equally significant, with every dollar invested in Roam generating a social 
return of $2.4 through reduced ownership costs and increased income for users. Over 3 
million kilometres have been covered by Roam’s electric motorcycles, underscoring the 
widespread adoption and effectiveness of their solutions.
Roam’s journey has yielded valuable insights, including the importance of vertical 
integration, the demand for low-cost ownership, and the effectiveness of designing for 
local conditions. The higher upfront cost remains the primary barrier to faster adoption 
rates. However, the significantly lower operational costs ensure a more affordable total 
cost of ownership in the long run. Overcoming this barrier requires achieving economies 
of scale, possible through innovative financing methods such as non-dilutive funding, non-
recourse debt, first-loss guarantee funds, and carbon financing.  


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economy in a way that is as fair and inclusive as possible to everyone concerned, creating 
decent work opportunities and leaving no one behind (ILO, 2021). Just transitions involve 
maximising the social and economic opportunities of climate action, while minimising 
and carefully managing any challenges—including through effective social dialogue 
among all impacted groups, and respect for fundamental labour principles and rights. 
Ensuring a just transition is important for all economic sectors, including transport.
The ILO’s “Guidelines for a Just Transition towards Environmentally Sustainable Economies 
and Societies for All” (ILO, 2015) highlights key principles for effective transport 
decarbonisation, and just transition, including:
•	
Safeguarding worker rights: A just transition places a strong emphasis on 
safeguarding workers’ rights and livelihoods during the transition. It advocates for 
retraining and reskilling programmes, fair employment opportunities in emerging 
sectors, and maintaining social protections. As decarbonisation of transport will result 
in job losses and demand new skills, governments, private sector, non-governmental 
organisations and other stakeholders need to work together to implement 
programmes to support workers in the transport sector. 
•	
Ensuring stakeholder participation, equity, and inclusion: A just transition prioritises 
social equity and inclusion, ensuring that no group or population is disproportionately 
burdened or excluded from the benefits of the transition. This involves paying 
particular attention to marginalised and vulnerable groups, including women, 
indigenous communities, low-income populations, and residents of rural areas. It 
aims to correct historical inequalities, promote equal opportunities, and ensure fair 
cost and benefit distribution. Historically, the transport system has not addressed 
the safety of women or equity between women and men in the transport workforce 
(International Transport Forum, 2022). Moreover, persons with disabilities and older 
persons (PWDOD) also have unique challenges that hinder their mobility and 
access to effective transportation services. In Africa, key transport issues affecting 
PWDOD include inaccessible infrastructure like missing sidewalks, ramps, and 
elevators, especially for wheelchair users, a lack of vehicles adapted for their needs, 
and insufficient awareness among transport staff about their requirements. Lack of 
accessible transport significantly hinders persons with disabilities and older persons 
from participating in economic activities, as evidenced by the Kenya Integrated 
Household Budget Survey (KIHBS) 2015/2016, which revealed that over half of 
the persons with disabilities in both urban and rural areas face mobility-related 
challenges that impede their ability to engage in work or access education and 
welfare services, thus isolating them from critical societal functions and opportunities 
for economic independence (KIPPRA, 2020).
•	
The move towards decarbonisation of transport in Africa offers a chance to 
improve inclusivity and accessibility for these groups. Solutions include developing 
infrastructure with features like ramps and elevators at transportation hubs, upgrading 
vehicle fleets with accessibility features especially for new EVs, integrating technology 
for enhanced access, and increasing awareness and training among transport 
operators and staff. An example of this includes South Africa’s MyCiTi Integrated 
Rapid Transport System in Cape Town. MyCiTi stands as the first universally accessible 


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transport system in Sub-Saharan Africa that explicitly prioritised universal accessibility 
from its inception by integrating all the essential features to accommodate passengers 
with various mobility needs. These universal access features include tactile paving to 
assist visually impaired individuals in navigating to stations and platforms, induction 
loops at ticket kiosks for the hearing impaired, and CCTV surveillance both on 
buses and at stations for enhanced security. Additionally, the service offers boarding 
bridges on buses along residential and central city routes, ensuring level access from 
bus stops directly onto the buses for those who need it (DiSA, 2024). 
•	
Integrating Sustainable Development Goals: A just transition recognises the 
interconnection of social and environmental challenges and seeks to address them 
concurrently, promoting a holistic approach to sustainability. This involves integrating 
decarbonisation policies with broader socio-environmental actions for cohesive and 
effective sustainability strategies, as discussed in Chapter 4.
The Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) Partnership, a global initiative for international 
cooperation on transport and mobility issues advocates for the integration of just 
transition principles in sustainable mobility in developing countries in areas such as 
governance, equity and climate finance (SuM4All, 2022). It emphasises the need to 
develop transport systems and policy priorities to achieve the greatest socioeconomic 
benefits for all and notes that even though high-income countries have incentivised the 
purchase of EV passenger vehicles through purchase subsidies, this approach may not 
be applicable in low-income African countries. Since the upfront capital costs of EVs 
are relatively high, limiting their uptake at scale in low-income countries in Africa, the 
SuM4All partnership suggests that in some countries, a push towards EV adoption can be 
delayed until supporting infrastructure and ecosystem are developed. Therefore, scarce 
public resources should instead be focused on improving the transport system through 
measures like the provision of adequate, safe, comfortable, inclusive, and sustainable 
public transport (SuM4All, 2022).
5.11	 Sustainable Electric Vehicle Supply and Value Chains 
The principal materials used in the production of EVs and EV batteries such as cobalt, 
lithium, and nickel, continue to be in short supply as demand and prices increase. The 
price of lithium rose seven-fold between 2021 and 2022 (IEA, 2022). EVs use lithium-
ion batteries, and most EVs require six times the amount of minerals a non-electric 
car requires (IEA, 2022). Africa has a large concentration of the minerals required 
to manufacture EVs, including global deposits of cobalt (54%), manganese (46%), 
bauxite (24%), graphite (21.2%) and vanadium (16%) (Anon., n.d.). The Democratic 
Republic of Congo (DRC) alone accounts for 70% of the world’s cobalt production 
and more than 50% of the world’s reserves (Anon., n.d.). Nevertheless, despite the 
continent’s vast reserves, it remains a net exporter of the minerals, largely operating 
the primary stage of the mineral value chain (mining), approximated at USD 8.8 
trillion by 2025 (Anon., n.d.).
For African countries to participate effectively in the EV value chain, they will need 
to break their overdependence on mineral exports by establishing more value by 


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strengthening production capacities, mineral-driven industrialisation, and increasing 
their exports of value-added products. Moreover, investment incentives can be used to 
attract investors to develop manufacturing facilities such as battery manufacturing locally. 
Other suggestions include establishing a robust and coherent continental green mineral 
strategy to fast-track development of the region’s green mineral resources to take 
advantage of the economic opportunities associated with the global energy transition 
and investing in research and development. Examples include the uYilo e-mobility 
initiative in South Africa, which is developing facilities including national accredited 
material and battery testing, battery manufacture, second-life usage, recycling and 
vehicle-to-grid technology and developing suitable strategies and policies to enhance 
sustainability across the battery supply chain (Anon., n.d.).
5.12	 Environmental and Social Impacts of Electric Vehicles
The current life cycle of EV batteries could impede the attainment of several SDGs, 
including those related to climate action, health, education, and decent work. For example, 
cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo have been reported to violate human 
rights, with workers both adults and children working in perilous conditions that expose 
them to fatal accidents and long-term health damage (Amnesty International, 2016). 
Cobalt mining generates environmentally damaging by-products, like sulphuric acid, 
which can harm aquatic life (EVBox, 2023). Similarly, lithium extraction involves a water-
intensive process that can contaminate and divert vital water resources, especially in rural 
areas with scarce water supply. 
Research by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) indicates that 
battery production contributes significantly to the environmental impact caused by 
EVs, accounting for between 35% and 41% at the EV manufacturing stage (Guzek, et 
al., 2024). While EVs share many parts with traditional vehicles, their battery recycling is 
less efficient. Only about 5% of lithium batteries are recycled globally, a stark contrast 
to the 99% recycling rate of lead car batteries in the United States (Continental Battery 
System, 2023). Furthermore, compared to lead batteries, lithium batteries come in 
many shapes and sizes, and component ratios vary from one manufacturer to another. 
Each requires a specialised skill to break down given the differences in electric circuitry, 
making the process time-consuming and labour-intensive. Non-recycled batteries pose 
environmental risks when disposed of in landfills.
The EV industry needs to operate in a manner that is both sustainable and ethically 
responsible, contributing to a greener economy while upholding the rights and well-being 
of workers and communities. This can be achieved through adherence to Environmental, 
Social, and Governance (ESG) standards and the principles of the UN Global Compact. 
The UN Global Compact offers detailed guidance to reinforce labour standards in 
business operations, emphasising principles like the freedom of association, recognition 
of collective bargaining rights (Principle 3), elimination of forced and compulsory labour 
(Principle 4), and the abolition of child labour (Principle 6) (United Nations, n.d.). 
African and global governments can enforce UN Global Compact principles in EV 
production by enacting and enforcing legislation aligned with labour and environmental 


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standards, establishing robust monitoring and compliance systems, and fostering public-
private partnerships for best practices. Incentives can be provided for compliance and 
penalties for non-adherence. 
5.13	 Financing Decarbonisation of Road Transport in Africa
One of the foremost challenges for the successful decarbonisation of many sectors, 
including transport, is access to finance. The development of a robust charging 
infrastructure for electric vehicles, for example, requires significant financial resources. 
Infrastructure retrofitting, especially in densely populated urban areas, can be logistically 
complex and time-consuming. Many African countries already struggle with high levels 
of public debt, making it difficult to allocate sufficient resources to decarbonisation 
initiatives. Furthermore, the lack of a well-established regulatory framework and 
policy incentives for clean transportation discourages private sector investment in the 
continent’s decarbonisation. 
Financing decarbonisation of road transport requires a diverse and strategic approach, 
leveraging funds from multiple sources including multilateral institutions, private 
investors, and public sector budgets. These funds can be channelled into a range of 
project from supporting acquisition of EVs and charging infrastructure development 
to re-designing of public transit systems, each with unique social and economic 
returns. By most estimates, the scale of financing channelled towards meeting Paris 
Agreement targets falls significantly short of that required. The IPCC approximates 
that an annual investment of between USD 1.6 to USD 3.8 trillion is needed to meet 
these objectives. However, the current annual climate financing flows are about USD 
600 billion (Guzmán, et al., 2022). Of the 53 African countries that have submitted their 
Nationally Determined Contributions, 51 have provided data on the estimated costs 
associated with implementing these commitments. Collectively, Africa has a GDP of a 
USD 2.4 trillion, indicating that 10% of the continent’s yearly GDP needs to be mobilised 
above and beyond current flows yearly for the next 10 years. Based on these data, it 
will cost approximately USD 2.8 trillion between 2020 and 2030 to implement Africa’s 
NDCs alone. Africa requires support from international public sources and international 
private sectors to implement their NDCs. Even though many African countries have 
expressed high needs (Figure 40), these needs could be underestimated because of 
lack of guidance and capacity to make accurate assessments and inadequate data from 
vulnerable communities and subnational governments. Mitigation efforts account for 
the largest share of reported needs between 2020 and 2030, at 66% of the total finance 
needed (Guzmán, et al., 2022). Mitigation needs are predominantly split across four 
sectors, with transport accounting for the largest share of mitigation funding (58%), 
followed by energy (24%), agriculture and other land use (9%), and industry (7%). 


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5.13.1   Concessional Climate Finance
Concessional climate finance consists of grant and non-grant instruments, which are 
provided with below-market interest rates and target high impact projects that overlap 
across both development and climate such as sustainable transport projects. In Africa, 
concessional climate financing is basically concessional loans or grants sourced from 
major multilateral, bilateral, regional, and national financial institutions. One of the 
currently existing concessional financing instruments that can be leveraged include 
the Multilateral Development Bank (MDB)’s Working Group (WG) on sustainable 
transport funding transport projects in developing countries. As part of the 2012 
Rio+20 commitment for sustainable transport, the WG consisting of eight MDBs had 
a commitment of USD 175 billion in grants and loans targeting sustainable transport 
projects in developing countries (SLOCAT, 2021). 
Moreover, the African Development Bank, through its Sustainable Energy Fund for Africa 
(SEFA), provided a technical assistance grant of USD 1 million to the Green Mobility 
Facility for Africa (GMFA) (AfDB, 2023). The purpose of the grant was to support the 
establishment of a favourable environment for EVs, the applicable business models, 
knowledge sharing, and guidelines for private sector participation in developing 
bankable projects in the EV sector. Some of the countries that benefited from the grant 
include Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and South Sudan 
(AfDB, 2023). 
Equally, the Global Facility to Decarbonise Transport (GFDT), a multi-donor trust, is 
spearheading the development of an investment facility to unlock development and 
climate finance for low-carbon transport projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. The regional facility 
will assist countries in the region to harmonise policies and investment programmes to 
$ 1,200
Public climate finance
committed
Climate finance needs
(from other sources)
Cost of
implementing
NDCs
Other
1,000 800
600 400
20 0
Western Africa
Southern Africa
Central Africa
Northern Africa
Eastern Africa
USD Billion
Figure 40: Cost of implementing Nationally Determined Contributions in Africa (2020-2030), USD billions.
Source: Adapted from Guzmán, et al. (2022)


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enhance electric buses, cars and two- and three-wheelers. By bringing more development 
and climate financing into countries and cities in Sub-Saharan Africa, this new facility will 
make a vital contribution to support decarbonisation of transport across the region. It 
will also help to enhance transport accessibility for some of the region’s most vulnerable 
communities, especially by supporting reforms to modernise public transport.
5.13.2   Grants and Subsidies
Grants and subsidies such as tax incentives can help early-stage business models to 
develop. In East Africa, a few established EV companies have attracted larger investments 
led by either development-finance institutions or strategic partners in their market. Asset 
finance companies, manufacturers looking to expand to Africa, and U.S. technology 
firms have succeeded in their pilot projects and fundraising by focusing on the specific 
aspects of the EV market. Electric vehicle companies that secured funding to scale their 
businesses include Ampersand Company (operating in East Africa but primarily in 
Rwanda) which secured USD 9 million in debt from International Development Finance 
Corporation, and ROAM in Kenya that secured a USD 7.5 million in equity and grants 
from One Ventures, while Zembo in Uganda obtained USD 3.4 million from Toyota, 
DOB Equity, and InfraCo. Moreover, development finance-partner organisations are 
also promoting the scaling up of e-mobility solutions in Africa. For instance, Siemens 
Foundation is providing grant capital on a project-to-project basis, and has supported 
multiple e-mobility enterprises with grants for Research and Development in Ghana, 
Uganda, and Kenya (Siemens, 2023)
5.13.3   Carbon Markets
Carbon markets refer to trading systems in which carbon credits are sold and bought. 
Carbon markets have emerged as significant tools for activating and scaling up the 
uptake of EVs, as they offer a compelling mechanism to accelerate the transition towards 
cleaner transportation by linking financial incentives with the reduction of carbon 
emissions. Individuals or companies can use carbon markets to offset GHG emissions by 
purchasing carbon credits from entities that reduce, remove, or avoid GHG emissions. 
One tradable credit equals one tonne of carbon dioxide or the equivalent amount of 
different GHG avoided, reduced, or sequestered (UNDP
, 2022). When a credit is used 
to avoid, reduce, or sequester emissions, it becomes an offset and is no longer tradable. 
The Africa Carbon Markets Initiative (ACMI) was launched at the 27th UNFCCC Conference 
of Parties (COP27) in Egypt in 2022. The initiative aims to drastically scale VCMs across 
Africa by: (1) unlocking the USD 6 billion in revenue by 2030 and more than USD 120 
billion by 2050; (2) scaling the market to 300 million carbon credits retired yearly by 2030 
and 1.5 billion credits yearly by 2050; (3) supporting 30 million jobs by 2030 and more than 
110 million jobs by 2050; and (4) sharing the revenue transparently and equitably with 
local communities (ACMI, 2022). The launching of the initiative resulted in commitments 
from seven African countries (Burundi, Gabon, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria 
and Togo) to develop country carbon activation plans (Climate, 2023), while USD 200 
million was secured in advanced market commitments from international corporates. In 
2022, Mauto, a leading electric two-wheeler company in Africa, signed a USD 5 million 
transaction agreement in the VCM with Aera and Myclimate. The agreement covers the 


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84
Decarbonisation efforts compete with existing
Governments in Africa should actively foster strategic 
transport and oil industry regimes that benefit from
collaborations,  robust advocacy, and innovation to
the manufacture, sale, maintenance, and
advance sustainable transport across the continent.
deployment of fossil fuel-based vehicles. To
Partnering with industry, academia, and global civil
navigate competing interests, it is essential to actively
society can enable governments to harness the
engage stakeholders from traditional transport and
power of advocacy and strategic collaborations in
fuel industries in crafting a shared vision for the future
amplifying the call for the adoption of low-carbon
of transportation on the continent, while highlighting
transport technologies and practices.
the economic, environmental, and social benefits.
Governments in Africa and other stakeholders should
implement just transition principles to foster a holistic
and socially inclusive decarbonisation of transport. Just
transition principles advocate for a shift towards a
sustainable economy that prioritises equity and
access for all, including vulnerable groups and
marginalised communities such as women, persons
with disabilities and older persons, indigenous
communities, low-income populations, and residents
of rural areas.
Inadequate financial frameworks hinder
Governments in Africa should develop comprehensive
decarbonisation efforts in Africa, limiting
financing and policy instruments to support the
the continent’s ability to leverage transport
upgrade of power grid systems, the construction of
decarbonisation as a catalyst for industrial growth
EV charging networks, and overall improve the public
and innovation. The scarcity of robust financial
transport infrastructure. Innovative climate financing
structures and investment may stem from multiple
instruments can include infrastructure funding,
factors, including African countries’ challenges in
blended finance, and green bonds, alongside
developing comprehensive financial policies and
taxes. This type of financing and policy instruments
removal or reduction of emissions generated by Mauto, which plans to deploy more 
than 2 million e-motor bikes in Africa by 2030. To certify its achievements in social and 
environmental commitments, Mauto intends to obtain the Sustainable Development 
Verified Impact Standard (SD VISta) label by VERRA (Whitlock, 2022)
While carbon credits and carbon markets can be used to raise climate finance which 
can be invested in setting up the charging infrastructure and to subsidise EVs, they 
are practically challenging to implement. There’s a risk that they can enable continued 
emissions through offsets rather than direct reductions, potentially undermining long-
term climate goals. Stringent regulations and oversight are essential to ensure carbon 
credits lead to verifiable, real emission reductions, and not just offsets. Additionally, 
integrating social and environmental justice considerations into carbon market 
mechanisms can help ensure more equitable and effective outcomes.
In addition to carbon credits, governments can also implement a carbon taxation regime 
to finance decarbonisation efforts. During the 2022 Africa Climate Summit, more than 20 
countries adopted the Nairobi Declaration, which called for a global tax on the use and 
trade of fossil fuels in Africa (African Union, 2023).
 
 5.14          Findings   and   Recommendations
Continued on next page


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frameworks such unclear guidelines and incentives
can help attract private investment and mobilise
that encourage private sector participation and
capital for MRT and NMT infrastructure, encourage
innovation to invest in MRT and NMT, incentives
the acquisition of EVs, foreign investment, and
for EV buyers, and the hesitation of investors, who
inclusive business models that foster participation
may not fully recognise the opportunities within
of SMEs and start-ups in the EV business ecosystem.
the continent’s evolving EV market. Therefore,
Governments can also expand policy support
addressing these financial barriers and enhancing
to foster international cooperation, resource
investor confidence is crucial for unlocking the
mobilisation, and the development of sustainable
transformative power of decarbonisation through
business models for electric mobility, leveraging
electrification in Africa.
existing approaches such as the Green Climate Fund.
Progress towards decarbonised and sustainable
Governments in Africa should establish a unified
transportation can be achieved and accelerated
framework for decarbonised and sustainable transport
by adopting a common position on sustainable
aligned with continental aspirations and global climate
transport across Africa. While the African Union’s
change targets. This framework can build on existing
Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy
blueprints, including the African Union’s visionary
and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 already
policies, and agreements such as the CCRDSAP
provides a comprehensive framework for climate
2022–2032, the 2023 Nairobi Declaration, Agenda
action, including in transport, a distinct strategy or
2063, Programme for Infrastructure Development in
position dedicated to sustainable transport does
Africa (PIDA), the African Renewable Energy Initiative,
not currently exist. Adopting a common position on
the Paris Agreement, and its Nationally Determined
sustainable transport across Africa does not imply a
Contributions and national long-term climate
one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, a common framework
strategies of various African countries. A common
should be based on shared principles that
position on sustainable transport not only aligns
recognises the diversity of national circumstances
with overarching continental and global objectives
and allows for flexibility in implementation.
but also leverages collective bargaining power in
negotiations to secure technology transfers, financial
investments, and international support essential for
the transition


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CONCLUSION
The transportation sector significantly contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, 
accounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also a critical 
enabler of 
Africa’s economic transformation, and is prominently featured in 
Africa’s 
Agenda 
2063. Given the urgent concerns over climate change, decarbonising transportation in 
Africa is crucial, especially as emissions are expected to increase rapidly under current 
trends. This study, conducted collaboratively by the NASAC and the IAP
, assessed the 
current status, challenges, and opportunities for decarbonisation of transport in Africa. 
It reviewed policies, institutional and technical capacities, strategies, technologies, 
financing, social factors, and the necessary legal and regulatory frameworks. Through 
the working group that prepared this report, several recommendations for Governments 
and other stakeholders in Africa have been proposed. The key recommendations in this 
section are intended to be illustrative rather than being exhaustive as comprehensive 
listing and discussion of issue specific recommendations are presented at the end of 
each of the preceding chapters of the report. In summary, the study recommends:
•	
Promote local decarbonisation efforts to accelerate their adoption continent-wide.
•	
Implement the Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) Approach for 
Sustainable Transport.
•	
Provide incentives to industries to promote and support local manufacturing.
•	
Establish research partnerships with industry and academia to investigate energy 
demands and expected impact of electric vehicles (EV) on the grid, and to evaluate 
alternative energy sources and load shifting techniques.
•	
Develop comprehensive financing and policy instruments to support the upgrade 
of power grid systems, the construction of EV charging networks, and overall 
improvement of the public transport infrastructure.
•	
Prioritise the electrification of vehicle segments that provide the most immediate and 
highest decarbonisation benefits.
•	
Implement stricter rules and regulations that support emission reduction during the 
transition to decarbonising the transport sector.
•	
Implement Just Transition principles to foster a holistic and socially inclusive 
decarbonisation of transport.
•	
Improve existing transport systems and adopt sustainable land-use development.
•	
Actively foster strategic collaborations, robust advocacy, and innovation to advance 
sustainable transport across the continent.
•	
Establish a unified framework for decarbonised and sustainable transport aligned 
with continental aspirations and global climate change targets.
CHAPTER SIX


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The expert working group emphasises that adopting a common position on sustainable 
and decarbonised transport in Africa does not imply a one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, 
Africa can adopt a common framework that is based on shared principles that recognises 
the diversity of national circumstances and allows for flexibility in implementation. The 
working group further categorically states that decarbonisation is not synonymous 
to electrification. While electrification can contribute to decarbonisation by replacing 
carbon-intensive energy sources with cleaner electricity, decarbonisation encompasses 
a broader set of strategies aimed at reducing overall carbon emissions across all sectors 
of the economy.
The findings and recommendations presented in this report underscore the need for 
ongoing research to explore more effective strategies and actions that can accelerate 
the transition to a net-zero carbon emission target by 2050, as stipulated in the Paris 
Agreement. Although this study primarily focused on road transport, it has emphasized 
that decarbonising transport in Africa requires a holistic approach. This entails integrating 
various modes of transport including rail, walking and cycling, and considering factors 
such as urban planning, energy sources, technological innovations, policy frameworks, 
and societal behavior. Only through a comprehensive, multi-dimensional strategy that 
addresses these interconnected elements can meaningful progress be made toward 
sustainable and efficient transport systems across the continent.
 


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Abraham, C. J., Rix, A. & Booysen, M. J., 2023. Aligned Simulation Models for Simulating 
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Appendix A:
National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicles in 
select African countries by 2030
Countries
Charging 
infrastructure Cost
Advantage (USD)
Capital Cost
Advantage (USD)
Operating Cost 
Advantage (USD)
Subtotal (USD)
Externality (USD)
Cost Advantage 
(Economic
Analysis) (USD)
Net taxes
subsidies (fiscal
wedge) (USD)
Economic Cost 
Advantage plus
fiscal wedge (USD)
Egypt
-4107
-13010
15300
-1817
19019
17202
10165
8348
Ethiopia
-1512
-4692
6920
716
1330
2046
11359
12075
Ghana
-3017
-6241
10846
1588
2494
4082
9346
10934
Nigeria
-4330
-6511
10850
9
1934
1943
-1112
-1103
Rwanda
-2762
-5112
6356
-1518
1760
242
25110
23592
Buses
Egypt
-6036
-12107
27579
9437
38150
47587
8806
18243
Ethiopia
-1545
-3375
6809
1890
1327
3217
10787
12676
Ghana
-3675
-7738
13212
1800
3249
5048
11965
13765
Nigeria
-2668
-6418
5222
-3863
890
-2973
-938
-4801
Rwanda
-3054
-7116
5825
-4346
1790
-2556
24523
20178
Four Wheelers (motor vehicles)
Egypt
-567
-1100
880
-787
1416
629
1256
469
Ethiopia
-142
-1173
376
-939
64
-875
1093
154
Ghana
-232
-290
413
-110
80
-30
332
222
Nigeria
-342
308
1043
1009
198
1206
29
1038
Rwanda
-249
18
246
15
59
74
1268
1283
Two-wheelers
Egypt
0
-202
265
63
203
266
93
156
Ethiopia
0
-172
129
-43
23
-20
223
180
Ghana
0
-71
290
219
56
275
220
439
Nigeria
0
-12
254
243
47
290
-27
216
Rwanda
0
-32
148
115
33
149
425
540
Source: Briceno-Garmendia et al. (2023).
Appendices
 


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102
Appendix B:
Guest Practitioners at Working Group workshop in Nairobi,
Kenya and list of presentations 
Name
Country
Organisation
Title of Presentation
Prof. Winnie 
Mitullah 
Kenya
The University of 
Nairobi
The role of Non-Motorised Transport 
(NMT) in Decarbonisation of 
Transport in Africa
Mr. Gideon 
Neethling
South 
Africa
Golden Arrow 
Bus Service 
(GABS)
The potential and challenges for 
large scale introduction of electric 
buses in South Africa.
Prof. 
Abubakar S. 
Sambo
Nigeria 
Usmanu 
Danfodiyo 
University 
Sokoto
Sustainable development of EVs in 
Nigeria: Charging stations, research 
and development (R&D) and the way 
forward in a situation of electricity 
inadequacy
Mr. Hilton 
Musk
South 
Africa
Rubicon
EV charging infrastructure: Installing 
& operating an EV charging network 
in South Africa.
Mr. Samuel 
Kamunya
Kenya
BasiGo
The role of e-mobility start-ups and 
innovation in growth of e-mobility 
and accelerating transition towards a 
decarbonisation of road transport in 
Africa.
Giliomee 
Johan
South 
Africa
Stellenbosch 
University 
Provided additional inputs in chapter 
2 and 3 of the report




DECARBONISATION OF 
TRANSPORT IN AFRICA:
Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The transportation sector is a significant contributor of greenhouse gases, 
accounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also 
a critical enabler of Africa’s economic transformation and features prominently 
in the African Union’s Agenda 2063. With growing climate change 
concerns, it is critical to decarbonise transportation because future 
carbon emissions are expected to increase. For this reason, the 
Network of Science Academies (NASAC) and InterAcademy 
Partnership (IAP) appointed an expert working group to 
conduct a study to assess the opportunities, challenges 
and policy options for decarbonisation of transport 
in Africa and prepare this report. This report also 
examines the necessary legal and regulatory 
frameworks, policies, institutional and technical 
capacities, strategies, technologies, financing, 
and social aspects that can contribute to the 
decarbonisation of transport in the continent. 
The report also included pertinent findings 
and recommendations for a holistic transition 
to decarbonised transportation, which African 
governments and other stakeholders should 
take into account.
  
This report can also be found on the NASAC 
website: www.nasaconline.org. 


HUGH BARLOW
Consultant CCS Technology
SHAHRZAD S M SHAHI
Consultant CCS Technology
MATTHEW LOUGHREY
Principal Consultant CCS Technology
TECHNICAL REPORT
STATE OF THE ART: 
CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
2
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS 
FOREWORD	
4
CAPTURE	
6
      AIR LIQUIDE	
8
      AKER CARBON CAPTURE	
18
      AXENS	
22
      B&W	
26
      CAPTURA	
30
      CARBONCAPT	
32
      CARBON CLEAN	
36
      CARBON ENGINEERING	
40
      C-CAPTURE	
44
      CAPSOL TECHNOLOGIES	
48
      CO2CRC	
52
      DELTA CLEAN TECH	
56
      ELESSENT CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES	
58
      FUELCELL ENERGY	
62
      HEIRLOOM	
66
      HUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE (HNCERI)	
68
      HONEYWELL	
72
      K2CO2	
76
      KC8CAPTURE	
78
      LINDE	
82
      NET POWER	
94
      NOVOZYMES	
98
      NUADA (FORMERLY MOF TECHNOLOGIES)	
102
      SHELL AND TECHNIP ENERGIES	
104
      SINOPEC NANJING CHEMICALS RESEARCH INSTITUTE	
108
      SUMITOMO SHI FW	
112
      TOSHIBA	
118
      SVANTE	
122
TRANSPORT	
124
      GHD	
126
      JFE STEEL	
130
      MAXTUBE GROUP	
134
STORAGE	
138
    CMG	
140
    GETECH	
142
    HALLIBURTON	
146
    NSAI-PETRO	
158
    QUORUM SOFTWARE	
160
FULL VALUE CHAIN	
168
     ABB	
170
     ASPENTECH	
172
     BAKER HUGHES	
174
     CHART & HOWDEN	
200
     CHEVRON	
204
     ENI	
208
     JCCS	
212
     NOV	
216
     OPENGOSIM LTD	
220
     RITE	
222
     SAIPEM	
230
     SICK	
236
     SLB	
240


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
4
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 
There is an urgent need for innovative, new technologies 
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to tackle climate 
change and meet net-zero targets.  Carbon Capture and 
Storage (CCS) covers a range of technologies that will be 
crucial in supporting these global efforts. 
The uptake of CCS is growing at an unprecedented 
rate.  While early CCS projects targeted easier to capture 
emissions sources, projects further into the energy 
transition need to address harder to abate emissions 
that are more expensive and challenging to address. 
 
Technological advancements are essential to improving 
the economics and ensuring the successful application of 
CCS to these more challenging emissions sources.
This year’s Technology Compendium expands on the 
inaugural version in all categories with several new 
technologies.  One of the key advancements is the 
development of new and improved methods for capturing 
carbon dioxide, including several new technologies 
utilizing calcium looping and metal organic frameworks 
(MOFs). For transport and storage, new technologies 
focused on robust design and monitoring are supporting 
the need to provide safe and optimized transport and 
storage infrastructure.  This highlights the ongoing work 
to develop technologies to improve energy efficiency, 
reduce costs, and improve infrastructure performance for 
future CCS projects. 
The year’s Technology Compendium continues to 
showcase the breadth and depth of commercially-
available CCS technologies worldwide. We look forward 
to seeing further growth and development of CCS 
technologies in coming years as we continue to fight the 
threat of climate change.
Matt Loughrey 
Principal – CCS Technologies 
Global CCS Institute 
July 2023
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the contributions and support of all the technology companies who have contributed to this 
publication.
Thank you to Hugh Barlow and Shahrzad Shahi for their invaluable editing and coordination of this report.
Special mentions also go to Yi Wu, Yasuo Murakami, Kazuko Miyashita, Erin Billeri, Spencer Schecht, Bruno Gerrits, 
and Sarah Hardman of the Global CCS Institute for their efforts and support.


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
6
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
CAPTURE 


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
8
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
The first industrial deployment of this technology was made 
in Port-Jerome, France (Cryocap™ H2), at the largest SMR 
Hydrogen production unit operated by Air Liquide. Since 
its startup in 2015, the plant has captured 100 ktpa CO2 
from an existing SMR while boosting H2 production. The 
plant has been designed for ease of scalability; wherein all 
equipment in Port Jerome will be purely upscaled to larger 
scale CCS projects. After 8 years of operation, the Port 
Jerome site demonstrated:
•	
Proven robustness of design - no aging of key 
components over time
•	
Very high reliability: No H2 production interruption, CO2 
availability > 99%
•	
Performances confirmed and stable over time
•	
Improvement thanks to continuous capitalization from 
operation to design 
Port Jerome is one of the 4 sites in Europe able to produce 
Hydrogen certified low carbon, and has been integrated as 
a pilot site for the project CertifHy, the first Guarantee of 
Origin (GO) platform for Green and Low-Carbon Hydrogen. 
All Cryocap™ products benefit from 8 years of return of 
operational experience gained in Port Jerome.
Air Liquide has always been committed to innovation 
by improving its vast portfolio of patented technologies 
and customized solutions to meet and exceed customer 
expectations in terms of efficiency, safety, reliability and 
competitiveness to achieve energy transition goals. As a 
top technology provider with a longstanding experience 
in Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC), we 
cover the entire project life-cycle: license engineering 
services / proprietary equipment, high-end engineering 
& design capabilities, project management & execution 
services. In addition, we also offer efficient customer 
services through our worldwide set-up.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
The entire Cryocap™ suite was designed to address the challenges experienced from traditional capture solutions. Our 
customers value the following Cryocap™ features:
•	
Minimizes overall carbon footprint: the technologies are electrically-driven (negligible steam) which maximize the CO2 
avoided by reduced indirect CO2 emissions, with high CO2 recovery (92 - 99%), and can be paired with renewable or 
low-carbon power supply
•	
High intrinsic process efficiency: the technology bricks are used in their optimum range
•	
Safety and no toxicity: solvent-free, and no toxic or flammable gases used
•	
Match the end specifications and high CO2 product purity: all Cryocap™ produce either high pressure gaseous or liquid 
CO2 at marginal extra cost and can meet the most stringent CO2 specifications (>99.9%v)
•	
Favor synergies and optimize space: 1-step capture and liquefaction for any stream containing >15% CO2 (dry basis), 
very compact solutions with flexible layout configuration and simplified infrastructure compared to steam-based 
solutions
•	
Improve productivity: for some applications (H2 and steel), installing our product improves the efficiency of the original 
process or enable the co-production of valuable molecules (e.g. Cryocap™ H2 increase H2 production up to 20%)
CRYOCAPTMW (H2, FG, OXY, STEEL, NG)
Air 
Liquide 
has 
been 
designing 
gas 
separation 
technologies for more than 100 years, and has leveraged 
its industrial demonstration units on power plants, steel 
blast furnaces, and H2 production plants to develop the 
Cryocap™ product line. Cryocap™ is an award-winning 
proprietary technological innovation for CO2 capture that is 
unique in the world, using a cryogenic process (involving 
low temperatures to separate gases). Cryocap™ can be 
adapted to specific applications combining a variety of Air 
Liquide technologies. Customers can reduce their CO₂ 
emissions by up to 99% and have the possibility to valorize 
other molecules contained in the feed gas (e.g. CO, H2, etc). 
Cryocap™ is a robust and pioneering technology available 
to service customers looking to reduce the carbon footprint 
of their production facilities.
To date, Cryocap™ is the only full-scale cryogenic capture 
technology with an industrial reference in operation in the 
world. Driven by innovation and the need to decarbonize 
carbon intensive processes, Cryocap™ reference examples 
date back to 2005 and the product line has since then 
been selected for multiple engineering studies, pre-
Front End Engineering & Design (pre-FEED), FEED, and 
implementation across four continents for a diverse set of 
industries. To further showcase its innovative and efficient 
design in CO2 capture, Cryocap™ has resulted in several 
patent filings. It has also consistently been recognized by 
US and EU experts through several grant awards by EU 
Innovation Fund and US Department of Energy (DOE) in 
2021 and 2022.
Our portfolio of cryogenic technologies includes:
•	
Cryocap™ H2 for hydrogen production: Steam Methane 
Reformer (SMR), AutoThermal Reforming (ATR), or 
Partial Oxidation (POX)
•	
Cryocap™ FG for flue gases (optimal: >15% CO2 dry 
basis)
•	
Cryocap™ Oxy for oxy combustion
•	
Cryocap™ Steel for steel production
•	
Cryocap™ NG for acid natural gas fields
•	
Cryocap™ XLL for large scale liquefaction (in a separate 
section)
CONTACT
Email: 	 cryocap@airliquide.com 
Web: 	
www.airliquide.com
AIR LIQUIDE
DESCRIPTION
CRYOCAP™ H2
Based on its extensive experience in hydrogen production units, Air Liquide has developed a technology capable of 
capturing the CO2 emitted during hydrogen production (by SMR or ATR or POX). This proprietary technology is the subject 
of several patents and allows customers to make significant cost reductions. 


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
10
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
On top of capturing and liquefying the CO2 in one step, 
it is the only technology that can reduce CO2 emissions 
during the production process while boosting hydrogen 
production by 13 to 20%. It has the lowest cost on the 
market for CO2 capture in hydrogen production units 
(especially compared to activated MDEA), and can be 
adapted to existing and future hydrogen production units.
The technology uses cryogenic purification to separate 
the CO2 from Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) offgas, 
containing typically 40-50%v CO2. The PSA offgas is 
compressed, dried and sent to a cryogenic unit, where 
the CO₂ is separated from the other components by a 
combination of partial condensation and distillation. A 
pure and pressurized CO₂ flow is produced from the cold 
process. The non-condensed gases are recycled through 
a membrane system to recover H₂ and CO₂. Residual 
gas is sent to the burners of the H₂ production plant. The 
CO₂ product is compressed up to supercritical pressure 
or liquefied and stored in liquid storage. Liquid CO₂ 
can also be directly withdrawn from the cold process at 
marginal costs. The CO₂ can be then liquefied and purified 
to meet CO₂ specifications of local industrial markets 
(agri-food, water treatment, etc.) or transport systems for 
sequestration. Cryocap™ H₂ can be installed for greenfield 
and brownfield H₂ plants. 
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: from 300 - 10,000 tpd
•	
Hydrogen production: increase of 13 - 20%
•	
Avoided CO2 cost reduction: up to 40% compared to 
MDEA
•	
OPEX + CAPEX:  30-50 €/tCO₂ captured 
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
More than 99% of CO₂ and H₂ recovery from syngas
Main Applications:
•	
H₂ production  (SMR or ATR), POx, any syngas with 
>15% CO2
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2012 - Industrial CCU EPC for 300 tpd in France
•	
2019 - Industrial CCS pre-FEED in EU (Air Liquide SMR)
•	
2020 - Industrial CCS FEED in Belgium (Air Liquide 
SMR)
•	
2021 - Award by Dutch SDE++ for Porthos project and 
by EU Innovation fund for Kairos@C project (both Air 
Liquide SMR)
•	
2022 - Selection by US DOE for FEED in USA (Air 
Liquide SMR)
•	
2022 - Industrial CCU EPC project in Grandpuits, 
France (with TotalEnergies)
CRYOCAP™ FG
Air Liquide developed a dedicated capture technology 
in order to address low-hanging fruits of the high-
concentrated sources: industrial flue gases. Many high 
CO2-emitting industries have concentrated sources of 
CO2 emissions above 15%, such as hydrogen production 
with SMR, cement and lime production, blast furnaces in 
hot metal production, and FCC in refineries. These high-
concentrated sources are estimated to represent around 
50% of the global industrial direct emissions. Additionally, 
Cryocap™ FG can also significantly abate NOx emissions 
from flue gas and to deliver the on-spec liquid CO2 product 
at its battery limits, thereby reducing the number of process 
units and interfaces, and increasing the level of overall 
optimization and reliability.
Cryocap™ FG is a separation process based on the 
combination of adsorption and cryogenic separation. 
The flue gas is first compressed, dried and sent to a PSA 
(Pressure Swing Adsorption). The PSA pre-concentrates 
the CO₂ in the offgas. It is compressed then sent to a cold 
process. There, the CO₂ is recovered by the combination 
of partial condensation and distillation, which allow the 
removal of various elements such as O₂, Ar, N₂, NO and CO. 
The CO₂ product is compressed, condensed and pumped 
up to supercritical pressure or directly produced as liquid. 
The pressurized nitrogen from the PSA is expanded to 
recover energy. 
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: 300 – 10,000 tpd
•	
PSA-assisted CO2 condensation
•	
Compressors, PSA and cryo process can be located in 
two different plots
•	
Smart impurities management (high NOx)
•	
40 to 80 €/tCO₂ captured
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
CO2 capture rate: up to 98%
Main Applications:
•	
Flue gases or off gases with CO2 content >= 15% (SMR, 
cement/lime, steel blast furnace, refineries (FCC), 
waste incineration/biomass power plant, pulp & paper)
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2020 - Industrial CCS Engineering Study for 2,000 tpd 
in EU (FCC)
•	
2021 - Industrial CCS Process Design Package + 
License for 2400 tpd in EU (SMR)
•	
2021 - Selection by US DOE for a FEED on largest 
single kiln for Holcim St. Genevieve plant in US (e.g. 
10,000 tpd CO2)
•	
2022 - Two awards by EU Innovation Fund for FOIK 
cryogenic capture on lime flue gas (Lhoist Réty) and 
cement single line kiln (Lafarge Holcim Kujawy)
•	
2022 - Two selections by US DOE for FEED on Gulf 
Coast SMR and a Direct Reduction Iron (DRI HBI) 
(Arcelormittal, previously Voestalpine)
CRYOCAP™ OXY
Cryocap™ Oxy uses oxy-fuel combustion exhaust as a 
feedstock. Its unique technological bricks include flue gas 
drying, dust filtration, and cryogenic purification. Through 
this technology, a high rate of CO2 recovery is achieved, 
and can reduce atmospheric emissions from power plants 
to almost zero (emissions of NOx, SOx, fine particles and 
Hg). 
The flue gas issued from the cement or lime or power plant 
is first treated in a pre-treatment unit, which aims to cool 
the gas and remove the SOx, HF, HCl, most of the NOx, 
and dust. Then, the gas is compressed and dried before 
entering the cryogenic purification unit. In the cold process, 
CO₂ is recovered by combination of partial condensation 
and distillation, which allows the removal of the heavy 
compounds such as NOx and the light elements such as 
O₂, Ar, N₂, NO and CO. The CO₂ product is compressed, 
condensed and pumped up to supercritical pressure or 
directly produced under liquid state.
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: 1,000 and 15,000 tpd
•	
30 - 50 €/tCO₂ captured
•	
Energy savings through residual gas
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
Enriched flue gas above 60% CO2
•	
Smart impurities management (high NOx)
•	
CO2 capture rate: 90-98%
Main Applications:
•	
Cement/Lime
•	
Power plant
•	
Any applications with CO2 concentration >40%
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2008 - Demo CCS EP for 200 tpd in France (Total - 
oxyfuels)
•	
2010 - Pilot CCS EP for 80 tpd in Australia (Callide)
•	
2012 - Pilot CCS EPC for 200 tpd in Spain (CIUDEN)
•	
2014 - Industrial CCS FEED for 3500 tpd in US 
(Futuregen)
•	
2015 - Industrial CCS FEED for 1500 tpd in France 
(Lafarge - cement)
•	
2021 - Awarded by Innovation Fund for ~1MTPY 
(EQIOM - cement)
CRYOCAP™ STEEL
This solution was designed to specifically capture CO2 from 
steel making plants, with CO2 stream concentrations of 20-
50%. The gas is first compressed, dried and sent to a PSA 
(Pressure Swing Adsorption). The PSA pre-concentrates 
the CO₂ in the offgas while producing a CO rich stream. 
The pre-concentrated CO₂ stream is compressed and 
sent to a cold process. There, the CO₂ is recovered by 
combination of partial condensation and distillation, which 
allows the removal of the light elements such as Ar, N₂, H2 
and CO₂. The CO₂ product can be produced as a gaseous 
or liquid product. The pressurized CO-rich stream is either 
recycled to the blast furnace or used to produce fuels.
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: from 300 - 5,000+ tpd
•	
Compact and flexible footprint: compressors, PSA and 
cold-box can be located in three different plots
•	
25-60 €/t CO₂ captured
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
CO2 capture rate: 80 to 95%
Main Applications:
•	
Iron and Steel Production
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2005 - Pilot CCS EPC for 40 tpd (pre-concentration 
part) in Sweden (MEFOS)
•	
2012 - Industrial CCS FEED for 3,600 tpd in France 
(ULCOS)
•	
2019 - CCU for 800 tpd (pre-concentration part) in 
Belgium (Steelanol)
2020 - CCU LCO2 Pre-FEED for 350 tpd in Korea
CRYOCAP™ NG
The CO₂ rich natural gas is first dried and sent to a cold 
process where the CO₂ is separated from the other 
components through a combination of partial condensation 
and distillation. High CO₂ partial pressure favors the partial 
condensation of CO₂ and therefore, makes its separation 
from natural gas even easier. The non-condensable gas 
is enriched in methane and sent to a membrane for final 
purification. The CO₂ purity of the product corresponds 
to pipeline specifications, generally 1 - 10 mol%. The CO₂- 
enriched permeate stream of the membrane is sent back 
to the cold process. The CO₂ and heavy hydrocarbons 
condense in the cold process and are collected at 
high pressure. NGL recovery is possible with almost no 
additional cost. Cryocap™ NG is tolerant to some content of 
H₂S. Cryocap™ NG also allows for bulk removal of H₂S from 
NG.
Key Figures:
•	
Up to 1,000,000 Nm3/h
•	
Separation cost: less than 1 USD/MMBTU
•	
Capex savings: > 50% vs. amine absorption (at high 
CO₂ content)
Main Applications:
•	
Natural gas with high CO2 content (>35%)


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Fully referenced in all applicable scales and different applications
•	
Process uses inexpensive, available and chemically stable solvent 
•	
Technology provides low operating costs and high availability  
•	
Process configuration can be tailored to optimize CAPEX and OPEX figures
AMINE SOLUTIONS, RECTISOL
TM, AND RECTICAPTM
Air Liquide engineers solvent based technologies such 
as amine to capture CO2 from synthesis gas or flue gas. 
Through long term partnerships with the key amine license 
providers, Air Liquide has installed 80+ units and benefits 
from its long-term operational experience of amine units.
Considered as the industrial base case, amine technology 
can deliver high purity gaseous CO2 (99+%) at low 
pressure, which can be combined with CryocapTM XLL. 
For CO2 capture on flue gases with low CO2 concentration 
(below 10%), amine technology remains the most 
competitive solution, provided the availability of large 
amounts of excess steam or high grade heat. Air Liquide is 
also offering proprietary technologies for CO2 capture from 
synthesis gas (RectisolTM, RecticapTM).
CONTACT
Email: 	 gas-treatment@airliquide.com
	
(for Amine Wash)
	
hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
	
(for Rectisol and Recticap)
AIR LIQUIDE
DESCRIPTION
ACID GAS REMOVAL – AMINE WASH
The process configuration and solvent selection will be 
tailored according to feedstock and sweet gas application. 
Air Liquide can offer very energy-efficient processes 
such as the BASF OASE® purple or OASE® yellow as well 
as other proprietary or generic amines for pipeline or 
liquefied natural gas specifications. This process presents 
the advantage of very low hydrocarbon co-absorption. 
With selective processes, deep H2S removal with low to 
moderate CO2 co-absorption can be achieved for pipeline 
specifications. Capacity is up to 1,500,000 Nm³/h per train.
CO2 REMOVAL FROM FLUE GAS (3-25% CO2) - AMINE 
WASH
Air Liquide offers energy efficient solutions with highly 
stable, low maintenance solvents based on proprietary 
second generation amines. CO2 capture rates of up to 97% 
can be reached irrespective of the feed’s CO2 content, and 
CO2 product specifications of up to >99.9%. Capacity Up 
to 1,500,000 Nm³/h feed per train, up to 4,000 tpd CO2 
per train. Trace components such as particles and SOx are 
handled in the upstream pretreatment. 
Key Figures:
•	
99.7% availability
•	
Max 16% O2 in flue gas
•	
Range: min 150 tpd CO2 - max 4000 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate: 85 to 97%
•	
CO2 up to 2.5 bara w/o compression
•	
CO2  purity up to 99.9%
•	
Particles & SOx handled upstream of amine wash
•	
Low electrical power consumption 
Main Applications:
•	
Flue gases or off gasses from industrial sources with 
CO2 content 3% to 25% - (SMR, cement/lime, steel 
blast furnace, refineries (FCC), biomass power plant, 
pulp & paper)
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
5 units in operation, 6 OASE Blue references from 
BASF
CO2 REMOVAL FROM SYNGAS - AMINE WASH
Air Liquide offers highly energy-efficient processes such 
as BASF OASE® white. The process configuration will 
be tailored according to treated gas requirements and 
CO2 product specification as well as optimized CAPEX 
and OPEX. The process can be heat-integrated with the 
upstream gas generation. CO2 specifications in the treated 
gas < 20 ppm are achievable, making this process ideal 
for CO2 removal upstream of any coldbox or ammonia 
process. CO2 capture rates from syngas of >99% can be 
achieved to produce a decarbonized hydrogen product. 
Since the process has a very low co-absorption even at 
higher feed gas pressures, CO2 product specifications with 
CO2 > 99% are achievable.
Key Figures:
•	
99.7% availability
•	
Capacity: from 100 - 3500 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate up to 99.9% on feed gas
•	
Spec: up to 50ppm CO2 in treated gas
•	
CO2 at ~1.2 bara, purity of up to 99.3%
•	
Low electrical power consumption
•	
Solvent regeneration is done using heat, with possible 
heat integration with existing hydrogen plant 
Main Applications:
•	
H2 production (SMR, POX, ATR)
•	
Syngas with~15% to 20% CO2. Oxo-syngas with 5% to 
15% CO2
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
30 OASE references, 80 amine wash units in total


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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RECTISOL
™ 
Harmful acid gases contained in raw gases from any gasification are removed by absorption with a physical solvent (cold 
methanol). Rectisol™ is the leading process when it comes to the purification of gasification-based syngas for catalytic 
applications (production of syngas, methanol, ammonia, or Fischer-Tropsch) as well as hydrogen and syngas for power 
production. Using inexpensive solvent in combination with optimized heat integration, the Rectisol™ process has extremely 
low operating costs and high availability.
Key Figures
•	
50,000 - 1,000,000 Nm³/hr per train (feed gas)
•	
H2S + COS removal rate < 0.08 ppm
•	
CO2 removal rate up to 5-50 ppm
•	
Special setups for removal of mercaptans, metal 
carbonyls and BTX available
•	
Accumulation of all harmful contaminants within the 
acid gas to be safely processed in a SRU
•	
An additional compressor can be added to increase 
capture rate
Main Applications:
•	
H2, Methanol production, Sustainable Aviation Fuels
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
+ 30 References
RECTICAP™
Recticap™ is an optimized Rectisol™ concept tailored for 
energy transition projects focused on ATR based low-
carbon H2 to produce low cost low-carbon hydrogen in 
large capacities (>300,000 kNm³/hr) at moderate to high 
pressures (>25 bar). In contrast to a Rectisol™, Recticap™ 
removes only CO₂ from the raw hydrogen/ syngas and 
has hence a simplified process setup with reduced capital 
expenditures. The solution allows up to 98% CO2 capture 
from syngas. Dry CO2 capture-ready at >98.5% purity is 
achievable.
Recticap Benefits
•	
Optimized solution for sulfur-free syngases
•	
Targeting large single train ATR based H2 application in 
energy transition projects
•	
Process simplification due to clean syngas and CO2 
capture only 
•	
Up to 50% lower CAPEX and 25% lower OPEX for 
same syngas volumes than RectisolTM
•	
Know-how from AL´s own operated plants and 
RectisolTM demonstration unit


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
HSE-Friendly
•	
Custom plant: flexible design
•	
Moisture and other light compounds (O2, N2…) removal
•	
High compactness
•	
Low specific energy
•	
Cost efficiency
CRYOCAPTM XLL (LARGE CO2 LIQUEFACTION)
Air Liquide has developed Cryocap
TM XLL, specifically 
designed to liquefy large volumes of CO2. The solution 
allows aggregation of CO2 from various emitters utilizing 
possibly different types of carbon capture technologies. 
On top of liquefying CO2, Cryocap
TM XLL also allows the 
removal of moisture and other compounds (such as O2) 
to meet CO2 sink specifications. The technology has been 
developed for large scale and is able to reduce specific 
power for CO2 liquefaction by 40% compared to existing 
small scale CO2 liquefier used for industrial merchant 
applications. 
The technology is especially suited for CO2 industrial 
hubs and basins where the CO2 needs to be transported 
via ships, trucks, or trains. Cryocap
TM XLL is a HSE-friendly 
solution that does not involve the use of any toxic or 
flammable external refrigerant (such as propane). As a 
single compressor is used for both the feed and the cycle, 
it is also a very compact and cost effective solution.
CONTACT
Email: 	 cryocap@airliquide.com  
Web: 	
www.airliquide.com
AIR LIQUIDE
DESCRIPTION
The CryocapTM XLL process is proposed as an industrial 
solution to compress, liquefy, and purify the raw CO₂ 
stream resulting from upstream units. The CO₂ feed gas 
is compressed in the feed/recycle compressor, dried at an 
intermediate pressure and then compressed again. The 
compressed gas is cooled down and then routed to the 
cold process. In the cold process, the high-pressure, dry 
CO₂ is cooled down and split into various streams. One 
of these streams is purified by distillation in the Stripping 
Column to produce the liquid CO₂ product, which is routed 
to the unit’s battery limits. The remaining streams are 
expanded to different levels and vaporized in the main heat 
exchanger, providing the refrigeration load required for the 
liquefaction of the CO₂. Once vaporized, these streams 
are recycled at ambient temperature to the feed/recycle 
compressor. This configuration makes it possible to handle 
the compression of the feed gas and the refrigeration with 
a single compressor (so called self-refrigerated cycle).
Key Figures:
•	
800 to 10,000+ tpd
•	
Custom plant: flexible design
•	
Liquefies CO2 at ambient temperature
•	
5-25€/tonne CO₂ liquefied
•	
Very low OPEX: 30-130 kWh/tonne CO2
•	
HSE-friendly (CO2 cycle)
Reference Examples:
•	
Design for 4 x 7000 tpd in Belgium (Antwerp@C)
•	
FEED in Dunkirk, France (DARTAGNAN) - Awarded 
CEF Funding
LONGSTANDING EXPERIENCE IN CO2 MANAGEMENT
Air Liquide has a longstanding experience in CO2 management, from capture, purification and liquefaction to storage and 
transport from various sources. Air Liquide can also upgrade the recovered CO2 and provide it to various markets, such as 
the agri-food industry (carbonation, preservation, and refrigerated transport), water treatment, chemicals…
Longstanding experience 
in CO2 management
Air Liquide has a longstanding experience in CO2 management, from capture, 
purification and liquefaction to storage and transport from various sources.  
Air Liquide can also upgrade the recovered CO2 and provide it to various markets, 
such as the  agri-food industry (carbonation, preservation, and refrigerated 
transport), water treatment, chemicals…
1
2
CO2 EMISSIONS
CARBON CAPTURE
•  
Industrial processes (metallurgy, cement 
manufacturing, ammonia and hydrogen 
production, methanization, fermentation,...)
•  
Hydrocarbons combustion
•  
Biomass combustion
•  
Waste incineration
Complexity and energy balance of carbon 
capture operations mainly depend on:
•  
Electricity and steam costs 
and carbon footprint
•  
Inlet CO2 stream characteristics
•  
Expected outlet CO2 conditions (P,T) 
and purity
CO2
CO2 
recovery
Purification 
& liquefaction
3
UTILISATION & SEQUESTRATION
•  
Sequestration in deep salineaquifers, 
in depleted oil fields or in coal seams
• Mineralization in basaltic underground rocks
•  
Synthetic hydrocarbons
•  
Chemicals, polymers
•  
Building materials
•  
Gas for industrial uses
•  
Agri food
•  
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Liquid or 
gaseous CO2
Utilisation
Geological 
sequestration


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
PROPRIETARY AND PROVEN TECHNOLOGY
The technology behind the company’s business has robust 
patent protection and offers best-in-class Health, Safety 
and Environment (HSE) characteristics, along with high 
energy efficiency. It can be applied to both existing and 
new build plants, and has extensive real-world validation, 
with 60,000 hours of operation to date across a range of 
carbon emitting industries. Aker Carbon Capture considers 
research, innovation, and technology development to be 
key drivers of competitive advantage. The company has an 
active program focused on reducing costs, developing and 
qualifying new carbon capture technologies, and improving 
carbon capture project economics. This includes capture 
efficiency, further modularization, and the implementation 
of digital capabilities.
The ACC™ proprietary solvents were developed in an 
eight-year comprehensive R&D program (SOLVit) together 
with industry players and Norwegian research partners. 
Numerous solvent mixtures were tested and compared 
regarding energy consumption, robustness, toxicity, 
material compatibility, and – most importantly – HSE 
performance. The SOLVit program resulted in energy-
efficient solvents, with no negative environmental impact 
or occupational hazards. This results in reduced solvent 
consumption, meaning reduced OPEX. Compared to 
traditional amines our proprietary amines also minimize 
degradation products, which can have a significant impact 
on corrosion and the need for maintenance”.
The ACC™ capture technology including the ACC™ solvents 
and ACC™ Emission System has been tested and verified 
on flue gases from gas-fired and coal-fired power plants, 
cement kilns, waste-to-energy plants, hydrogen production 
plants, char manufacture and smelting, with 60,000 hours 
of operating experience from the US, Germany, Scotland, 
Sweden, Poland, and Norway. Based on the extensive 
testing, the ACC™ capture technology is qualified by DNV 
GL according to DNV-RP-A203 Qualification Procedures 
for New Technology and DNV-RP-J201 Qualification 
Procedures for CO2 Capture Technology.
Energy 
optimization 
is 
critical 
for 
the 
successful 
implementation of carbon capture as it significantly reduces 
the energy consumption of the process. At Aker Carbon 
Capture, energy optimization, heat integration, and waste 
heat recovery are prioritized focus areas. Aker Carbon 
Capture offers several highly effective solutions for energy 
optimization, tailored to specific industrial applications 
and site-specific conditions. The recommended solution 
is based on the overall energy performance of the parent 
and the capture plants. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Highly energy-efficient capture process with innovative heat integration solutions. 
•	
Includes proprietary ACC™ advanced emission control system to prevent the formation of amine mist, which nearly 
eliminates the emissions of amine and amine degradation products. 
•	
Verified via 60,000 hours of data for operating on flue gas from cement kilns, waste-to-energy plants, gas power 
plants, hydrogen production, char production, smelting and refinery applications, through campaigns with our Mobile 
Test Unit and at Technology Centre Mongstad. 
ADVANCED AKER CARBON CAPTURE (ACC™) 
Aker Carbon Capture is a pure-play carbon capture 
company with solutions, services and technologies serving 
a range of industries. The company has proprietary and 
field-proven technology to enable carbon emission 
reduction and removal in sectors such as cement, gas-to-
power, biomass and waste-to-energy, blue hydrogen, and 
other hard-to-abate industries. Aker Carbon Capture’s 
Advanced Carbon Capture (ACC™) technology has 
been continuously developed since 2005 and offered 
commercially since 2009. 
The company’s business model covers the sale of 
complete carbon capture units, license models including 
supply of key equipment, aftermarket services and, 
together with industrial partners, a full value chain Carbon 
Capture as a Service model. In general, Aker Carbon 
Capture’s plants include a high degree of modularity in 
their designs, which is an important driver to reduce costs 
and shorten delivery times. 
We deeply believe partnerships are crucial to grow the 
CCUS industry, such as the unique partnership we have 
with Microsoft to pursue joint innovation and services to 
accelerate the deployment of carbon capture. Aker Carbon 
Capture’s overall purpose is to accelerate planet positive 
by enabling carbon reduction and removal from industries 
and energy solutions.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@akercarboncapture.com
Web: 	
www.akercarboncapture.com
AKER CARBON CAPTURE
•	
Aker Carbon Capture’s ACC™ CO2 capture process, including CO2 liquefaction, intermediate storage and CO2 
export has been qualified by DNV-GL according to DNV-RP-A203 Qualification Procedures for New Technology and 
DNVRP-J201 Qualification Procedures for CO2 Capture Technology.
•	
Includes extremely robust solvents for environmentally friendly operations. The proprietary ACC™ solvents are 
characterized by low solvent degradation, which is associated with a low corrosion rate in the plant, low amine makeup 
requirement, low emissions of amine degradation products, low demand for amine reclamation, and thereby, resulting 
in low production of reclaimer waste. 
Aker Carbon Capture’s Just Catch™


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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Aker Carbon Capture’s Advanced Carbon Capture (ACC™)"
Twence CCU (Copyright)
The main unit operations of the ACC™ process include 
the Direct Contact Cooler (DCC), the absorber, and the 
desorber columns, the reboiler, the reclaimer, the energy 
saver, the flue gas fan, and a liquefaction unit with an 
optional proprietary advance heat integration. 
Flue gas from the client’s plant is extracted downstream 
of any existing flue gas emission control units through the 
flue gas fan. The flue gas is pre-treated in the DCC. The 
purpose of the DCC is to cool the flue gas and to remove 
any acid gases, such as SO2, HCl, and HF. Condensed 
water from the flue gas will exit the DCC as a bleed stream. 
Flue gas from the DCC is routed to the CO2 absorber 
downstream of the booster fan. The CO2 absorber consists 
of a CO2 absorption section in the lower part of the 
column and a water wash section with an emission control 
system in the upper part of the column. In the absorption 
section, flue gas contacts the lean amine solvent in a 
countercurrent flow regime, absorbing CO2 from the 
flue gas. Continuing to the upper part of the column, the 
emission control system including the ACC™ Anti-Mist 
design cools and cleans the CO2-lean flue gas of traces 
of amines and potential amine degradation products, thus 
effectively preventing emissions of amine and potential 
amine-degradation products in the form of aerosols. CO2-
lean flue gas is either emitted from the absorber stack or 
returned to the existing flue gas stack downstream of the 
flue gas extraction point. 
CO2-rich amine is drained from the absorber sump. The 
rich amine solvent is regenerated using steam. The steam 
is condensed in a reboiler and returned to the battery limits 
as hot condensate. The increase in temperature during the 
indirect heating of rich solvent with steam strips the CO2 
out of the solvent. The resulting lean amine is returned to 
the absorber for reuse in the CO2 capture process, while 
the CO2 exits the top of the desorber. The energy saver 
consists of a proprietary process that reduces the steam 
consumption in the reboiler.
CO2 may be compressed and e.g., fed into a regional 
CO2 pipeline to be transported to permanent storage, or 
compressed and liquified for transport by ship or truck. The 
ACC proprietary technology solution enables internal heat 
recovery from compression that also reduces the overall 
steam requirement for the carbon capture plant. 
To maintain high solvent performance, a reclaimer 
is included to intermittently remove impurities and 
degradation products from the amine solvent. A small 
amount of concentrated liquid waste is generated in the 
reclaimer. This reclaimer waste needs to be disposed of 
batch-wise as chemical waste. Due to the low degradation 
rate of the ACC™ solvents, along with a properly designed 
DCC, the amount of reclaimer waste from the ACC™ 
process is very low compared to standard plants operating 
with generic solvents such as MEA.
REFERENCE PROJECTS
Technology Center Mongstad (TCM) 
Aker Carbon Capture designed and was awarded the EPC 
delivery of the carbon capture test facility plant at TCM. 
This full-scale CO2 capture plant captures CO2 from the 
gas-fired combined heat and power plant and the catalytic 
cracker at the Mongstad refinery in Norway. Different from 
competitors, Aker Carbon Capture has not only tested our 
ACC™ technology at the TCM facility but designed and 
delivered the actual plant, which has been in continuous 
operations since 2012. 
Customer: Statoil (now Equinor). 
Twence CCU 
This first-of-a-kind project will enable the removal of CO2 
from flue gases at Twence’s waste-to-energy installation 
facility located at Hengelo, the Netherlands. The captured 
and liquefied CO2 will be used primarily by greenhouses in 
the horticultural sector, where it will enhance crop growth. 
The delivery is planned to take place at the end of 2023. 
CO2 capture capacity: 0.1 Mtpa 
Brevik CCS
Aker Carbon Capture has been working together with 
Heidelberg Materials Sement Norge and partners 
in developing a full-scale CO2 capture, conditioning, 
compression, heat integration, intermediate storage and 
loading facility for their cement plant at Brevik in Norway. 
CO2 is being captured from the flue gases of the cement 
kiln using waste heat recovered from the cement plant 
and the CO2 compression plant through a proprietary heat 
integration technology. The ACC™ capture plant will be 
the world’s first large-scale CO2 capture plant at a cement 
plant, and is planned to be delivered in 2024. Brevik CCS 
is part of the Norwegian Longship Project.
CO2 capture capacity: 0.4 Mtpa
Ørsted Kalundborg Hub
Aker Carbon Capture will deliver five Just Catch™ units, 
which will be delivered to Ørsted’s wood chip-fired Asnæs 
Power Station and the Avedøre Power Station’s straw-fired 
boiler. Combined, these facilities will have an installed 
design capture capacity of 500,000 tonnes CO2 per year. 
Expected delivery will be in 2025.


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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BENEFITS
CO2 removal using amine scrubbing is a well-known 
process used since 1920 in natural gas treatment. Axens 
and IFPEN have acquired over 60 years of experience 
in CO2 removal from natural gas through the licencing of 
Advamine™ processes. 
Although CO2 can be easily recovered from pressurized 
gases with currently available technologies, its recovery 
from low-pressure or flue gases leads to a significant 
energy penalty. Furthermore, most solvents currently used 
in the oil and gas or chemical industries, will be severely 
degraded by the oxygen present in the flue gases. More 
suited technologies are therefore required for most CCS 
applications. 
To address these challenges, Axens and IFPEN have been 
involved in several R&D programs over the past years to 
develop enhanced CO2 capture technologies. The DMX™ 
process is an outcome of these developments.
The DMX™ process is a CO2 capture process based on 
absorption using a demixing solvent. The DMX™ solvent 
consists of a mixture of two organic compounds in aqueous 
solution, which is demixing under certain conditions of 
temperature and CO2 partial pressure.
The DMX™ solvent has a high cyclic capacity (4 times 
more than the MEA benchmark), whereas only the CO2-
rich phase needs to be regenerated. As it is very stable, 
it may be regenerated at higher temperature than amine 
solvents such as MEA, which allows producing CO2 at 
higher pressure (up to 5 barg). Thanks to the properties of 
DMX™ solvent, the DMX™ process has a great potential for 
reducing the energy penalty and the cost of CO2 capture. 
Compared to the first-generation absorption process using 
30 wt.% MEA, the DMX™ process allows a 30% reduction 
in energy penalty and the subsequent cost of the CO2 
capture (main results from Octavius (ENEL) and Valorco 
(coordinated by Arcelor Mittal and founded by ADEME) 
projects). The DMX™ solvent is also less corrosive than 
MEA, and therefore, carbon steel may be used as the 
principal material, which reduces the CapEx, as compared 
to the first-generation solvents.
Main Benefits of Axens’ DMX™ process are the following. 
•	
Versatile process applicable to multiple types of flue gases (for example: coal power stations, steel mill gas, FCC unit, 
Steam Methane Reformer, waste incinerator, cement plant, district heating and also electricity from biomass). The 
DMX™ process is well-adapted to CO2 capture on industrial smoke or industrial gas when the CO2 partial pressures are 
low to medium, typically below 1 bara.
•	
Low steam energy consumption
•	
Thermally stable solvent with low degradation rate 
•	
CO2 produced readily under pressure up to 5 bars for significant compression cost-savings 
•	
High capture rate achievable (> 95%) and high purity of produced CO2 (> 99%)
•	
- 30% of CO2 capture cost compared to 1st generation amines
CONTACT
Nadège Guernalec
Email: 	 nadege.guernalec@axens.net
Web: 	
www.axens.net
SUMMARY
DMX™ PROCESS 
AXENS


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
The DMX™ process can be broken down into four main 
sections.   
A CO2 absorption section (absorber): the conditioned gas 
is washed in a counter-current absorber with the DMX™ 
solvent. The absorber is equipped with an intercooling 
stage to enhance the absorption capacities of the solvent 
and reduce the solvent circulation to its minimum. A water 
wash section is installed at the top of absorber to limit the 
solvent losses with the treated flue gas. A DMX™ solvent 
demixing and settling section (decanter): the CO2-rich 
solvent recovered at the bottom of the absorber is pumped 
and heated in the rich/lean solvent exchanger, leading to 
demixing of the latter. After decantation, three phases are 
obtained:
•	
A liquid phase low in CO2 can be returned directly to 
the absorption section.
•	
A liquid phase rich in CO2 is directed to the 
regeneration section.
•	
A gas phase rich in CO2
A regeneration section (regenerator): the CO2-rich phase 
coming from the settling section is thermally regenerated 
by steam stripping effect (generated in situ with a reboiler 
operating with medium-pressure steam) producing a 
gaseous effluent rich in CO2 at the top of the column. The 
regenerated heavy phase is sent to a regenerated solvent 
hold up drum, before being recombined with the low CO2 
light phase (from the settling section). It is then cooled 
down through rich/lean solvent exchanger and lean solvent 
cooler before being returned to the absorption section. 
The gaseous CO2 streams recovered at the decanter 
and regenerator overhead are cooled down to recover 
condensed water before being mixed and routed at battery 
limit under pressure.
After more than 10 years of development from laboratory 
scale to global optimisation in the power and steel 
industries, the DMX™ process has passed a new milestone 
with its current demonstration at industrial scale, final 
step before commercialization end of 2023 by Axens. 
Operational since April 2023 at ArcelorMittal's steel mill in 
Dunkirk, the unit is capturing the CO2 from blast furnace 
gas at a capacity of 0.5t CO2/h. The first results obtained 
are in line with the promises of the technology and 
already confirm the efficiency and energy performance 
of DMX™ technology. A whole series of operational 
tests are conducted with 24/7 operation of the unit. The 
capture rates obtained are greater than 90%. The pilot 
also produces very pure CO2 (> 99.5%) while energy 
consumption remains remarkably low.
The demonstration unit was built and is operated as part 
of the European H2020 "3D" project bringing together 11 
European partners including ArcelorMittal, Axens, IFPEN 
and TotalEnergies. This project also studies the full-
scale CO₂ capture, conditioning, transport and storage 
of 1 Mtpa CO₂ from blast furnace gas contributing to 
the development of a CO₂ hub located in  Dunkirk and 
connected with the storage facilities like  those foreseen 
with the Northern Lights (or Longship).
Additional information is available at the following web 
address: https://3d-ccus.com


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DESCRIPTION
BRIGHTLOOP™ CHEMICAL LOOPING
Babcock & Wilcox partnered with The Ohio State University 
to develop our BrightLoop chemical looping technology, 
which can use a variety of fuel stocks to produce 
hydrogen, syngas, steam, liquid fuel or methanol, and/or 
power while also producing a stream of concentrated CO2 
for sequestration and storage or other uses. 
The patented BrightLoop process is based on the oxidation 
and reduction of an iron-based oxygen carrier particle 
and has the ability to capture a pure stream of hydrogen 
and CO2 from gas and solid fuels – including biomass, 
coal, waste fuels, natural gas, biogas, petroleum coke 
(petcoke) or others. In this process, fuel reacts with the 
oxygen-carrier particles in a reducer reactor (fuel reactor), 
forming combustion byproducts, predominantly CO2, while 
reducing the oxygen-carrier particles. The reduced oxygen-
carrier particles then move to a partial oxidizer (hydrogen 
reactor) where they react with steam to partially oxidize the 
particles and generate a stream of hydrogen.
The oxygen-carrier particles are then transported to a 
combustor reactor (air reactor) where they are regenerated 
with air back to their original state. The fuel and hydrogen 
reactors use moving bed technology while the air 
reactor uses fluidized-bed technology, both well-proven 
technologies with which B&W has extensive experience. 
Other emissions can be controlled using B&W’s complete 
suite of environmental control technologies.
We are confident our BrightLoop technology will play 
a major role in helping the world transition to a more 
sustainable future, supporting the international goal of net-
zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.
SOLVEBRIGHT™ POST-COMBUSTION CO2 SCRUBBING  
B&W’s 
SolveBright 
regenerable 
solvent 
absorption 
technology scrubbing process came from decades 
of decarbonization research and development. The 
SolveBright carbon dioxide scrubbing system is a post-
combustion carbon capture technology that captures 
CO2 directly from flue gas in an absorber using a 
regenerable solvent. The CO2-laden solvent is sent to a 
regenerator where it is heated, and the CO2 is released 
as a concentrated stream for compression and storage 
or beneficial uses. The solvent is then recycled to the 
absorber for reuse.
While B&W’s solvent demonstrated superior performance 
compared to more than 100 competing solvents during 
our extensive testing procedures at the National Carbon 
Capture Center, a major advantage of the SolveBright 
process is solvent flexibility, which allows customization of 
an optimal CAPEX and OPEX solution for each application. 
SolveBright can be used with a variety of solvents and 
we have the expertise and ability to use a wide range of 
potential solvents. 
B&W has extensive knowledge of combustion processes 
– including many decades of experience with waste-
to-energy and biomass-to-energy plants – and thermal 
management associated with combined heat and power 
systems and can effectively integrate the carbon capture 
system into an existing facility. This experience gives us the 
ability to optimally integrate the SolveBright solution with 
virtually any new or existing facility.
B&W’s solvent-based CO2 capture experience spans a 
wide range of industries with various fuels and we can 
offer total solution support -- from feasibility studies, pre-
FEED and pilot unit definition, to full-scale plants -- tailored 
to the customer’s specific needs.
SUMMARY
CLIMATEBRIGHT™ DECARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGIES
The ClimateBright™ suite of revolutionary hydrogen and 
decarbonization technologies from Babcock & Wilcox 
(B&W) is designed to help customers in energy and 
industrial sectors aggressively combat greenhouse gas 
emissions and climate change. ClimateBright technologies 
further strengthen B&W’s commitment to clean energy 
progress and to helping customers worldwide address 
the most significant environmental challenges in industrial 
processes and energy generation.
ClimateBright has a wide range of clean energy solutions 
to drive the energy transition through capture carbon and 
production of hydrogen for industries including energy 
production, food manufacturing, steel, cement, oil and gas, 
pharmaceutical, petrochemical, carbon black, and pulp 
and paper. Our technologies build on B&W’s core talents in 
steam generation, combustion, and flue gas treatment, and 
each addresses the emissions of CO2 from the combustion 
of carbon-based fuels in a unique way:  
1.	
BrightLoop™ uses a chemical looping process around 
a ferrous oxygen carrier to separate the products 
of combustion of a carbon-based fuel into separate 
streams of CO2 and oxygen depleted air, allowing for 
the capture of CO2.
2.	 SolveBright™ is a post combustion capture process 
using regenerable solvents.
3.	 OxyBright™ purifies the flue gas stream to near pure 
CO2, simplifying its capture.
4.	 BrightGen™ eliminates the generation of CO2 by 
switching to a non-carbon-based fuel.
5.	 Flue gas pre-treatment for post-combustion CO2 
capture.
CONTACT
Email: 	 marketing@babcock.com 
Web: 	
www.babcock.com
BABCOCK & WILCOX


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OXYBRIGHT™ OXY-FUEL COMBUSTION - ADVANCED 
CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY FOR STEAM 
GENERATION
B&W’s oxy-combustion process can be used to generate 
steam and power using a variety of fuels, including 
coal, natural gas, biomass, oil and others. In the oxy-fuel 
process, combustion air is replaced with nearly pure 
oxygen and recirculated CO2. Nitrogen that would normally 
be conveyed with the air through conventional air-fuel 
firing is excluded and the resulting flue gas consists of 
nearly pure CO2. The non-recirculated flue gas leaving the 
boiler is cleaned using conventional particulate and sulfur 
removal systems and sent to the compression purification 
unit (CPU) where a high-purity CO2 stream is produced that 
is suitable for transportation or other uses.
B&W provided oxy-fuel technology for use with coal 
on the U.S. Department of Energy’s FutureGen 2.0 
demonstration project in Illinois, which was to be a retrofit 
of a 167-megawatt coal-fired power plant. Although 
construction began in 2014, the project was canceled in 
2016 due to redirection of DOE funding support. B&W has 
continued to develop oxy-fuel technology and it is ready 
for full-scale commercialization and deployment.
In March 2022, B&W announced its OxyBright and 
biomass boiler-fired technologies would be part of the 
world’s largest net-negative CO2 biomass-to-energy facility 
to be developed by Fidelis New Energy at the Port of 
Great Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Using B&W’s proprietary 
BrightLoop™ technology, the plant will be designed to 
turn biomass into low-carbon intensity hydrogen more 
efficiently and affordably than any other processes, 
spurring the production of 15 tons of it every day.
BRIGHTGEN™ HYDROGEN COMBUSTION
B&W’s BrightGen hydrogen combustion solution is 
currently in operation at multiple refineries and industrial 
facilities around the world and is available to customers 
seeking a powerful hydrogen combustion solution for utility 
and industrial applications where efficient, zero-carbon 
dioxide-emissions energy generation is a goal.
Our highly reliable utility, industrial and FM package 
boilers can be manufactured or retrofitted with BrightGen 
technology to safely burn hydrogen or hydrogen-blended 
fuels for virtually any need, including power, heating and 
steam generation, and for industrial applications such as 
refineries and petrochemical facilities.
When considering the potential for fuel switching from a 
solid or gaseous fuel, and integrating hydrogen into the 
combustion process, B&W conducts a complete evaluation 
of the entire boiler system. This includes all combustion 
equipment such as burners, ignitors, flame scanners and 
fuel trains.
Our BrightGen technology is currently in use in more than 
60 industrial boilers around the world.
FLUE GAS PRE-TREATMENT FOR POST-COMBUSTION 
CO2 CAPTURE
Acid gases degrade the solvents used in a post-
combustion carbon capture system. B&W offers a 
complete suite of environmental control technologies to 
control sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur trioxide (SO3) – which 
can form aerosols and cause loss of CO2 capture solvents 
- hydrogen chloride (HCl), and hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the 
pre-capture flue gas stream, as well as technologies for 
other pollutants such as metals and particulates.  Nitrogen 
oxides (NOx) are also detrimental for CO2 capture solvents 
and can lead to hazardous degradation products in the 
process. CO2 scrubbing may also improve when particulate 
matter is removed from the flue gas prior to the scrubbing 
process.
B&W has many decades of experience in emissions control 
solutions, pioneering technologies that have helped 
customers comply with stringent emissions regulations for 
more than 50 years.
Our solutions include:
•	
Wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) scrubbers
•	
Wet gas scrubbers (WGS)
•	
Spray dryer absorbers (SDA)
•	
Circulating dry scrubbers (CDS)
•	
Dry sorbent injection (DSI)
•	
Wet and dry electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
•	
Fabric filter baghouses
•	
Direct contact coolers (DCC)
SUMMARY
B&W has a broad range of unique and innovative 
technologies and processes for carbon capture, hydrogen 
generation and hydrogen combustion, including:
•	
CO2 Removal – Capture (OxyBright, SolveBright, 
BrightLoop) Direct Carbon Removal CDR (DAC) 
•	
CO2 Reduction – Efficiency improvements and fuel 
mixing (CH4 + H2 – coal + biomass)
•	
CO2 Avoidance – Replacing carbon-intensive power 
generation with renewables (green steam, LDES, 
solar) or fuel switching and combustion of hydrogen or 
ammonia – (BrightGen, electrolyzers, BrighLoop) 
•	
CO2 Reuse – Capture carbon for beneficial use – 
P2X (biogenic CO2), food & beverage use (OxyBright, 
SolveBright, BrightLoop) 
•	
CO2 Storage – Capture and store (OxyBright, 
SolveBright, BrightLoop)  
•	
Low Carbon Intensity Hydrogen Generation – 
(BrightLoop, electrolyzers)
•	
Hydrogen Combustion (BrightGen)
•	
Flue 
Gas 
Pre-Treatment 
(full 
suite 
of 
B&W 
environmental technologies)
More information on B&W’s ClimateBright suite of products 
is available at www.babcock.com.


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DESCRIPTION
Captura’s approach is to remove CO2 from the ocean to 
effectively ‘make room’ for the ocean to then draw down 
additional CO2 from the atmosphere. The technology 
features a flow of seawater passing through the plant, 
which is treated to remove its CO2 content before it is 
returned to the ocean. 
When the decarbonized seawater is released back into 
the ocean, an equivalent quantity of atmospheric CO2 will 
be drawn down as the surface ocean and atmosphere re-
equilibrates. As wind and wave patterns facilitate mixing of 
the surface layer of the ocean, when plants are optimally 
located, atmospheric CO2 is pulled down into the ocean to 
replace the same amount of CO2 that the Captura system 
originally removed. In this way, for every ton of CO2 Captura 
systems remove from seawater, the ocean removes a ton 
of CO2 from the atmosphere. 
The Captura process begins by pulling a stream of filtered 
seawater into the system. Around 0.5% of this water is 
diverted and pre-processed to purify it into brine. Captura’s 
proprietary electrodialysis technology then dissociates the 
salt and water in the brine into an acid and alkali base. This 
acid is added to the original flow of seawater, triggering 
a chemical reaction that draws the CO2 out. The process 
is accelerated using a gas-liquid contactor and vacuum 
pump. The CO2 is captured as a gas stream, ready for 
subsequent sequestration or utilization. This leaves a flow 
of acidic, decarbonized seawater in the system. The alkali 
base is re-introduced to neutralize the acidic seawater, 
after which it is returned to the ocean to subsequently 
draw down an equivalent quantity of atmospheric CO2.
Captura is currently undergoing a rigorous piloting 
program to prove out the technology, which consists 
of three separate systems. The first one, an end-to-end 
demonstration capable of removing 1 ton of CO2/year, 
is fully operational off the coast of Newport Beach, CA 
at Caltech’s research hub, Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory. 
The next pilot, a 100-ton CO2/year system, has been 
successfully operating end-to-end in Captura’s labs and will 
be installed at AltaSea at the Port of Los Angeles to begin 
ocean field trials in summer of 2023. Lastly, a ~1,000-ton 
CO2/year pilot is planned for 2024.  
Captura’s technology has been third-party validated by 
several prominent expert entities in the climate space, 
including XPRIZE, U.S. Department of Energy’s APRA-E, 
and Frontier Climate. In January 2023, Captura announced 
its Series A financing, led by Equinor Ventures.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Low Cost: Captura’s technology provides savings in capital and operation compared to many other carbon removal 
technologies. No purpose-built air contactors or absorbents, lower energy requirement, widespread use of standard 
industrial equipment, lack of by-products requiring disposal and the ability to leverage off-peak renewable electricity 
inherently lowers costs. 
•	
Scalability: Captura’s use of the ocean, which covers ~70% of the planet, means the technology is deployable 
virtually anywhere there is ocean globally. Captura does not require any precious or rare-Earth elements as inputs, 
avoiding supply chain constraints that affect a broad range of clean energy technologies. Large increases in scale of 
our process only require minimal adjustments to our system rather than replications of multiple parts (as in modular 
approaches), making capacity growth highly accessible.  
•	
Ocean Health: Captura’s approach does not add anything, such as alkaline substances, to the ocean. Our process 
returns CO2-depleted seawater with a slightly lower acidity to the ocean, which is quickly dispersed. Both this effluent 
and the placement of our technology in semi-enclosed areas, such as bays and coral reefs, can help to address ocean 
acidification.
•	
Utilization: The Captura process produces a measurable and verifiable stream of CO2 to generate high-quality carbon 
credits. The CO2 can also be used in the production of low-carbon products. 
DIRECT OCEAN CAPTURE
The planet’s oceans are carbon removal powerhouses 
working hard to combat climate change, absorbing ~30% 
of all emissions we release into the air. However, this 
comes at the cost of ocean acidification. As the added 
CO2 concentration grows, seawater becomes increasingly 
acidic, threatening the health of ocean life and marine 
ecosystems. 
Captura has developed a Direct Ocean Capture approach 
that harnesses the carbon removal powers of oceans 
without contributing to ocean acidification. 
Captura offers safe, scalable, and verifiable low-cost 
atmospheric carbon removal by leveraging the world’s 
largest, existing, natural and no-cost atmospheric CO2 
absorber – the ocean. With minimal to no impacts on the 
environment and using only renewable electricity and 
seawater as inputs, Captura’s technology generates a 
stream of CO2 that can then be sequestered or utilized to 
make low-carbon products.  
With no purpose-built air contactors, no absorbents, and no 
by-products, Captura’s solution enables large-scale carbon 
removal at a lower cost. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@capturacorp.com
Web: 	
www.capturacorp.com
CAPTURA


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DESCRIPTION
CARBONCAPT process of CO2 capture is one of the Post 
Combustion CCUS technologies.   
 After dust precipitation in ESP or Bag Filter the flue gases 
come to CARBONCAPT plant for further treatment.
CARBONCAPT process involves chemical absorption of 
gaseous CO2 by highly selective amine-based solvent and 
executed in three principal stages:
1.	
First stage – COOLING of the flue gases by water. 
After leaving the ESP flue gases are drawn up through 
the COOLING COLUMN (CC) for cooling it from 350-
370°C down to 65-70°C by water injection. The 
diameter and height of the CC as well as the amount 
of nozzles depends upon the volume and temperature 
of the flue gases, drawn through the CC.  
2.	 Second stage - ABSORBING of CO2 by highly selective 
absorbing solvent. The cooled down flue gases are 
drawn up through ABSORBER COLUMN (AC). In the 
AC the flue gases react with FLEXOL-CacboStrip 
absorbing solvent, thus the chemical absorption of CO2 
is taking place and the CO2-rich solvent is obtained. 
The diameter and height of AC and the amount of trays 
depends mostly upon the reactivity of the absorbing 
solvent, partial pressure of CO2 to be absorbed, and 
the solvent circulation factor.	 There is a thumb rule: 
the lower the temperature of CO2 and the higher the 
pressure in the AC, the more effective process of CO2 
stripping is taking place, but in certain cases this rule 
is not the case at all: the basic engineering should 
be developed and individual project calculation to be 
done for every CO2 capture unit.
3.	 Third stage – DESORBING of CO2 from the CO2-rich 
absorbing solvent. The extraction of carbon dioxide 
from the CO2-rich FLEXOL-CarboStrip solvent occurs 
by increasing the solvent temperature. As a result 
the 95% gaseous CO2 returns to gaseous state and is 
drawn to a liquefaction station. The FLEXOL-CarboStrip 
solvent is cooled, regenerated and pumped back 
to the top of the ABSORBING COLUMN for further 
circulation. 
Today we offer two versions of CarbonCapt technology:
CarbonCapt HP (High Pressure) process with FLEXOL-
CarboStrip A4 (Advanced Amine Activated Absorbent) as a 
solvent, as well as CarbonCapt LP (Low Pressure) process, 
where FLEXOL-CarboStrip A5 (Advanced Amino-Acid 
Activated Absorbent) is used. Both versions are cost and 
energy effective and provide for low CAPEX and OPEX. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Process is well-proven in durable operation in multiple plants
•	
Scalable and extremely cost effective at big capture projects
•	
Easy and predictable maintenance
•	
Low CAPEX and OPEX
•	
Provides for a very little impact on the environment
CARBONCAPT CHEMICAL ABSORPTION TECHNOLOGY
The existing technologies of Carbon Capture are 
characterized by high power and thermal energy 
consumption, but the selective chemical absorption of 
gaseous CO2 prevail over the other technologies due to its 
well proven efficiency in a number of long-term operation 
at the US and Canada power plants and today all the CCUS 
community, focused on chemical absorption processes 
have a challenge to make this technology less expensive, 
and more accessible to the CO2 intensive sectors of the 
global economy.
The expected higher demand for cement and concrete 
after Covid19 Pandemic will evidently lead to a sharp 
growth of CO2 emissions from the cement industry in 
the upcoming years. Today the urgent need for sufficient 
reduction of CO2 emissions all around the world makes this 
technology vital, if we want to provide green planet Earth 
for the next generations.
Here we present benefits and a brief description of 
CARBONCAPT process, the Post combustion Carbon 
dioxide Capture technology.
CONTACT
Web: 	
www.carboncapt.com
CARBONCAPT TECHNOLOGIES CO. LTD.


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DESCRIPTION
In the EDM the anions and cations are separated from 
the amine solution and concentrated in an aqueous 
“brine” stream for disposal. Anion and cation selective 
membranes, divided by spacers, are installed between 
anode and cathode end plates and operated in a “sheet 
flow” order. 
The spacers designation is to ease the flow distribution 
between the membranes and to direct amine and brine 
to the relevant channels. The membranes are sequenced 
in such a way, that the amine solution enters the channel 
between an anion and cation permeable membrane, 
the anions move towards the anode through the anion 
permeable membrane, and the cations move towards the 
cathode through the cation permeable membrane.
On the opposite side of the selective membranes the 
ions migrating from brine to the respective electrodes are 
precluded by alternating sequence of the membranes: the 
anion, passing through the anion selective membrane into 
brine is also prevented from a solvent channel, the next 
installed is a cation selective membrane, which will never 
allow the intrusion of the anion. 
Our Mobile ElectroDialysis Module is installed in a 40” 
container and can be easily transported for “Heat Stable 
Salts withdrawal as a Service” function. For this purpose 
we use the following algorithm: our specialists will send 
you the questionnaire to be filled out with the detailed 
description of the problem, process flowsheet, main 
process parameters and type of the solvent, used at the 
amine CO2 capture unit. 
We will also request a sample of regenerated solvent 
in order to analyze the approximate improvement of 
operation. After the basic calculations are performed and 
scope of works is defined we submit a price proposal to 
the Customer. After the offer is accepted we come to the 
site and connect our Mobile EDM module to the existing 
amine carbon capture plant as follows:
1.	
The EDM module to be installed in the bypass line 
of the regenerated solvent, pumped to the top of 
Absorber column,
2.	 Solvent temperature at the EDM module inlet should 
not exceed 80°C
3.	 Pressure is 2-5 kg/cm2
4.	 Power supply and water source to be provided
5.	 Needed plot of land is 60 m2
i.e. for 2 pcs 40” containers allocation.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
High efficiency of HSS, SO2 and carboxylic acids removal,
•	
Modular design guarantees easy scaling up,
•	
Minimal environment friendly wastes,
•	
Reasnable cost of «HSS Withdrawal as a Service»,
•	
Duration of amine solvent lifetime is prolonged.
CARBONCAPT MOBILE ELECTRODIALYSIS MODULE (EDM)
The existing technologies of Post Combustion chemical 
Carbon Capture widely use the different types of amine-
based solvents.  These are various formulations, based 
on different types of amines, i.e. Monoethanolamine 
(MEA), 
Diethanolamine 
(DEA), 
Methyldiethanolamine 
(MDEA) as a basic component and Piperazine (PP), used 
as reaction activator. All these amine-based solvents are 
doomed to degrade, be lost and contaminated during the 
circulation and the most important problem here is Heat 
Stable Salts (HSS) formation. HSS usually exist as amine 
salts of ionic nature, such as acetate, chloride, formate, 
oxalate, thiosulphate, thiocyanate and similar. All of 
them are thermally stable and not dissociated during the 
regeneration process. The HSS presence in the solvent 
results in the following:
•	
Excessive consumption of amine and loss of its activity 
towards CO2
•	
Increased corrosion of equipment steel surfaces - HSS 
act as corrosion accelerators
•	
Fouling, due to salts deposition
CONTACT
Web: 	
www.carboncapt.com
CARBONCAPT TECHNOLOGIES CO. LTD.


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DESCRIPTION
Carbon Clean has amassed a deep understanding of 
industrial carbon capture technologies since its inception in 
2009, working with commercial and academic partners to 
test and validate its solutions. Its proven technologies are 
delivering for industrial partners around the world and it 
has technology references across 49 sites.
Carbon Clean delivered the world’s first subsidy-free, fully 
commercial, industrial-scale carbon capture and utilization 
plant at Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited in 
India in October 2016. The plant is installed on a coal-fired 
boiler, and is designed to capture 60,000 tonnes of CO2 
per year, which is then converted into soda ash (sodium 
carbonate) – an ingredient used in household products, 
glass manufacturing, and paper production.
In 2023, Carbon Clean announced its 50th commercial 
project – to deliver carbon capture equipment capable 
of capturing 70,000 tonnes of biogenic CO2 per year for 
Ørsted’s FlagshipONE facility in Sweden, Europe’s largest 
green methanol project. FlagshipONE will supply 50,000 
tonnes of eMethanol per year to the shipping industry, 
which today accounts for around 3% of global carbon 
emissions. 
Carbon Clean is fully focused on making carbon capture 
more accessible to hard-to-abate industries. Its next 
generation of standardized, fully modular carbon capture 
technology, CycloneCC will be crucial to accelerating the 
global deployment of CCUS. 
CycloneCC will be pre-fabricated, enabling an on-site 
installation period of eight weeks and so reducing costly 
operational disruptions. Additionally, as a fully modular 
solution, units can be added in line with a company’s 
decarbonization ambitions and investment capacity, either 
solo or alongside other decarbonization solutions.
Carbon Clean is also working towards a Carbon Capture as 
a Service (CCaaS) offering, where customers pay a cost per 
tonne of carbon. This will further de-risk the investment for 
companies and ensure performance is optimized over the 
lifetime of the technology, by drawing on Carbon Clean’s 
operational expertize. 
CYCLONECC 
Carbon Clean has developed a fully modular technology, 
CycloneCC, that is vital for scaling industrial carbon capture 
deployment to achieve global net zero targets. 
CycloneCC addresses two major concerns from industries 
considering carbon capture – cost and space. As a 
modular, pre-fabricated and skid-mounted carbon capture 
solution, CycloneCC reduces the overall cost of carbon 
capture by up to 50% and has a physical footprint that is 
up to 50% smaller than conventional carbon capture units.
CycloneCC intensifies the traditional solvent capture 
process through the combination of two process 
intensification technologies:
•	
Rotating packed beds (RPBs) process equipment 
technology
•	
Carbon Clean’s proprietary amine-promoted buffer salt 
solvent technology (APBS-CDRMax®)
The APBS-CDRMax® solvent is extremely effective in 
capturing CO2, and the RPBs provide a highly efficient 
environment for the absorption of CO2 and solvent 
regeneration.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
CycloneCC is a modular, pre-fabricated and skid-mounted carbon capture solution that will radically impact the economics 
of carbon capture and industrial decarbonization. 
CycloneCC’s benefits include:
•	
Compact and cost-effective: Process intensification delivers a reduction in the size of the mass transfer equipment by 
10 times and up to a 50% reduction in the overall unit footprint, compared to conventional carbon capture units. The 
overall cost of carbon capture is reduced by up to 50%, with no loss in performance.
•	
Easily scaled: CycloneCC is delivered in modular units that can be added over time to increase carbon capture 
capacity in line with a company’s decarbonization strategy.
•	
Standardized designs: Off-the-shelf, ready-made engineering designs for standard capacities and specifications 
deliver cost and delivery efficiencies. 
•	
Minimal disruption: By using modular designs and shop-fabricated skids, site infrastructure requirements are 
reduced, resulting in easier integration with existing industrial operations for minimal disruption and maximum cost-
effectiveness, and simpler plant maintenance. 
•	
Proven technology: Carbon Clean has over a decade of experience in designing, building, and operating industrial 
carbon capture systems and has technology references across 49 sites around the world. Its engineering excellence 
and proven results are at the heart of CycloneCC.
CYCLONECC
Carbon Clean is a global leader in carbon capture solutions 
for essential hard-to-abate industries. The company’s 
technology, significantly reduces the costs of carbon 
capture when compared to existing solutions.
Carbon Clean is an innovation leader in the carbon capture 
sector, with over 80 active patent assets across 15 patent 
families covering over 30 countries. The company’s 
standardized, fully modular carbon capture technology, 
CycloneCC will accelerate the global adoption of carbon 
capture in key industries that have few other available 
options to decarbonize.
The size and cost of carbon capture technology have 
historically 
been 
significant 
barriers 
to 
adoption. 
CycloneCC overcomes these barriers; its overall footprint 
is up to 50% smaller than a conventional plant and it can 
capture CO2 at a cost that is up to 50% less per tonne 
than conventional carbon capture systems. It achieves 
this through a combination of two proven process 
intensification technologies – Carbon Clean’s advanced, 
proprietary amine-promoted buffer salt solvent (APBS-
CDRMax®) and rotating packed beds (RPBs). 
CycloneCC will be pre-fabricated in fully engineered 
modules and available in standard capacities. It has already 
been fully tested at 1 tpd at Altrad Babcock’s Emissions 
Reduction Test Facility in Scotland and a number of 10 tpd 
demonstration units will be commissioned shortly with 
select industrial partners in the Middle East and North 
America. Commercialization of CycloneCC at 100 tpd is 
also underway in North America and Europe.
As a compact and modular solution, CycloneCC is 
particularly suited for use with small to mid-size emission 
point sources and can be installed at multiple locations 
across a site.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@carbonclean.com
Web: 	
www.carbonclean.com 
CARBON CLEAN
 
2 
re technologies and 
ve their net zero 
operating industrial 
anies globally to 
ng solutions that will 
se the sector – 
cerns from industries 
fication technologies: 
APBS-CDRMax®) and 
ventional carbon capture. 
arbon capture down to 
 ready to install and with 
and 
 
 
GCCSI - State of the Art: CCS Technologies 2022 


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RPBs have been used in commercial applications since 
the 1960s, however, their use in the post-combustion CO₂ 
capture process is a new application. 
The RPB contains a disk of packing material which rotates 
about its axis. The centrifugal force generated through 
the rotational motion of the packed bed in an RPB is 
significantly greater than the gravitational force seen in 
conventional packed columns, making RPBs much more 
effective in mass transfer operations.
The liquid films and droplets created in the packing 
material are remarkably thinner, which increases the 
surface area to volume ratio of the liquid. This results in 
faster and higher mass transfer efficiency between the gas 
and liquid phases.
The mass transfer improvement allows the RPB to be up 
to 10 times smaller than traditional columns to accomplish 
the same results. The combination of RPBs and APBS-
CDRMax® provides: 
•	
Smaller equipment sizes at equivalent performance 
– using RPBs in the absorber/stripper results in more 
than one order of magnitude reduction in equipment 
size 
•	
Better mass and heat transfer between the liquid and 
gas phases through thinner liquid films produced by a 
centrifugal force
•	
More intense turbulent flow relative to conventional 
columns
The APBS-CDRMax® solvent in the stripper RPB also 
reduces heat requirements and improves efficiency of 
heat transfer, collectively reducing the cost to regenerate 
solvents. Additionally, there are lower degradation and 
corrosion rates, improving solvent make-up and waste 
disposal, and a lower pump and cooling water duty.
Further optimizations will be achieved through the use 
of a digital twin solution, enabling CycloneCC units to be 
operated remotely to deliver improved plant and energy 
efficiency, as well as potentially reducing project execution 
time by 20-40%.
Carbon Clean’s CycloneCC technology development 
process includes rigorous assessment of the technology 
with academic partners, as well as scaling and adapting 
the technology to industrial processes with commercial 
partners.
CycloneCC has been successfully pilot tested at 1 tpd 
at Altrad Babcock’s Emissions Reduction Test Facility in 
Scotland, and 10 tpd demonstration units will be operational 
with select industrial partners in the Middle East and North 
America in the coming months. Commercialization of 
CycloneCC at 100 tpd is also underway in North America 
and Europe.
The radically smaller size and cost of CycloneCC offers 
the potential for industries to achieve far greater emission 
reductions. Deployment of this technology can also grow 
in line with a company’s decarbonization strategy. Lower 
overall costs make it possible to incorporate CCUS into 
existing and future operations, enabling businesses to 
scale over time to meet their targets and allowing them 
to participate in the global reduction of carbon emissions 
sooner.
APBS-CDRMAX® SOLVENT
Carbon Clean’s APBS-CDRMax® solvent has been 
formulated to optimize carbon capture performance. Its 
innovative, patented formulation of amines and salts – 
amine-promoted buffer salts – offers both the high kinetic 
reactivity of an amine and the low regeneration energy of a 
buffer salt. The result is a unique, fast-acting, high-capacity 
carbon capture solvent that delivers higher performance in 
any existing solvent-based carbon capture system.
The solvent chemistry allows for rapid removal of carbon 
dioxide from flue gases with CO₂ concentrations ranging 
between 2.5-25 vol.% and produces CO₂ with a purity of 
≥99.5 vol% on a dry basis, reducing regeneration energy 
requirements as well as greater stability and lower 
corrosivity. Comprehensive testing has validated the 
benefits that APBS-CDRMax® delivers including: 
•	
20x less corrosion and 10x less degradation
•	
10-25% lower energy demand for the capture and 
regeneration process
•	
5x longer solvent life and 86% less solvent make-up
•	
A higher performance efficiency with less foaming, 
leading to 50% reduction in ongoing chemical 
requirement and waste disposal costs, reducing amine 
carryover and the need for anti-foaming additives
•	
A reduction in solvent emissions to parts per billions 
(ppb) levels, which meets environmental regulatory 
requirements and facilitates approvals 
 
 
GCCSI - State of the Art: CCS Technologies 2022 
CycloneCC 10 TPD RPB
CycloneCC 100 TPD visualisation showing its relative size compared to a conventional carbon capture plant


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DESCRIPTION
DAC technology captures CO2 by pulling in atmospheric 
air. Then, through a series of chemical reactions, CO2 is 
extracted from the air while returning the rest of the air to 
the environment. DAC is a different, and complementary, 
technology to point-source carbon capture and storage 
which removes CO2 from industrial flue gas instead of the 
atmosphere. Within hub or cluster CO2 storage projects, 
DAC can bring important value by delivering CO2 capacity 
with relatively stable purity and supply.
CE’s DAC technology approach is focused on achieving 
large, industrial scale at low-cost. To help achieve this, CE’s 
solution borrows existing and widely used equipment and 
processes from other industries, innovating and integrating 
them to deliver a DAC system based on largely known 
supply chains, and reliable equipment costs. 
Our process begins with an air contactor that is adapted 
from industrial cooling towers to bring in high volumes 
of air, which passes across thin plastic surfaces that 
have potassium hydroxide solution flowing over them. 
This commodity chemical binds with the carbon dioxide 
molecules, removing them from the air and trapping them 
in the solution in the form of a potassium carbonate salt. 
The carbonate is then precipitated out of solution in the 
form of calcium carbonate pellets in a pellet reactor.
In the last major step of the process, the carbon dioxide-
carrying pellets are moved from the pellet reactor to a 
calciner where they are heated to high temperatures 
causing them to break down and release the CO2 as 
a concentrated gas. To close the second loop in CE’s 
process, the calcium oxide left from the calcination process 
is mixed with water in the slaker to rehydrate it, and then 
it is fed back into the pellet reactor, beginning the cycle 
again.
To help minimize waste and consumables across CE’s 
process, the DAC technology uses chemical reactions and 
this closed loop system to absorb CO2 from the air (see 
below). 
There are a number of applications for atmospheric CO2 
captured through DAC, but CE is focused on delivering two 
types of industrial solutions: 
1.	
When paired with secure geologic storage, DAC can 
deliver the permanent and verifiable removal of CO2 
from the atmosphere. This provides a mechanism 
to help difficult-to-decarbonize sectors, like aviation, 
address their emissions faster and at a lower cost 
than many existing mitigation solutions. In the future, 
in a post net-zero world, these same facilities could 
be used to address legacy emissions, creating an 
opportunity for climate restoration. 
2.	 AIR TO FUELSTM solutions can enable captured 
atmospheric CO2 to be combined with hydrogen 
to produce low carbon intensity fuel that is drop-in 
compatible with existing vehicles and infrastructure. 
DEPLOYMENT APPROACH
To enable rapid and widespread deployment of DAC 
solutions, CE licenses its technology to development 
partners around the globe so multiple plants can be 
built in parallel. Alongside regional partners, CE and our 
global deployment partner 1PointFive – a subsidiary of 
Occidental’s Low Carbon Ventures - bring a standardized 
‘design one, build many’ approach to deployment. 
This approach combines the partners’ DAC technology, 
large-scale 
carbon 
dioxide 
management, 
project 
experience and extensive storage infrastructure. CE will 
provide the DAC technology and market support, while 
1PointFive builds and deploys the DAC plants, leveraging 
Occidental’s strong project engineering and delivery 
expertise. This helps support the rapid build-out of large-
scale facilities, as we work to duplicate near identical plants 
adjusted for location specific considerations. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Key features of CE’s DAC technology: 
•	
Scalable – Industrial facilities that use CE’s DAC technology can be built in one or more trains, each capable of 
capturing a megatonne of CO2 annually using known equipment with industrial precedent. 
•	
Standardized design - Alongside partners, we bring a standardized ‘design one, build many’ approach to deployment, 
working to duplicate near identical plants adjusted for location specific considerations. This helps support the rapid 
build-out of large-scale facilities.
•	
Industrial precedent - At CE, we’ve built our DAC technology around industrial precedent by utilizing known equipment 
and suppliers, and then innovating, adapting and integrating them to create our DAC system. This means our system 
can be built at industrial scales largely with existing supply chains. 
•	
Closed chemical cycle - Our DAC technology captures CO2 from the air in a closed “chemical loop” that re-uses the 
same capture chemicals with minimal waste.
DIRECT AIR CAPTURE 
Direct Air Capture (DAC) is a technology that captures 
carbon dioxide (CO2) directly from the atmosphere with 
an engineered system. This is similar to how trees absorb 
CO2 for photosynthesis, except DAC does it much faster, 
with a much smaller land footprint, and delivers the 
CO2 in a concentrated, compressed form. The captured 
atmospheric CO2 can then be permanently and safely 
stored in geologic reservoirs to deliver negative emissions, 
or used to produce low carbon intensity products, such as 
diesel and aviation fuel that work in existing aircraft and 
infrastructure. 
For more than a decade, Carbon Engineering (CE) has 
pioneered a liquid sorbent-based DAC system, optimized 
for scale. Today, CE is working with partners to deploy 
large-scale commercial facilities globally. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@carbonengineering.com 
Web: 	
www.carbonengineering.com 
CARBON ENGINEERING LTD. 


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CARBON ENGINEERING’S INNOVATION CENTRE
Built in 2021, CE’s Innovation Centre in Squamish, B.C. 
provides an environment where our engineers and 
technicians conduct ongoing technology development, 
testing, and analysis. This center enables CE to continue 
optimizing our DAC solution to drive down the cost of 
capture per tonne.
The facility contains all the major components of large-
scale, commercial DAC facilities so engineers can test 
and validate technology enhancements in an integrated 
system. It includes an air contactor, pellet reactor, calciner, 
and slaker, alongside an extensive laboratory facility. The 
next generation technologies developed here in Squamish 
will then be introduced to commercial facilities worldwide 
to help drive down emissions and achieve net zero targets.
COMMERCIAL FACILITIES UNDERWAY
The first commercial facility to use CE’s DAC technology – 
being developed by 1PointFive – is under construction in 
the United States. This first-of-its-kind facility is expected to 
be capable of extracting 500,000 tonnes of atmospheric 
CO2 annually once complete. 
Last year, CE announced front-end planning and 
engineering had begun for DAC facilities at a second site 
in the U.S., in Kleberg County, Texas. Using the design 
one, build many approach, the site is expected to provide 
access for the potential construction of multiple DAC 
facilities that would be capable of collectively removing up 
to 30 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere 
annually for dedicated sequestration.
This work provides a blueprint for global projects, 
supporting the design of additional facilities already 
progressing in multiple markets around the world. Please 
contact CE if you are interested in licensing our technology 
to build new, clean-infrastructure projects in your 
jurisdiction.
Carbon Engineering’s Innovation Centre and Research & Development Headquarters located in Squamish, Canada.
Artist rendering of the design of the first large-scale plant to use CE’s technology.


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DESCRIPTION
NEXT-GENERATION INNOVATION
An innovative UK cleantech company, we’ve been at the 
forefront of developing carbon capture technology for over 
a decade. Our foundations are rooted in innovation, bright 
ideas, ingenuity, and dedicated people. 
We were founded in 2009 as a spin-out company from 
the University of Leeds when our Founder, Professor Chris 
Rayner, and his research team were working with CO2 to 
find new solutions to the carbon capture problem, building 
on his 20 years’ experience in the field. Their progressive 
work attracted investment and C-Capture was born.
Our proprietary, next generation technology is based 
on fundamentally different chemistry that is amine free. 
C-Capture’s patented solvent-based technology captures 
carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial emissions to help 
combat climate change.  It has distinct chemical properties 
which mean it uses significantly less energy, has lower 
costs and environmental risks, and has a wider range 
of industrial applications than traditional carbon capture 
technologies.  
The low cost of capture using C-Capture’s technology is 
derived from the reduced energy demand of our process. 
C-Capture’s solvent components are all highly thermally 
stable, meaning that higher desorber temperatures can be 
achieved, creating far greater CO2 pressures on its release, 
and reducing the compression energy to prepare CO2 
product for transport and storage.
The robust nature of C-Capture’s solvent makes it highly 
resistant to oxidation and aging, making it suitable for 
industrial applications that traditional amine-based solvents 
cannot address (without significant additional capital 
investment, complexity, and risk), such as steel, cement, 
waste-to-energy, and refinery catalytic cracker off-gases. 
This resistance also leads to longer solvent life, further 
reducing costs.
The advantages of C-Capture’s patented technology 
mean it has the potential to break through the barriers 
that are currently preventing the widespread adoption of 
carbon capture technology which in turn make a globally 
significant contribution to mitigate the impacts of climate 
change.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Our proprietary technology uses less energy and is lower cost than other commercially available technologies. It is 
environmentally benign and extremely robust.
•	
A novel approach that is amine free, our solvent is inherently biodegradable, non-hazardous, and environmentally 
benign.
•	
Our process releases CO2 more readily than amine-based systems, resulting in a significantly lower parasitic energy 
demand. 
NEXT GENERATION CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY
C-Capture’s proprietary next generation carbon capture 
technology is a true innovation in the sector, and a potential 
gamechanger for industries looking to decarbonize their 
processes.
Our 
patented 
solvent-based 
technology 
selectively 
removes carbon dioxide (CO2) from a mixed gas stream. 
Our mission is to deploy it on industrial emissions using a 
post-combustion capture approach.
Based on fundamentally different chemistry to other 
commercially available solutions, C-Capture’s carbon 
capture technology is amine free and environmentally 
benign. It also uses less energy and is lower cost.
Well suited to the large-scale capture of carbon dioxide 
and extremely robust, C-Capture’s carbon capture 
technology can be deployed on most processes requiring 
CO2 separation from other gases. It is robust enough to 
withstand even the very challenging flue gases emitted by 
difficult-to-decarbonize industries including cement, steel, 
glass, energy from waste, hydrogen production facilities, 
and power stations.
The advantages of our solution creates the potential for 
our solvent to break through the barriers that are currently 
preventing the widespread adoption of carbon capture and 
storage (CCS) technology to mitigate the impacts of climate 
change.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@c-capture.co.uk
Web: 	
www.c-capture.co.uk
C-CAPTURE
•	
Significantly reduced process energy requirements (~1.8 GJ/tonne CO2) due to low steam requirements and reduced 
costs of compression due to higher CO2 release pressure.
•	
Suitable for use in difficult-to-decarbonize industries with a proven high tolerance to flue gas impurities, including O2, 
particulates, and acid gases such as NOx and SOx.
•	
High tolerance to impurities reduces the need for feed-gas pre-cleaning.
•	
Significantly less corrosive than amine-based equivalents, reducing operations and maintenance costs.
•	
Reduced solvent management costs due to high thermal, chemical, and oxidative stability, and low volatility, which 
minimizes solvent losses per tonne of CO2 captured.


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INTERNATIONAL AWARD-WINNING CARBON CAPTURE 
TECHNOLOGY
C-Capture’s next generation carbon capture technology 
was awarded the trophy in the ‘Energy’ category of the 
2022 IChemE Global Awards. 
The international honours are widely considered as the 
world’s most prestigious chemical engineering awards and 
a global celebration of excellence in the field. The Energy 
award recognizes excellence in efficient energy use or the 
development of energy production methods that reduce 
energy intensity. Our technology was also a finalist in the 
Sustainability category which recognizes excellence in 
sourcing and consuming materials, reducing waste, and/or 
optimising the product life cycles.
BECCS – A WORLD FIRST
C-Capture’s technology was deployed to pilot the first 
bioenergy carbon capture storage (BECCS) project of its 
kind in Europe, at Drax Power Station, in North Yorkshire, 
UK.
The plant successfully proved that our proprietary solvent 
can isolate CO2 from the flue gases that are released when 
biomass is used to generate electricity. A major milestone 
in carbon capture, this pilot was the first time in the world 
that CO2 had been captured from the combustion of a 
100% biomass feedstock, and a major milestone on the 
road to achieving negative emissions through BECCS, 
which is an important part of the raft of solutions required 
to combat climate change.
DEMONSTRATING OUR TECHNOLOGY
C-Capture’s technology is already at Technology Readiness 
Level (TRL) of 7 and expected to reach 8 by the end of 
2023.
Our work continues at the UK’s largest biomass power 
station 
to 
continue 
our 
commercialization 
journey. 
C-Capture’s fully integrated pilot plant at Drax Power 
Station was successfully commissioned at the end of 2022 
and builds on the experience gained from our previous 
prototyping and pilots. 
The plant incorporates every unit operation and control 
mechanism that will be present in a full commercial unit. It 
has been designed to capture between 1 and 5 tonnes of 
CO2 a day. 
Currently operating on synthetic flue gas (air/CO2) each 
element of the process is being explored and tested in a 
highly controlled environment. This enables us to map 
out a clearly defined operating envelope and provide the 
highest-quality data to customers on how our technology 
will work within their industry. These data also provide proof 
of our key capture performance metrics, so we can deliver 
technoeconomic evaluations of our technology for specific 
industry applications and projects.
When this scope testing is completed, the unit will be 
moved to Drax’s CCUS Innovation Area and operated on 
biomass-derived flue gas.
By the end 2023 C-Capture will have one year of operation 
on the pilot unit at Drax along with extensive real-world flue 
gas trials across key hard-to-abate industries. On the back 
of this success, we are working to identify the location of 
our first commercial demonstration unit which will showcase 
our unique technology at an industrially relevant scale (50-
200 tonnes CO2 capture per day). 
PROOF OF THE ROBUSTNESS OF OUR TECHNOLOGY
Alongside the current pilot unit at Drax, C-Capture is 
building and installing smaller test units – Carbon Capture 
Solvent Compatibility Units (CCSCUs) – across several 
hard-to-abate industries. The objective for these is to 
demonstrate the robustness of our technology within 
specific applications and provide proof of the exceptionally 
long lifetime of our solvent.
A fully automated and containerized, small scale carbon 
capture plant that runs on real flue gas, each CCSCU 
replicates the temperatures, pressures, and solvent 
composition changes that would be found in full-scale 
capture cycle. By replicating the real-world process 
conditions, but in a low resource intensity manner, we can 
rapidly gather high quality data to quantify online solvent 
loss and degradation rates within specific applications. 
Since September 2022, the first of our CCSCUs has been 
carrying out a lifetime test on the biomass-derived flue gas 
from Drax’s boilers. The results to date, combined with 
data previously gathered from laboratory testing, indicate 
that C-Capture’s innovative solvent technology is highly 
compatible with biomass flue gas. 
ACCELERATING 
THE 
DEPLOYMENT 
OF 
CARBON 
CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY 
We will demonstrate the compatibility of our technology 
within several hard-to-abate industries as part of our 
pioneering XLR8 CCS project.
During 2023, C-Capture will deploy three more CCSCUs 
to trial and assess the compatibility of our solvent with real-
world flue gas across the cement, glass and energy from 
waste sectors.
This multi-industry, multi-million-pound project, XLR8 CCS 
– Accelerating the Deployment of a Low-Cost Carbon 
Capture Solution for Hard-to-Abate Industries, is supported 
by £1.7m in funding from the UK Government’s Net Zero 
Innovation Portfolio (NZIP). The funding is part of the 
£20 million Carbon Capture, Usage and Storage (CCUS) 
Innovation 2.0 programme which is aimed at accelerating 
the deployment of next-generation CCUS technology in the 
UK. 
C-Capture’s XLR8 CCS project will demonstrate that a 
low-cost carbon capture solution is a reality for difficult-to-
decarbonize industries in the race to net zero. A critical step 
in the fight against climate change to de-risk future CCS 
projects and investments at commercial scale and deliver 
the cost reductions required to decarbonize all industry 
sectors.
The project will prove that C-Capture’s next generation 
carbon capture solvent is compatible with a wide variety 
of harsh, real-world industrial emissions, which are major 
contributors to global carbon levels.


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DESCRIPTION
CAPSOLEOP® - SAFE, ENERGY EFFICIENT AND COST 
COMPETITIVE END-OF-PIPE CO2 CAPTURE
A simplified overview of the CapsolEoP® process is 
presented in Figure 1. The CO2 rich flue gas is compressed 
to around 5-8 bar (to achieve a partial CO2 pressure of 0.7 
bar) before it enters the bottom of the absorber, where the 
pressurized flue gas reacts with the downwards flowing 
HPC solvent. The CO2 lean flue gas leaves the absorber 
column at the top. The CO2 rich solvent leaves the 
absorber at the bottom, is depressurized, and led to the 
top of the desorber, where the partial CO2 pressure is low, 
forcing the solvent to release its high CO2 content to the 
steam flow. The pure CO2 leaves the top of the desorber, 
from where it can be liquified and further processed. The 
lean solvent is led back to the top section of the absorber, 
and the cycle continues.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Cost competitive: The patented energy recirculation enables lowest carbon capture costs and flexibility to monetize 
heat and/or electricity from the capture unit.
•	
Safe solvent, free of harmful emissions: The use of Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-
carcinogenic and environmentally friendly.
•	
Low solvent degradation minimizes cost of solvent makeup.
•	
Flexible and scalable: A single CapsolEoP® unit can process flue gas from plants with emissions of up to maximum 2.5 
million tonnes of CO2 per year (with flue gas CO2 concentration of 20%). 
CAPSOLEOP® AND CAPSOLGT®
Capsol Technologies has developed and offers safe, 
environmentally friendly, energy-efficient and affordable 
carbon capture technologies for large scale emitters 
like Energy-from-Waste (EfW), biomass plants, cement 
producers, gas power stations, and other CO2 emitting 
industrial facilities utilising the safe and proven Hot 
Potassium Carbonate (HPC) solvent.
HPC as an absorption solvent for CO2 is well-documented 
and used in thousands of plants globally in multiple 
industries. However, until recently, the use of HPC for post-
combustion capture of CO2 from flue gases was discarded 
as a viable option due to the high energy demand (and 
hence cost) required to pressurize the flue gas. To solve 
this, Capsol Technologies has developed the CapsolEoP® 
(end-of-pipe) technology – a standalone, retrofit unit, with 
a patented energy recirculation process, which offers 
low capture cost and the flexibility to monetize heat and 
electricity in the capture process. 
Building 
on 
the 
CapsolEoP® 
technology, 
Capsol 
Technologies has recently developed an optimized carbon 
capture process for gas turbines - CapsolGT® - which 
generate additional electricity while capturing 95%+ of the 
CO2 from the exhaust gases of open cycle gas turbines, 
introducing carbon capture as a revenue source.
CONTACT
Email: 	 tone.bekkestad@capsoltechnologies.com
Web: 	
www.capsoltechnologies.com
CAPSOL TECHNOLOGIES
•	
Two or more units will operate in parallel for facilities with emissions of more than 2.5 Mtpa CO2
•	
CapsolGT® is optimized for 4-100 MWe turbines
•	
Minimal plant impact: The system can be run on electricity only. There is no external steam required. No modification 
of the host plant is needed
•	
Experienced team: Technical and commercial experts from the Energy, Chemical and Oil & Gas industry, with 25+ 
years’ experience
Figure 1
Figure 2


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CapsolEoP® can be run on electricity only or use excess 
steam from the host plant, if available. Thus, a costly 
investment in external steam production, or reconstruction 
and balance of the host plant, is not required. 
CapsolEoP® offers great flexibility – optimizing either for 
minimum electricity consumption, or for maximum internal 
heat generation, for example for district heating.
The CapsolEoP® heat recirculation can efficiently produce 
1.3 bar steam from water at 75° to 90 °C by heat pumping. In 
addition, process waste heat (at temperatures above 75 °C) 
from the host plant may be used in the CapsolEoP® process 
to decrease the energy demand of the overall system 
(when optimized for minimum electricity consumption). 
Alternatively, the capture plant can be optimized to add 
valuable energy in the form of heat to a district heating 
network, with a minimal increase in electricity consumption. 
The CapsolEoP® solution can also commercially make 
use of the energy from the CO2 compressor intercoolers 
(in the liquefaction plant) by integration into the energy 
recirculation. In addition, depending on the temperature, 
the energy in the flue gas entering the CapsolEoP® unit 
can also be used in the heat recirculation process. Whether 
to optimize for lowest electricity consumption or maximum 
heat into the district heating system is reviewed for each 
specific plant based on close dialogue with the plant 
owner.
CAPSOLGT® - INTEGRATED CARBON CAPTURE FOR 
GAS TURBINES
CapsolGT® - Capsol Technologies’ carbon capture solution 
for open cycle gas turbines, capturing 95%+ of the carbon 
dioxide while enabling additional electricity generation, is 
a solution optimized for 4-100 MWe gas turbines that do 
not require turbine modifications, in addition to introducing 
carbon capture as a revenue source.
Highly efficient gas turbines provide low CO2 concentrated, 
hot flue gas streams with temperatures typically around 
500-600 °C. Before entering the core of the capture cycle, 
the flue gas heat is recovered, utilising the pressurized 
clean gas absorber stream, to generate an overall surplus 
of electricity. In comparison with a typical combined cycle 
gas turbine plant (CCGT) with end-of-pipe carbon capture, 
CapsolGT® provides a low cost, less complex and high 
capture rate alternative. The overall cooling demand is also 
lower, and the plant is able to provide valuable heat 30 – 
105 °C, if required.
The solution can be applied to a variety of applications, 
such as gas engines, diesel generators and other industrial 
facilities where hot waste heat streams could be utilized.
The steam required for the process is exclusively 
generated within the capture system, by the means of 
electricity. CapsolGT® avoids the costly investment into a 
separate steam boiler and additional end-of-pipe carbon 
capture system. With less equipment, lower external 
cooling requirements and water neutrality, CapsolGT® 
achieves higher overall plant efficiencies. CapsolGT® can 
operate without additional supply of water, in fact, there is 
the possibility to accumulate significant amount of water 
and waste heats, which can be utilized, for example for 
external steam production or water supply. 
CAPSOLGO® – EFFECTIVE DEMONSTRATION 
CAMPAIGN TO ACCELERATE YOUR CARBON CAPTURE 
PROJECT 
CapsolGo® is the answer to the many challenges of 
industrial emitters, who consider investing into a full-scale 
carbon capture plant. CapsolGo® is a small-scale carbon 
capture demonstration unit for industrial facilities such as 
Energy-from-Waste and biomass power plants, as well 
as cement factories. CapsolGo® consists of two, easily 
deployable shipping containers, stacked on top of each 
other to minimize footprint, which are easy to install. The 
only infrastructure required is electricity, compressed 
air, demineralized water, and of course, the flue gas. The 
captured CO2 can be fed back to the flue gas stack, or it 
can be liquefied to demonstrate utilization options. 
CapsolGo® is provided with an all-inclusive package: 
transport, 
installation, 
deinstallation, 
operation, 
and 
reporting by an independent party. CapsolGo® offers many 
advantages for industrial emitters, including:
1.	
The opportunity to experience Capsol Technologies’ 
energy-efficient technology to verify the effectiveness 
of our carbon capture technology before investing in a 
full-scale plant
2.	 Experience the safe and environmentally friendly 
carbon capture solvent potassium carbonate (HPC). 
An increasing number of industrial facilities have heard 
about potassium carbonate and understand the many 
advantages of it, like lower capture and material costs, 
in addition to being widely available and no risk of 
harmful emissions. CapsolGo® provides a powerful tool 
to demonstrate safe carbon capture to stakeholders
3.	 During a CapsolGo® campaign, the plant’s specific 
flue gas and operation is tested to define an optimal 
solvent blend for the full-scale carbon capture plant.
4.	 Operation and maintenance teams can get familiar 
with Capsol’s technology and prepare for the full-
scale operation. The public, such as residents, can 
experience the environmentally friendly carbon 
capture solution live, in person.
With an independent test report, plant owners will be able 
to accelerate their decision processes towards the full-
scale plant and enhance the quality of their soft funding 
applications.
With a capture capacity of several hundred tonnes of CO2 
per year, CapsolGo® enables maximum insights about the 
technology, while at the same time making it affordable.
CapsolGo® unit 1 at Filbornaverket, Helsingborg, Sweden.
CapsolGo® unit 2 at German EfW (Energy-from-Waste) plant.
Figure 3


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DESCRIPTION
HyCaps is a hybrid technology that combines mature solvent technology with membrane technology to overcome inherent 
limitations while retaining or enhancing their advantages – as shown in Figure 1. 
Figure 1 - Combining two technologies efficiently in HyCaps.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
HyCaps is a hybrid technology that takes advantage of both the highly selective nature of solvent absorption technology 
and the controlled flow regime of membrane technology. HyCaps provides the following benefits over conventional 
solvent absorption technology.
•	
HyCaps modules provide very high surface area to volume ratios. Consequently, the equipment size for carbon 
capture is significantly reduced compared to conventional solvent absorption columns.
•	
The separation of the solvent and flue gas streams by the membrane, eliminates solvent foaming, flooding and 
reduces liquid channeling, the major operating issues in solvent absorption in packed columns. Also, there is no need 
for solvent redistribution. 
•	
The HyCaps modules can be oriented in any direction without impacting the performance. Lower footprint, flexibility in 
orientation and its modular design enables HyCaps’ capture process to be easily accommodated into limited spaces, 
making the technology ideally suited for retrofit applications as well as incorporation into new build designs. 
•	
Solvent regeneration does not require reboiling/phase change, significantly reducing the solvent regeneration energy 
as compared to the conventional absorption technology.
•	
Ultimately, HyCaps is a very cost competitive technology with potential to reduce CO2 emissions in hard-to-abate 
sector, oil & gas, onshore and offshore oil and gas platforms, ship-based processes, biogas upgradation and many 
more. 
HYCAPS- HYBRID CAPTURE SOLUTION
Operating since 2003, CO2CRC is a world leader in carbon 
capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) research. CO2CRC 
works with national and international discipline leaders, 
manages interdisciplinary and inter-institutional research 
projects, has well-established, decade-long relationships, 
strong international brand recognition, and an outstanding 
health and safety record. CO2CRC develops and trials next 
generation low-emission technologies in commercially 
relevant, first-of-a-kind demonstrations.
CO2CRC Ltd. in collaboration with its research partners in 
Australia has developed a hybrid CO2 capture technology, 
HyCaps. HyCaps combines solvent absorption and 
membrane separation in a single process, which exploits 
the advantages of both technologies to achieve efficient 
carbon capture. The HyCaps process has proven its ability 
to be highly efficient at carbon capture with reduced 
energy requirements. HyCaps is modular, scalable and its 
footprint is substantially lower than the conventional amine 
solvent process for CO2 absorption, making it suitable 
for retrofitting existing plants thereby promoting faster 
implementation of carbon capture utilisation and storage 
(CCUS).
CONTACT
Email: 	 Jaikant.pandit@CO2crc.com.au 
Web: 	
www.CO2crc.com.au
CO2CRC LTD.


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COST EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Initial technoeconomic analysis done for the CO2 
capture with 18% CO2 in the flue gas   indicates the cost 
effectiveness of HyCaps technology. HyCaps modules 
has 5000-6000 m2 surface area per m3 of the volume 
as compared to 500-800 m2/m3 for the conventional 
packed columns. As a result, HyCaps modules have a 
reduced equipment footprint by 70%. Significant reduction 
in equipment size is also a factor in reduced CAPEX for 
HyCaps. The avoidance of solvent boiling and lower 
operating temperature results in a low energy demand for 
regeneration, and the low quality heat/waste heat from the 
plant can be utilized within the system, making the whole 
regeneration a low OPEX process. When compared to 
conventional solvent process the operating cost of HyCaps 
is about 60% lower as shown in Figure 3. 
The development of the hybrid HyCaps represents a new 
approach in carbon capture that has clear advantages in 
terms of energy requirement and footprint, compared 
to conventional technology. Critically, the technology, 
proven at three different industrial pilot plants in Australia, 
has demonstrated the deployment readiness of HyCaps 
to address carbon emissions from industrial sources 
including the hard-to-abate sector. HyCaps is a modular, 
compact, and scalable technology that can be applied to 
post combustion as well as pre combustion CO2 capture 
processes. Due to its compact design, flexible orientation 
and ease of installation, it is suitable to be retrofitted to any 
industry with limited space but not limited to hard-to-abate 
sector, mobile process platforms like FPSO, and ship-based 
processes.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
CO2CRC Ltd and its research partners have successfully 
demonstrated the potential of HyCaps technology for 
both post-combustion and pre-combustion carbon capture 
scenarios. This novel technology represents over a decade 
of laboratory research and three pilot plant industrial 
trials: The 30 wt% monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent was 
chosen for pilot testing because of its well characterized 
performance and the industry standard for CO2 solvent 
absorption. Hence, the performance of the HyCaps pilot 
plant could be directly correlated with conventional solvent 
absorption processes, with improvements in carbon 
capture efficiency and energy penalty directly correlated 
to the HyCaps technology. In this process, the solvent 
regeneration operating temperature ranged between 90 
to 102 °C, well below the solvent vaporization temperature 
of 105 °C. Hence, the pilot plant proved that carbon capture 
and solvent regeneration could occur without a bulk 
solvent phase change. 
To ensure rapid scale-up of HyCaps technology, the 
membrane based HyCaps modules chosen were based 
on commercially available membranes, which were 
originally developed for other gas separation applications. 
Therefore, the technology can be rapidly adopted by 
industry and expanded without the need for membrane 
material development or the construction of sophisticated 
membrane fabrication facilities.
It is also important to note that ongoing developments on 
either the solvent or membrane systems can be transferred 
seamlessly to the HyCaps module – a further benefit of the 
system that will ensure its future relevance to the industry. 
NEXT STEPS
With three successful pilot demonstrations in different industrial environments, HyCaps has achieved a technology 
readiness level (TRL) 6. HyCaps is a cost competitive CO2 capture technology and is ready for scale up and large-scale 
demonstration. As a next step, CO2CRC is working on a scaled up design for the equipment and is looking for potential 
funding and collaboration opportunities to test and showcase HyCaps technology in different industrial applications and 
environmental conditions.
Figure 3- Cost effectiveness of HyCaps compared to conventional solvent process for CO2 capture from flue gas having 18% CO2.
Figure 2 is a typical flow sheet of the HyCaps process. The 
flowsheet is similar to that of conventional solvent CO2 
capture systems but with the HyCaps module replacing the 
conventional packed columns for absorption and solvent 
regeneration. The process involves the transfer of CO2 from 
the gas mix through a hollow-fiber membrane, where it is 
chemically absorbed into a solvent. In solvent regeneration 
with HyCaps, the physical separation of the solvent and 
gas phases by the membrane enables carbon dioxide to 
be drawn from the enriched solvent phase into the gas 
phase. This enables solvent regeneration to be achieved 
at temperatures lower than conventional packed columns 
and the solvent regeneration can be achieved without 
vaporisation of the solvent. By avoiding vaporisation of the 
solvent, the HyCaps process reduces the energy demand 
of the solvent regeneration significantly. 
Figure 2 - HyCaps process undertaking carbon capture and solvent regeneration.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Simplicity: LCDesign® process configuration is simplified compared to both the traditional amine system and advanced 
technologies.
•	
Scalability: LCDesign® can be scaled from 1 to 7,000 tpd or more. 
•	
Affordability: LCDesign® is truly the most affordable carbon capture system in the market with the lowest CAPEX & 
OPEX.
•	
Integrability: LCdesign® can be fitted with a new or existing Pre-/Post- Combustion process. 
•	
Suitability: LCDesign® can capture CO2 from any gas stream at wide CO2 content (from 2.5 to 70 volume %)
•	
Performability: LCDesign® can be designed to capture CO2 at any recovery ratio (up to 99%) lower energy compared 
to conventional solvent-based techniques. 
•	
Solvent Availability: DeltaSolv® solvents are commercially available with no royalty fees.  
•	
Emission Reduction: LCDesign® reduces emissions to atmosphere to the minimum with DeltaWash™ technology. 
•	
Operation Philosophy: LCDesign® requires a minimum operation attention and can be designed to be automated (no 
need for site staff 24/7) 
•	
Operation flexibility: LCDesign® can be operated in a wide range of gas and liquid loads (30 to 120% design load) 
•	
Team Expertise: Delta Team are professionally trained and skilled carbon capture designers with experience in 
Construction, Commissioning, Operating and Troubleshooting Plant Operations.
•	
Project Execution: DELTA can work alongside the EPC Firms of your choice.
•	
Maturity: LCDesign® Technology Readiness Level (TRL) is 9 and it is Build Ready!
LCDESIGN®, DELTA RECLAIMER®, DELTSOLV® 
DELTA CleanTech is globally recognized as a leading 
provider of technology for Pre- / Post- Combustion Carbon 
Capture from industrial sources, enabling significant 
and economical reduction of greenhouse gas emissions 
since 2004. DELTA’s goal is to deliver practical solutions 
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help solve the 
challenges of energy security.
Through its commercial relationships, DELTA implements 
the Best Commercial Technologies (BCT) in carbon capture 
and utilization with leading EPC’s and Fabricators around 
the world. 
Delta has developed its own proprietary technologies as 
follows;  
•	
Low-Cost Design Carbon Capture System, LCDesign®
•	
Solvent Purification & Recycling System, Delta 
Reclaimer®
The collective experiences from over 100 Carbon Capture 
Projects worldwide provides Delta a distinct advantage. 
Delta has successfully designed carbon capture plants with 
capacity from 1 to 7,000 metric tonne of CO2 per day (tpd). 
CONTACT
Email: 	 jallison@deltacleantech.com
Web: 	
www.deltacleantech.com
DELTA CLEANTECH


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DESCRIPTION
BELCO® WET SCRUBBING
BELCO® scrubbing is the leading technology used in 
oil refineries for cleaning flue gas from FCCUs that are 
typically operated uninterrupted for 5–7 year periods. 
Particulate Matter (PM) (including mist and aerosols), SOx 
and NOx are controlled in a single up-flow tower with a 
staged cleaning approach that supports optimizing system 
configurations to meet specific application needs, while 
minimizing flue gas pressure drop and system costs. 
Common acid gas buffering reagents (NaOH, NaCO3 and 
Mg(OH)2) are typically used for FCCU and other oil refinery 
applications (fluid cokers, power boilers and fired heaters). 
The use of other reagents is also supported.
With BELCO® scrubbing, hot-dirty flue gas is quenched/ 
saturated flowing into a horizontal inlet in the lower portion 
of an up-flow tower. When NOx control is required, gas 
that is rich in ozone is injected into oxidized NOx for easily 
scrubbed HNO3. Acid gases and coarser PM are removed 
with buffered water sprays as gas flows up through 
the vertical tower. Finer PM is removed with a unique 
particulate growth and buffered water spray filtration stage. 
Liquid droplets are removed in a final stage at the top of 
the tower.
SUMMARY
HIGHLIGHTS
•	
Proven scrubbing performance for severe service hot dirty flue gas applications
•	
500+ scrubbing installations with unique BELCO® and DynaWave® technologies
•	
Refinery FCCUs, boilers, heaters, fluid cokers and SRUs installations
•	
Sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, cement kilns, power plants, and incinerator installations
•	
Capable of meeting extremely low particulate matter, SOx and NOx concentrations 
•	
Robust non-plugging scrubbing designs using open towers
•	
Compact plot space requirements 
•	
Minimal energy and water usage
•	
Brink® brownian diffusion mist eliminators for clean flue gas applications and amine emissions reduction
ELESSENT FLUE GAS PRE-CLEANING FOR CARBON CAPTURE UNITS (CCUS)
Elessent Clean Technologies (Elessent) provides wet gas 
cleaning systems for pre-cleaning and cooling hot dirty 
flue gas streams ahead of carbon capture units (CCUs) for 
CO2 reduction. Elessent’s BELCO® scrubbing technology 
is in widespread use on refinery fluid catalytic cracking 
units (FCCUs), fluid cokers, boilers, and process heaters. 
Our DynaWave® scrubbing technology is in use on many 
applications that include refinery sulfur recovery units 
(SRUs), sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, cement 
kilns, power plants, incinerators and other applications 
requiring robust flue gas cleaning. Originally developed 
and used to minimize flue gas atmospheric emissions, our 
wet scrubbing technologies can meet the extremely low 
flue gas contaminant concentrations specified by CCU 
suppliers for particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxides (SOx), 
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and aerosols. Flue gas cooling to 
meet low moisture (H2O) content and low temperature 
requirements for some CCU technologies can also be 
provided. Where additional control of acid mists, aerosols 
and/or fine particulate is required, for more meeting more 
stringent cleaning requirements, Elessent can incorporate 
the use of wet electrostatic precipitators (WESPs) for dirty 
flue gases or Brink® brownian diffusion fiber bed mist 
eliminators. Elessent’s Brink® mist eliminators are also well 
suited for controlling amine mist downstream of amine-
based CO2 absorption units.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ernie.levinski@elessentctcom
Web: 	
www.elessentct.com
ELESSENT CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES


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DYNAWAVE® WET SCRUBBING
DynaWave® scrubbing is widely used for gas cleaning on 
refinery SRUs, sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, 
cement kilns, power plants, and incinerators. Cleaning 
is provided using a unique reverse-jet technology within 
a single vessel. Systems are customized for specific 
application requirements for removal of PM, acid gases 
(SOx, HCl, HBr, H2S, HCN, Br2, Cl2, I2, F2), NH3 and/or 
NOx. The technology supports the use of a wide variety 
of common acid gas buffering reagents, as well as 
specialized reagents that include caustic, soda ash, lime, 
limestone, zinc oxide, magnesium hydroxide, ammonia, 
and hydrogen peroxide. Other reagents can be used in 
special applications like Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) in cement 
plants and Black Powder in zinc plants.
Hot dirty gas flows down into the inlet barrel while buffered 
liquid is sprayed upward into the barrel. Liquid collides with 
the down-flowing gas to create the “froth zone”, a region of 
extreme turbulence with a high rate of mass transfer. Clean, 
water-saturated gas continues through the scrubber vessel 
to mist removal devices. The liquid reverses direction and 
returns to the vessel sump for recycling back to the reverse 
jet nozzle.
BRINK® FIBER BED MIST ELIMINATORS
Used in 5000+ facilities around the world, Brink® mist 
eliminators provide effective elimination of fine aerosol 
mists, submicron oil smoke and soluble solids from a wide 
range of gas streams. Originally developed for use in 
phosphoric acid plants, custom engineered systems are 
used for a broad range of industries including everything 
from sulfuric acid to asphalt manufacturing, plastic 
extrusion, metalworking and many more. For CCUs, Brink® 
mist eliminators may be used as part of our BELCO® and 
DynaWave® wet scrubbing systems, or as a separate 
system ahead of or after a CCU. 
Using Brownian diffusion principles, Brink® mist eliminators 
consist of thick layers of very fine fibers placed between 
two concentric cylindrical screens or cages. Fiber beds 
are placed within a collection vessel to allow for gas to be 
conveyed through the devices. Mist and aerosols collect 
on the fiber bed and coalesce to form liquid films that drain 
down through and out of the filter by gravity. These devices 
offer exceptional collection efficiency for meeting stringent 
emission guarantees, and in cases where insoluble 
particulate content in the gas is low, they can achieve many 
years of trouble-free operation.


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DESCRIPTION
A key advantage of fuel cell power generation over 
combustion heat engine systems is that fuel is converted 
to power more directly through an electrochemical non-
combustion reaction. This direct conversion is more 
efficient and avoids the production of pollutants such as 
NOX and particulates associated with combustion based 
power generation. Fuel cells are electrochemical devices 
comprised of negative and positive electrodes that can 
be connected in a variety of series or parallel electrical 
configurations to get the desired system voltage. The 
negative electrodes produce electrons, and the positive 
electrodes consume electrons, producing the electrical 
current. Chemical reactions at the electrodes drive the 
electron production and consumption. An electrolyte 
layer between the electrodes supports ion transfer from 
positive to negative electrodes to maintain charge balance 
as electrons are produced and consumed. In fuel cells the 
chemicals that drive the power reaction are continuously 
fed into the cells during power production. Typically, a 
fuel flows through the negative electrodes (anodes) and 
air flows through the positive electrodes (cathodes). The 
fuel is often hydrogen, but in the case of carbonate fuel 
cells methane (from natural gas or biogas) is used and 
converted to hydrogen inside the fuel cell.
In carbonate fuel cells the electrochemical reactions are 
supported by an electrolyte layer in which carbonate ions 
serve as the ion bridge that completes the electrical circuit. 
During power generation the carbonate ion transfer results 
in carbon dioxide being produced in the fuel electrodes 
and consumed in the air electrodes. This carbon dioxide 
flux is what is used for carbon capture. The cell and stack 
structure and electrochemical reactions are illustrated 
below:
Carbonate stacks are made up of individual cell packages containing the fuel electrodes, air electrodes, and a porous 
ceramic matrix layer containing the carbonate ion electrolyte. The fuel electrodes in a carbonate stack also support the 
reforming of methane to hydrogen, which is then consumed by the fuel cell reaction to make power. The reforming reaction 
will produce one molecule of carbon dioxide for each molecule of methane fuel. The fuel electrode reaction also produces 
additional carbon dioxide (four more molecules for each methane input), which is recycled back to the air electrodes, where 
the extra four molecules are consumed. The recycle system is part of the mechanical balance of plant of a carbonate fuel 
cell powerplant. Extracting carbon dioxide from this recycle stream and replacing it with external carbon dioxide from a flue 
gas is the key to the carbonate fuel cell carbon capture approach.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Co-production of power during carbon capture, which provides an additional revenue stream to offset the cost of 
carbon capture.
•	
Co-production of clean water from the fuel cell reaction, which can be used to offset water requirements of the coal or 
gas system that CO2 is being captured from.  
•	
NOX destruction. Reactions occurring on the carbonate electrode surfaces destroy NOX, so processing flue gas in 
a carbonate fuel cell system will destroy up to 70% of the NOX in the flue gas, reducing or eliminating capital and 
operating costs for NOX destruction equipment.
FUEL CELL BASED CARBON CAPTURE SOLUTIONS
FuelCell Energy, Inc is a provider of power generation 
and hydrogen solutions based on high temperature 
electrochemical technologies. One of those platforms, the 
molten carbonate fuel cell, offers a unique approach to 
capturing carbon dioxide from power generation or thermal 
sources while simultaneously producing power. The 
company has been offering power generation platforms 
based on the carbonate fuel cell technology commercially 
since 2003, and over 200 MW of systems are in operation 
around the world. Carbonate fuel cells generate power 
in electrochemical reactions that are supported by an 
electrolyte layer in which carbonate ions serve as the ion 
bridge that completes the electrical circuit. A side effect 
of this basic characteristic of the technology is that carbon 
dioxide introduced at the air electrode is transferred 
through the electrolyte layer to the fuel electrode, where 
it is more highly concentrated and easy to remove. This 
means that a carbonate electrochemical cell can be used 
as a carbon purification membrane – transferring CO2 
from a dilute oxidant stream to a more concentrated fuel 
exhaust stream. These cells are not developmental items – 
they are industrial scale components configured into large 
cell-stacks in MW-scale fuel cell powerplant systems that 
are commercially deployed around the world today, and 
an effort is underway to optimize the cell configuration for 
carbon capture.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@fce.com
Web: 	
www.fuelcellenergy.com
FUELCELL ENERGY
•	
Modular, can be deployed incrementally to manage capital outlay and changes in the cost of power, and to address a 
wide scale of application sizes.
•	
Wide range of applications, from industrial thermal sources as well as coal or natural gas power generation systems


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Using carbonate fuel cells for carbon capture involves adding additional process equipment to the powerplant mechanical 
balance of plant, as illustrated below. In a standard carbonate powerplant, CO2 produced at the anode is recycled back 
to the cathode to provide the CO2 needed by the air electrodes. If the concentrated CO2 in the anode exhaust stream 
is extracted from the system and not recycled back to the cathode, an external source of CO2 can support the cathode 
reaction. This external source can be the exhaust from another powerplant or an industrial source. The dilute CO2 in the 
external flue gas will be reacted at the fuel cell cathodes and transferred to the anode stream, from which it can be easily 
separated for sequestration or utilization.
The size of the carbonate powerplant required to capture CO2 from a specific source depends on the size of the source 
and the CO2 emission rate. A 2.8MW carbonate fuel cell powerplant during normal power operation is transferring about 
3200 kg of CO2 per hour from the cathode to anode streams in the stack modules. In carbon capture mode, this system 
could capture and purify up to 2300 kg per hour of external CO2 in addition to the CO2 from the powerplant fuel input. The 
amount of capture at various fuel cell powerplant sizes is shown in this figure:
The modular nature of the fuel cell system allows a wide 
range of system applications. Powerplants rated at single to 
tens of MW output can be used for industrial applications, 
such as capture from boilers, and are particularly attractive 
in industries that use carbon dioxide, where on-site 
combined heat, power, and CO2 production can provide 
cost, sustainability, and resiliency advantages.   Powerplants 
rated at 100’s of MW can be used to capture CO2 from 
petrochemical or large power generation systems. 
These large-scale carbonate carbon capture systems will 
ultimately be specially designed with larger scale balance 
of plant systems than today’s commercial powerplant 
products. In the near term, smaller scale capture systems 
have been configured based on the current generation of 
commercially available 1.4MW stack modules.   Large fuel 
cell systems based on multiple powerplants have become 
common in bulk power generation applications. The largest 
such system so far is a 59 MW system using forty-two 
1.4MW fuel cell modules located in Hwasung City, South 
Korea, shown below.
As FuelCell Energy develops early projects using currently 
available fuel cell equipment, the company is working with 
ExxonMobil in a joint development effort to optimize the 
performance of the fuel cells in carbon capture mode, and 
to develop advanced stack module and system designs to 
address large scale carbon capture applications. 
Standard System
Carbon Capture Modification


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DESCRIPTION
Heirloom was founded in 2020 by Shashank Samala, 
the former co-founder of industrial automation software 
provider Tempo, who grew up in southeast India where he 
saw first-hand how those contributing the least to climate 
change were most impacted by its effects.
Wanting to scale a negative emissions technology that had 
the capability of scaling to sequester billions of tons of CO2 
each year, Shashank co-founded Heirloom in 2020 with Dr 
Noah McQueen, a researcher in the lab of Professor Jen 
Wilcox at the University of Pennsylvania. 
Heirloom’s technology uses the world’s second most 
abundant material, limestone (calcium carbonate - 
CaCO3) to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) directly from the 
atmosphere, and then permanently and safely stores that 
CO2 so that it doesn’t return to the air. The company’s 
mission is to remove 1 billion tons of carbon from the 
atmosphere by 2035, a figure which represents 20% of 
today’s annual U.S. emissions and 10% of global carbon 
removal needed annually by 2050. 
Limestone is made up of calcium oxide (CaO) and CO2. 
When CO2 is removed from the limestone, the calcium 
oxide wants to return to its natural limestone state. It 
becomes “thirsty” for CO2 and acts like a sponge – 
pulling CO2 from the atmosphere. Heirloom’s technology 
accelerates this natural property of limestone, reducing the 
time it takes to absorb CO2 from years to just three days.
The process works by heating limestone mineral powder in 
a renewable-energy powered kiln to remove the CO2. The 
powder is then spread onto vertically-stacked trays where 
well-trained algorithms inform how to treat the limestone to 
optimize its ability to uptake CO2. The limestone powder 
is looped through the system to continuously sponge 
CO2 from the atmosphere - a cyclic process that not only 
reduces costs but also reduces how much mineral must be 
mined.
Heirloom is backed by some of the most well-known 
climate investors in the world, including Breakthrough 
Energy Ventures, Microsoft, Lower Carbon Capital, Prelude, 
Carbon Direct, Ahren Innovation Capital, Marc Benioff’s 
Time Ventures, Alexis Ohanian’s 776 and Breyer Capital. 
The company raised a $53 million Series A in 2022, and is 
currently operating America’s only operational DAC facility. 
Heirloom has sold carbon removal credits to Stripe, Klarna 
and Shopify, and recently signed a deal with Microsoft to 
deliver permanent carbon removal credits in the coming 
years.
In early 2023, Heirloom achieved a milestone by removing 
CO2 from the atmosphere and permanently storing it 
in concrete for the first time ever. This first-of-its-kind 
application is significant because concrete is currently the 
only permanent storage vehicle available for CO2 removed 
from the atmosphere in the United States. Concrete 
storage of atmospheric CO2 will enable companies like 
Heirloom to advance technologies and begin to scale 
without waiting for other storage options – such as 
underground wells – to open up. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Heirloom’s technology is designed to drive down the cost of CO2 removal to achieve gigaton scale quickly. A number of 
features drive this cost reduction, including:
•	
Low-cost inputs – Heirloom uses limestone to capture CO2 from the atmosphere. Making up four percent of the Earth’s 
surface and costing just $10-50 a ton, limestone is more abundant, far less expensive, and easier to source than the 
engineered materials used by other DAC technologies.
•	
Modular design – Heirloom’s carbon removal facilities are built for simple, mass manufacturing and have independent 
components and processes that can be optimized over time. 
•	
	
Powered by data – Heirloom’s technology gathers millions of data points every month on parameters that govern how 
quickly our technology can pull CO2 from the atmosphere.  This data enables us to continually train the algorithms that 
power our automated facilities to optimize their uptake of CO2 – further increasing our output and reducing cost.
HEIRLOOM’S DIRECT AIR CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY 
Heirloom’s Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology rapidly 
accelerates the natural ability of limestone to absorb 
CO2 from the air from a timespan of years to days. The 
technology removes atmospheric CO2 in a way that is 
permanent, low-cost and scalable. Founded in 2020 
by the world’s leading experts in CO2 removal and serial 
deep-tech entrepreneurs, Heirloom is currently operating 
one of a very small number of DAC facilities in the United 
States that is permanently storing CO2, and its customers 
are the world’s biggest buyers of carbon removal including 
Microsoft, Stripe, Klarna, Shopify and more. Heirloom is 
backed by some of the world’s best climate investors 
including Breakthrough Energy Ventures, Microsoft, Lower 
Carbon Capital, Prelude, Carbon Direct, Ahren Innovation 
Capital, Marc Benioff’s Time Ventures, Alexis Ohanian’s 
776 and Breyer Capital.
CONTACT
Email: 	 hello@heirloomcarbon.com
Web: 	
www.heirloomcarbon.com
HEIRLOOM


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DESCRIPTION
CERI’S CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES
CERI has developed a broad spectrum of CO2 capture 
technologies and systems built for the coal and gas-
fired power plants, waste-to-energy plants, steel plants 
and refinery plants. We started R&D and engineering 
demonstration back in 2006. With over 16 years of 
experience, we expertise in providing engineering services 
including the development of high-performance CO2 
solvents, solvent recovery and purification technology, 
carbon capture process design and optimization, high-
efficiency equipment design, power plant integrated 
design optimization, engineering design, construction, 
commissioning and operation. Those are not limited 
to post-combustion CO2 capture, but can also apply to 
pre-combustion CO2 capture, CO2 utilization and CO2 
sequestration. 
The followings are CERI’s cutting edge commercial CO2 
capture technologies:
•	
Advanced Amine Absorbent. CERI has developed a 
series of commercial blended amines solvents named 
HNC-1~HNC-5. The advanced amine, HNC-5 solvent 
has been validated for more than 20,000 hours in 
Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 tonne/annum CO2 
capture facility, with the solvent loss rate of 40% of 
conventional amine and regeneration energy below 
2.8 GJ/tCO2, reducing 20% CO2 capture cost.
•	
Next-generation 
Amine 
Absorbent. 
CERI 
is 
developing the next generation HNC-6 solvent 
technology incorporating higher cyclic loading faster 
reaction kinetics, low energy consumption, low solvent 
degradation, low corrosivity with attractive technical 
feasibility (viscosity, wettability) and environmentally 
benign benefits in terms of low toxicity and volatility.
•	
Slurry-based CO2 Absorbent. CERI has developed 
potassium carbonate slurry-based CO2 capture 
absorbent and process which is validated in the lab-
scale pilot plant. The regeneration energy is 2.6GJ/
tCO2, absorbent cost is 20% that of conventional 
amine and solvent loss cost is 22%~50% that of MEA. 
•	
Next-generation Phase Change CO2 Absorbent. 
CERI has developed phase-change CO2 absorbent 
that can realize the automatic phase separation of 
rich liquid after CO2 absorption. The phase-change 
CO2 absorbent was tested at the 1,000 tonne/annum 
phase-change carbon capture industrial device in 
Huaneng Changchun Thermal Power Plant. After 
CO2 absorption, the self-concentrated biphasic CO2 
absorbent can split into two liquid/liquid phase by itself. 
Almost all absorbed CO2 transfer into the rich phase 
(more than 95%). Only the rich phase is transferred to 
the regeneration system for CO2 desorption. Results 
show a regeneration energy reduction up to 40% than 
the conventional amine MEA. 
CERI is currently the leading CO2 capture technology 
provider in China, and has accumulated a wealth of 
intellectual property achievements such as patents, 
standards, research and industrial papers through over 
16 years of R&D and technology demonstration. We have 
been awarded with top-tier prizes in China’s Electric 
Power Science and Technology Award, National Energy 
Science and Technology Award, Outstanding Contribution 
Award in US CCUS Technology Award, United Nations 
Environmental-Friendly Demonstration Project Award, etc.
We have built a number of international and domestic 
CO2 capture facilities, spanning from Beijing Gaobeidian 
coal-fired power 3,000 tonne/annum CO2 capture facility, 
Shanghai Shidongkou coal-fired power 120,000 tonne/
annum post combustion CO2 capture facility, Tianjin 
GreenGen IGCC 100,000 tonne/annum pre-combustion 
CO2 capture facility, Taiyuan steel plant 45,000 tonne/
annum industrial CO2 capture project, Zhejiang Pinghu 
waste-to-energy plant CO2 capture facility, to the future 
Australia Glencore’s Surat Basin 110,000 tonne/annum CCS 
Project and Huaneng Longdong 1.5 million tonne/annum 
CCUS project. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Built up on R&D, we can realize the seamless connection from research, to engineering demonstration, and to 
commercial operation
•	
Broad spectrum of engineering capabilities from technology engineering design, equipment procurement, 
construction, commissioning and operation 
•	
Extensive experience and skills in commercial carbon capture technology, from the Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 
tonne/annum CO2 capture demonstration facility built in 2009, to the scale-up project of 1,500,000 tonne/ annum CCS 
project which is in construction in the Huaneng Zhengning Energy Base in west of China
•	
Leading the development of the international standard ISO/WD27927 “Key performance parameters and 
characterization methods of absorption liquids for post-combustion CO2 capture”
•	
We have established close collaboration with overseas academics and industries, from “China US Clean Energy 
Research Center”, “China Europe CCUS Technology Cooperation”, and “China Italy CCS Technology Cooperation”, 
and “International Carbon Capture Testing Center Network Platform (ITCN)”
HUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 
China Huaneng Clean Energy Research Institute (CERI) 
has developed a variety of high-performance carbon 
capture technologies such as the advanced amine 
absorbent, slurry-based CO2 capture absorbent, and 
next-generation phase change CO2 capture absorbent. 
We have established independent intellectual property 
rights and a complete set of technology system for CO2 
capture in coal/gas power plants, and technologies have 
been demonstrated in multiple international and domestic 
carbon capture plants. CERI has built up the first-tier 
research and development platforms, such as the “National 
Key Laboratory of High-Efficiency Flexible Coal Power 
Generation and Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage”, 
“Beijing Key Laboratory for Carbon Dioxide Capture and 
Treatment” and the partner of “International Carbon 
Capture Testing Center Network Platform (ITCN)”.
CERI has demonstrated its carbon capture technologies in 
over 16 coal or gas fired power plants. We have validated 
our commercial advanced amine technology for over 
20,000 hours operation in the 120,000 tonne/annum post-
combustion CO2 capture facility in Shanghai Shidongkou 
coal-fired power plant. We are constructing the world’s 
largest post-combustion CO2 capture and storage project 
1,500,000 tonne/annum CO2 from Huaneng Zhengning 
Energy Base, a 10 GW multi-energy infrastructure in 
the west of China. We are exporting our CO2 capture 
technology overseas to build the 110,000 tonne/annum 
CO2 capture project retrofitting to Millmerran coal-fired 
power plant in Queensland in Australia.
CERI can provide a broad spectrum of engineering services 
including collaboration in R&D for CO2 capture solvent 
development, process engineering design, high-efficiency 
equipment design and procurement, plant debugging 
and commissioning, catalyst design and synthesis for 
CO2 utilization, engineering design for desulphurization 
(deSOx), denitrification (deNOx), and CO2 storage in saline 
aquifers.
CONTACT
Email: 	 hm_liu@qny.chng.com.cn
Web: 	
www.chng.com.cn/en
HUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH 
INSTITUTE 


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HIGHLIGHTED CO2 CAPTURE PROJECTS DEVELOPED 
BY CERI
CERI has been actively exploring high-efficiency, cost-
effective carbon capture technologies, and built a number 
of projects, both in China and overseas. The timeline of 
CERI carbon capture project development is shown in the 
diagram on the previous page. 
In July 2008, China’s first post-combustion CO2 capture 
facility, capturing 3,000 tonne/year CO2, commenced 
operation in Huaneng Beijing Gaobeidian Power Plant. 
The facility is independently designed and constructed by 
CERI. This project marks the first pilot test of CO2 capture 
technology in coal-fired power in China.
In 2009, CERI scaled up its engineering expertise to build 
a 120,000 CO2 capturing facility in Shanghai Shidongkou 
No.2 ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant. It is well 
known as a pioneer CCUS project in China, and it was 
the world’s largest post-combustion CO2 capture project 
retrofitted to a coal-fired power plant at that time. The 
energy consumption of this CO2 capture facility was <2.8 
GJ/tonne CO2 at the capture ratio over 90%, a significant 
improvement over the first-generation amine solvent using 
MEA. Today, Shidongkou Post-combustion Carbon Capture 
Project has achieved over 22,000 operation hours, the 
world’s longest operating post-combustion capture plant.
The project was the first one to show that the cost of post-
combustion CO2 capture can be far below $100 back 
in 2009. The construction was completed in less than 7 
months which showed the China speed of construction, a 
pathway for cost reduction in CAPEX.
In 2013, CERI built China’s first gas-fired carbon capture 
pilot plant in Beijing, capturing 1,000 tonne/annum CO2. 
This facility became the key testing platform for the 
validation of the capture technologies we developed in the 
lab.
In 2016, CERI started operation of the first pre-combustion 
CO2 capture unit in China. This CO2 capture facility is the 
world’s largest and, capable of conducting experiments 
under flexible loads and operating conditions. 
CCS PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT
1. Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 tonne/annum phase-
change CO2 capture project.
This project is to scale up CERI’s phase-change CO2 
capture technology at 120,000 tonne/annum capacity, and 
to complete industrial verification and reach a performance 
target at ≤2.3GJ/tCO2 regenerated energy and ≤1.0kg/tCO2 
solvent loss. The phase change CO2 capture technology 
was successfully demonstrated at the 1,000 tonne/annum 
phase-change carbon capture pilot plant in Huaneng 
Changchun Thermal Power Plant in 2020.
ITEMS
SHANGHAI 
SHIDONGKOU COAL-
FIRED POWER CO2 
CAPTURE FACILITY
IGCC PRE-
COMBUSTION 
CARBON CAPTURE 
FACILITY
HAINAN 
INTERNATIONAL 
CO2 CAPTURE TEST 
PLATFORM
HUANENG LONGDONG 
ENERGY BASE CCS 
PROJECT
Capture 
Process
Post combustion
Pre-Combustion
Post combustion
Post combustion
Feature
Supercritical coal-fired 
power plant, CO2 12-
15% in flue gas
IGCC based full chain 
CCS
NG combustion flue gas, 
CO2 ~4% in flue gas
Advanced ultra-supercritical 
coal-fired power plant, CO2 
10-14% in flue gas
Scale
120,000tpa CO2
100,000tpa CO2 
(30MWth)
2,000tpa CO2
1,500,000tpa CO2
Regeneration 
Energy 
consumption
<2.8GJ/t CO2
<2.3GJ/t CO2
3.0GJ/tCO2
<2.3GJ/t CO2
Capture Ratio
>85%
-
>90%
>90%
CO2 Purity
Food Grade, >99.997%
-
Industrial use
Others
Largest PCC unit then, 
have been operating 
10 years continually
-
Open for international 
collaboration for 
technology testing and 
verification
Will be the world’s largest PCC 
plant when built
Capture cost 
300-400RMB/t CO2
-
Real NGCC flue gas 
condition
Captured CO2 for EOR and 
dedicated geological storage
2. Huaneng international CO2 capture test platform for 
Natural Gas Combined Cycle power plant in Hainan 
Island, China 
The 2,000 tonne/annum international CO2 capture 
testing platform uses real flue gas from the Natural Gas 
Combined Cycle (NGCC) power plant located in Yangpu, 
Hainan Island, China. Hainan has 30-day visa-free access 
for international visitors. This enables international 
collaboration for testing and validating carbon capture 
technologies. Huaneng Clean Energy Research Institute is 
a partner of International Test Center Network, and the only 
one in China.
3. Glencore Surat Basin 110,000 tonne/annum CCS 
Project in Queensland Australia
We are developing the post-combustion CO2 capture 
project retrofitting to the Millmerran coal-fired power plant 
in Queensland, Australia. The project can capture 110,000 
tonne/annum CO2. It will build a demonstration scale but 
also scalable post-combustion CO2 capture plant. Once 
built, it will be the first commercial post-combustion CO2 
capture project in Australia, and first China post combustion 
CO2 capture technology export overseas.
4. Huaneng Longdong 1,500,000 Tonne/Annum CCUS 
Project 
This million-tonne scale CCUS project is in construction. 
Once built by 2024, this project will become China’s first 
million-tonne carbon capture and storage facility in the 
power sector, and the largest post-combustion CO2 capture 
facility in the world. This project deploys China Huaneng’s 
next-generation HNC series CO2 capture technology. CO2 
will be captured from the slipstream of Unit 1 of the 2x1,000 
MW ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant, at the newly 
build China Huaneng Longdong Energy Base in Northwest 
China. The CCUS project will reduce 1.5 million tonnes per 
annum CO2 emission, at a regeneration heat duty below 
2.3 GJ/tonne CO2, and CO2 capture cost is around RMB 
220 per tonne CO2 captured (<USD $35). The captured 
CO2 will be transported via pipeline in the supercritical 
phase. Around 1 million tonne per annum CO2 will be 
stored via dedicated geological storage in the nearby 
geological sites, and 0.5 million tonnes per annum CO2 will 
be sent to CNPC oil fields for enhanced oil recovery.
The project will present a revolutionary low-cost 
decarbonization option for coal-fired power generation, 
as well as a flexible operation model for the peak-load 
regulating coal-fired power unit and CCS working along 
with the increasing penetration of renewable energy in 
power generation. The Longdong Energy Base itself is a 
multi-energy infrastructure with 8 GW renewables and 2 
GW ultra-supercritical coal fired power.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
DESCRIPTION
•	
Significant track record in Carbon Capture with vast technology portfolio
•	
Honeywell has a vast portfolio of carbon capture technologies that help support industry leaders to move towards a 
lower carbon footprint. Out of experts can work with you to determine the best solution to meeting your CO2 emission 
goals
CHALLENGES FOR INDUSTRY LEADERS
•	
Legal, regulatory, and financial frameworks need to 
continue progressing
•	
Large scale projects remain a significant hurdle due to 
energy requirements
•	
Full ecosystem that embodies all elements of carbon 
capture to support fast-moving
CHEMICAL SOLVENTS
AmineGuard™ & Amine Guard FS Process
MEA based system that is mature, reliable, and easy 
to operate, with >600 units licensed and in operation. 
Removes CO2 from natural gas, syngas, & blast furnace 
gas. 
Benfield™
Inorganic solvent based system for pressurized gas 
streams (natural gas, syngas, ethylene oxide) >650 units in 
operation.
Advanced Solvent for Carbon Capture (ASCC)
Second Generation amine based system targeting hard to 
abate flue gases from power, steel, cement, natural gas, 
industrials, refining & petrochemical industries.
PHYSICAL SOLVENTS
SeparALL
™ Process
Physical Solvent (non toxic & non flammable) for high 
pressure gasification streams selectively removes H2S/CO2 
utilizing Selexol™ solvent.
ADSORBENTS
Polybed™ Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) System
A process that utilizes a series of pressurization and 
depressurization cycles with adsorbents and cycles 
for H2 purification and CO2 rejection (>1150 units, 3 
operating in CO2 application). PSAs are often paired with 
other  separation technologies to optimize CO2 capture 
capabilities.
CRYOGENICS & MEMBRANES
Separex™ Membrane Systems
High, partial-pressure CO₂ capture,  significant  experience 
in onshore & offshore capturing and sequestering (>300 
units) Requires minimal rotating equipment, no chemical 
reagent replacement, and minimal maintenance, Designed 
for operational simplicity.
Ortloff CO₂ Fractionation
Solvent-free option, all-electric process (no steam required) 
with fewer subsystems and a smaller footprint than a 
solvent system, delivers CO₂ as a high purity liquid product.
TECHNOLOGY DELIVERY 
Honeywell can provide technology as initial studies to 
define best path forward, transfers the technology through 
license, engineering, key mechanical equipment, solvent, 
adsorbents, services and modular supply.
PRE COMBUSTION CARBON CAPTURE SOLUTIONS
Honeywell UOP has provided innovative hydrogen 
processing solutions to refineries and other industries for 
five decades. Today, refineries can implement Honeywell 
H2 Solutions at scale and low cost, achieving significant 
sustainability impact. 
Honeywell H2 Solutions include multiple carbon capture 
flow schemes you can tailor to your requirements for 
hydrogen yield, hydrogen purity, CO2 purity, steam use, or 
capital and operating cost needs.
Ready today, Honeywell H2 Solutions is a suite of proven 
carbon capture technologies to help you meet stringent 
emissions goals and gain fast, profitable entry into the 
growing hydrogen economy.
The fact is, hydrogen is a clean-burning fuel that can 
decarbonize hard-to-abate segments as long as it’s 
produced using a low-carbon route. Low-carbon hydrogen 
can be an economical solution for decarbonizing 
petrochemical, 
refining, 
transportation, 
and 
power 
generation businesses.
NAME OF TECHNOLOGY
A PATH TO CARBON NEUTRALITY STARTS TODAY
With a global focus on combatting climate change, industry 
leaders are aggressively seeking technology solutions that 
limit greenhouse gas emissions.
This is especially critical for carbon-intensive industrial 
markets 
such 
as 
power, 
steel, 
cement, 
refining, 
petrochemicals, hydrogen and natural gas processing 
where reducing environmental impact has been difficult.
There are many avenues a company can take to meet 
sustainability goals – and a drive towards carbon 
neutrality is gaining prominence as a key driver of meeting 
commitments. While many companies are taking the first 
steps towards carbon neutrality with more energy-efficient 
machinery and processes, technology supporting these 
initiatives is continuously evolving and improving, and 
companies need to keep up.
CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR ROLE 
IN SUSTAINABLE OPERATIONS
Deciding what sustainability initiatives to implement to 
start your company’s journey towards more environment-
friendly processes can be daunting. From making 
commitments to plant a certain number of trees to 
implementing energy- efficient processes, there are 
multiple pathways leading towards more carbon-neutral 
operations, some of which can be integrated immediately, 
but others require longer-term planning.
Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) is a key 
technology for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 
According to the International Energy Agency, carbon 
capture capacity must increase more than 20 times to 
enable the capture of 840 Mtpa CO2 by 2030 to meet 
global emission goals.
Incorporating carbon capture technologies into production 
is an effective path industrial companies can take to reduce 
their environmental impact and prevent harmful emissions 
from entering the atmosphere. However, carbon capture is 
a broad and complex field, requiring in-depth knowledge 
of both the technology and industry to effectively execute.
CONTACT
Email: 	 nathan.lozanoski@honeywell.com
Web: 	
www.pmt.honeywell.com
HONEYWELL


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PROOF POINTS
Wabash Valley Resources 
•	
Selected to provide integration of modular MOLSIV, 
Modular Ortloff CO2 Fractionation System, & Modular 
PSA
•	
Demonstrates large scale  commercially  viable  clean 
H2 and CCUS  projects  under  current  US  regulatory 
and policy framework
XOM Baytown
•	
Honeywell UOP’s carbon capture technology will be 
integrated into the design of ExxonMobil’s low-carbon 
hydrogen production facility and enable it to capture 
more than 98% (1) of associated CO2 emissions.
•	
ExxonMobil will deploy one of Honeywell’s carbon 
capture technologies – Honeywell’s CO2 Fractionation 
and Hydrogen Purification System - at its integrated 
complex in Baytown, Texas. This technology is 
expected to enable ExxonMobil to capture about 
7 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, the 
equivalent of the emission of 1.5 million of automobiles 
for one year (2).
•	
High purity H2 produced from Pressure Swing 
Adsorption and PolysepTM Membrane Technologies
•	
ExxonMobil’s H2 production project’s goal is to reduce, 
by up to 30%, Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions at their 
Baytown facility (3).
PRECOMBUSTION SOLUTIONS – OPTIMIZED 
THROUGH COMBINED PSA AND CRYOGENIC 
FRACTIONATION TECHNOLOGY POLYBED™
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) System
•	
Selectively separates high purity Hydrogen from 
syngas streams to minimize carbon slip into the 
product and maximize production rate.  PSAs selective 
for CO2 are also used within the optimized Pre-
combustion flow scheme to minimize CO2 emissions 
from the process
•	
Field performance tests prove the performance of 
PSA systems with an on-stream factor of 99.8+% and 
specified adsorbent life of more than 20 years.
•	
PSAs product streams from a Hydrogen Production 
Unit can deliver Hydrogen with minimal pressure drop 
and at a Hydrogen purity of up to 99.99% with the 
ability to provide lower concentrations as needed
Ortloff CO₂ Fractionation 
•	
A solvent-free option, all-electric process (no steam 
required) with fewer subsystems and a smaller 
footprint than a solvent system for
•	
Proprietary Mixed Refrigerant and design minimizes 
equipment count and size of this Cryogenic 
Fractionation system
•	
Ability to manage temperature at point of separation 
within a tight range enables very effective first-pass 
CO2 recovery
POST-COMBUSTION ADVANCED SOLVENT 
TECHNOLOGY UNLOCKS POTENTIAL
In collaboration with the University of Texas, Honeywell is 
proud to offer a new advanced solvent technology to lower 
CO₂ emissions generated from combustion flue gases 
in hard-to-abate industries, such as power, steel, cement, 
refining, petrochemical and other industrial plants.
Utilizing an advanced solvent, this point source CO₂ 
removal technology enables CO₂ to be captured at a lower 
cost through greater efficiency using smaller equipment. 
This creates viable project economics today as countries 
across the globe progress to meet their sustainability 
targets (4). It can be retrofitted within existing plants or 
included as part of a new installation.
PROOF POINTS
•	
Over 20 years of development at the University of 
Texas at Austin
•	
Pilot plant testing since 2006 with CO2 concentrations 
from 4-20 vol%
•	
Flue gas flow rates of 350-600 CFM at pilot plant
DEMONSTRATION AT NATIONAL CARBON CAPTURE 
CENTER
•	
0.5 MW coal fired flue gas, 1500 CFM flow with 8tpd 
CO2 capture
•	
CO2 Concentrations tested @ 12% (2018), 4% (2019), & 
4% (2023)
•	
Solvent performs well with oxygen up to 15 vol%
•	
Three campaigns completed with 8000+ hours of 
testing 
1.	
CO2 equivalent emissions is a calculated value based on the combined carbon compounds emitted from the Hydrogen 
production and Carbon Capture equipment plus the combined carbon compounds in the H2 product.
2.	 Based on the EPA’s GHG equivalency calculator comparing nearly 7 million tons of CO2 per year with gasoline-
powered passenger vehicles on the road.
3.	 Based on press release issued Feb 15, 2023, announcing HON H2 tech in Exxon Baytown facility. 
4.	 Lower cost of CO₂ capture based on comparing estimated capital and operating costs of this solution against other 
conventional amine solvents in same applications. CO₂ pricing considers current policies of $50/ton tax credit (USA 
per IRS Section 45Q for permanent storage) and $60/ton (UK and Europe – approximate averages from August 2021 
through country/regional Emission Trading Systems and as reported by IHS Markit).
Minimum Carbon Intensity 
Advanced Solvent Carbon Capture
Advanced Solvent 
/w high mass transfer rates 
– Shorter Absorber 
– 30% cost savings
High pressure stripper 
delivers CO2 at 5-6 barg, 
reducing Compressor 
Capex & Opex 
-Enabled by low solvent 
degradation
Patented, Low 
energy heat 
exchanger design 
2.1+ GJ/t CO2
CO2 produced to meet project off-take requirements 
and can act as a single unit operation for separation & 
liquefaction Optimized Flow Scheme.
•	
Leverages PSA selectivity to produce Carbon-Free 
Hydrogen product and Hydrogen fuel streams
•	
First-pass CO2 recovery optimized for PSA tail gas 
stream
•	
Exhausts the CO2 at the CO2 Product stream, as any 
carbon molecules not captured in the first pass are 
recycled through the process to extinction
•	
Flexible design provides the ability to trade off Capital 
and Operating costs with expected process emissions


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DESCRIPTION
The K2-CO2 process comprises of a dry section and wet 
section connected in series.
The dry section comprises of the Air Pollution Control 
system and heat recovery stages to meet the heat needs 
required by the carbon capture process. 
This section can utilize existing air pollution control 
equipment (dedusting, deSOx, deNOx) on-site with the 
integration of heat recovery stages or can be provided as 
new equipment. It must be noted that the flue gas can exit 
the system by bypassing the wet section via an exhaust 
stack to maintain continuous emission compliance in the 
event of an emergency or maintenance on the wet system. 
The wet section comprises of a deSOx process, CO2 
absorption, and CO2 cooling and concentration.  
The deSOx process provides further removal of 
contaminants and additional conditioning of the flue gas 
stream to begin the CO2 recovery process. 
The absorption section, utilizing the well-known carbon 
capture technology of Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC), 
absorbs CO2 from the flue gas stream into the HPC 
water solution. The remaining flue gases, which have 
already been treated in the dry section, are emitted to the 
atmosphere.
The CO2-rich HPC solution is then heated to release the 
highly concentrated CO2 product in a stripping process. 
The HPC solution is regenerated and injected into the 
absorber in a loop system, requiring no continuous make-
up of the solution. 
The CO2 is collected, conditioned, and sent for the chosen 
use or storage solution for the process. The captured CO2 
can be sent to the conditioning plant, designed to deliver 
the desired CO2 quality, pressure and temperature for use 
or storage: underground, for enhanced oil recovery or 
mineralization.   
The conditioning technology is adapted to the effective 
needs and can cover from simple storage/delivery in gas 
phase to purification and liquefaction or compression to 
supercritical conditions.
The K2-CO2 HPC process is a classic absorption/stripping 
process but is operated at relatively low pressures (typically 
0.5-5 barg) and integrates all possible heat recovery 
stages. The process is designed to have zero external heat 
needs, making it less energy-intensive than other CCUS 
technologies, including those utilizing a similar solvent or 
amine-based systems. It can be applied to a wide range of 
industrial processes such as glass, steel, biomass/waste 
incineration.
HPC technology has been chosen against amines for 
several reasons. These include that HPC solution is safe 
for people and the environment, non-volatile, stable, 
inexpensive, and based on a readily and worldwide 
available basic component that is not provided by a 
propriety source, manufacturer, or licensor.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
No Upstream Process Modifications: Our systems integrate into existing processes without upstream modification of 
conditions or fuel required and include Use and/or Storage, providing tailored solutions to the unique process and site.
•	
Energy Efficient: Energy demands for heating/cooling and expansion/compression are minimized through energy re-
use throughout the process. 
•	
Cost Effective: Minimal changes to combustion process, waste heat recovery, and solvent regeneration provide a cost-
effective solution for CCUS in small to medium size emitters. 
•	
Continuous Compliance: Highly effective air pollution control technology is integrated for other flue gas pollutants.
INTEGRATION OF CO2 CAPTURE AND SEQUESTRATION OR USE
K2-CO2 delivers fully integrated turnkey Carbon Capture 
Use & Sequestration (CCUS) solutions targeting small and 
medium scale industrial emitters. 
Our portfolio includes turnkey solutions to satisfy from the 
exit of combustion source to the exhaust stack including 
Carbon Capture integrated with flue gas conditioning, 
waste heat recovery, and reuse or sequestration. 
These solutions integrate into an existing process without 
impacting the production, resulting in a reduction of 
environmental emissions, overall energy impact, and CO2 
footprint.
Our team leverages its extensive experience as industrial 
flue gas treatment integrators to offer a safe, energy-
efficient, “bolt-on” carbon capture system utilizing Hot 
Potassium Carbonate (HPC) solvent with the needed 
conditioning for sequestration or reuse.  
The HPC-solvent process for CO2 capture, licensed by 
Giammarco Vetrocoke, is used globally in industries such 
as chemical plants with high CO2 concentrations in the flue 
gas: K2-CO2 has extended the usefulness to lower CO2 
concentrations, making it suitable for most combustion-
derived flue gas.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@k2-CO2.com
Web: 	
www.k2-CO2.com
K2-CO2 
•	
Safe and Environmentally Friendly: Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) is a non-flammable, nontoxic, stable and 
inexpensive solvent, eliminating the need for harmful and corrosive amine-based capture processes.
•	
Tailor-made: CO2 is delivered at conditions defined by the downstream process, easily reaching Food & Beverage 
quality if required
Schematic representation of K2-CO2 typical process with 
indication of the main heat recovery stages; solution is always 
customized in function of the flue gas characteristics.


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DESCRIPTION
The UNO MK 3 process consists of a catalytically enhanced 
precipitating potassium carbonate solvent technology 
engineered to capture 90+ per cent of carbon dioxide (CO2) 
emissions from heavy industry sources such as cement 
plants, power stations (pre- and post-combustion) and 
other large CO2 emitting industries. Following the invention 
of the UNO MK 3 process within the Cooperative Research 
Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC), the 
technology has subsequently been developed over the 
last decade by KC8 Capture Technologies in conjunction 
with the University of Melbourne in Australia. 
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) has been used in solvent 
absorption processes in chemical industries for many 
years (i.e. the Benfield process). The patented UNO MK 
3 process provides a unique update to this established 
technology, making it highly efficient for CO2 capture at low 
pressure. The UNO MK 3 process contains the absorption 
and regeneration stages of a standard solvent absorption 
process. However, unlike a standard liquid-based solvent 
system, a KHCO3 precipitate is allowed to form. Removing 
this constraint allows UNO MK 3 to be operated with 
concentrated solvent and greater solvent loadings. That, in 
turn, allows for greater working capacities, lower circulation 
rates and drives down energy requirements.
To handle solid precipitation in the process, KC8 Capture 
has conducted extensive R&D to identify and adapt existing 
process units to meet the challenging requirements. 
Central to this has been our patented refinement of 
Turbulent Bed Contactor technology to not only facilitate 
suitable solids tolerance in the absorber unit, but also 
provide process intensification, resulting in reduced 
column height relative to conventional amine processes.
A key benefit of potassium carbonate-based solvents is the 
significantly lower volatility compared with amine-based 
solvents. The volatile emissions from amine-based solvents 
can be significant and usually requires an additional water 
wash sections as well as continuous solvent make-up. In 
contrast, the UNO MK 3 process neither requires a water 
wash stage, nor complex reclamation sections to achieve 
economic viability. 
The UNO MK 3 process is capable of handling a wide 
range of applications, including both pre- and post-
combustion electricity generation and other industrial 
CO2 emitting processes. It is unaffected by the impurities 
in a range of fuel source including black coal, brown coal, 
natural gas and emissions from cement, iron and steel and 
other heavy industries. Due to its oxygen tolerance and low 
volatility, it is also highly applicable in capture from natural 
gas turbines in either open or closed cycle flue gases. It 
also has the capacity to be applied either as a new build or 
retrofit application. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Lower cost – achieving up to 50% reduction compared to the best amine equivalent due to major improvements in 
both CAPEX and OPEX expenditure
•	
Lower energy usage - performing up to 15% less than the best amine technology principally due to reboiler energy 
requirements typically under 2.5 GJ/tonne CO2
•	
Oxygen, SOx and NOx tolerant process - allowing diverse application portfolio including difficult to abate sectors such 
as cement, steel and waste-to-energy
•	
Low cost, safe solvent with pre-existing supply capacity – with current potassium carbonate market orders of 
magnitude larger than forecast CO2 capture demand requirements
•	
Small plant footprint - achieved through higher solvent loadings that lead to a process size reduction and patented 
concentric column design for larger operations. 
•	
No toxic by-products and low solvent volatility – eliminating need for toxic waste disposal, complex wash stages and 
solvent reclamation units
•	
Superior environmental performance – particularly benefitting from environmentally benign solvent, lack of toxic by-
products and low solvent volatility
•	
Low impact retrofit integration – design options to provide minimal upstream process impact, or alternatively to 
maximize heat integration with existing systems to optimize process synergies
•	
Option to time shift energy demands – The increased loading capacity and solvent price point makes large scale 
solvent storage for time shifted regeneration economically viable in many situation
UNO MK 3
KC8 Capture Technologies is commercialising industry 
leading carbon capture technology that provides an 
affordable pathway to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 
from the use of fossil fuels and heavy industries around the 
world.
Our revolutionary UNO MK 3 technology utilizes a novel 
precipitating potassium carbonate (K2CO3) solvent, enabled 
through our patented solids tolerant absorber design. The 
formation of potassium bicarbonate solids in the system 
allows for greater solvent loading and lower circulating 
solvent volumes relative to both the Benfield process and 
conventional amine systems.  
Further benefits of the novel solvent include a process size 
reduction, reducing both CAPEX cost and plant footprint, 
and decreased reboiler energy usage. These, along with 
other key advantages, allow for the UNO MK 3 technology 
to be built and operated at up to 50% lower overall costs 
compared to the best existing amine based equivalent.   
Another key advantage of the precipitating potassium 
carbonate solvent is its tolerance of oxygen, SOx and 
NOx in the source flue gas. This opens up the technology 
application range to difficult to abate sectors such as 
cement and steel, as well as energy sectors with additional 
challenges such as waste-to-energy and gas turbine-based 
power generation.  
Major environmental and safety benefits are also realized 
with the UNO MK 3 technology, with its environmentally 
benign and non-volatile solvent alongside the lack of toxic 
by-product production proving to be of particular strategic 
advantage relative to its equivalent amine competitors. 
The solvent stability and non-volatility also reduces solvent 
loss due to degradation and eliminates the need for wash 
stages and reclamation units. 
The UNO MK 3 has already been demonstrated at the pilot 
scale on industrial flue gasses, and two demonstration 
scale facilities are in late stage design, both of which are 
scheduled to begin operation in 2024. These will directly 
demonstrate the UNO MK 3 capabilities in both difficult 
to abate industrial and power sectors in their respective 
projects. Planned FEED studies are also predicted to 
confirm current estimates that the technology can achieve 
carbon capture in the price range of $35-40 / tonne CO2. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 greg.ross@KC8capture.com
Web: 	
www.KC8capture.com
KC8 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES


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Looking ahead, KC8 has created a range of configurations 
in relation to large scale single stream contacting systems. 
This includes a novel patented concentric single stream 
absorption and stripping combined column, which 
uses concrete and/or geopolymers as the material of 
construction. This enables larger column diameters 
and improves CAPEX performance comparative to 
conventional steel arrangements.  Applications in a single 
train are now possible for large emission sources.
Pilot plant testing of UNO MK 3 has been completed under 
real flue gas conditions at Hazelwood Power Station in 
the Latrobe Valley, Australia, and we are currently in the 
process of implementing two demonstration facilities of the 
UNO MK 3 technology.
The first of these is a 10 - 15 tpd CO2 PACER demonstration 
facility being built in partnership with Cement Australia, with 
the plant processing clinker flue gas from a pre-existing 
industrial plant. Operations will be located at a Cement 
Australia facility in Gladstone, Australia, and are forecast to 
begin operations in Q1 2024.
The second demonstration plant has been facilitated by 
our success in the recent US DoE FleCCS project. During 
the first stage of this project, KC8 Capture demonstrated 
that the UNO MK3 in conjunction with pre-existing NGCC 
and/or OCGT turbines can, based on independent 
economic analysis, be widely and profitably deployed in 
future near-zero emission grids. Stage 2 involves a physical 
demonstration of the technology, which will be on a similar 
5 - 10 tpd scale to the PACER project but will focus on 
the lower CO2 concentrations found in gas turbine flue 
gas. This plant will be installed at the NCCC test centre in 
Alabama, USA, with operations forecast to begin Q3 2024.
These two projects will take KC8 Capture through to a 
TRL of 7-8, at which point we will be ready to commence 
construction of commercial scale facilities. Current 
estimates are that typical applications at full scale will be 
able to achieve CO2 capture costs of $35-40 /tonne. 
Figure 1: Conventional dual absorption / stripping column 
configuration
Figure 2: KC8 patented concentric absorption / stripping column
HOW OUR TECHNOLOGY WORKS


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DESCRIPTION
CCUS is a critical component of a circular carbon economy. 
Linde is a forerunner in this area with a portfolio of products 
and solutions that helps its customers fulfill their net-zero 
emission targets. Here are a few examples:
•	
Heidelberg Materials and Linde have established 
a joint venture to build and operate a state-of-the-
art carbon dioxide capture and liquefaction plant at 
Heidelberg Materials’ Lengfurt, Germany, plant. CO2 
will be separated directly from part of the exhaust gas 
stream from the cement clinker kiln using an amine 
scrubbing system specially developed for flue gases. 
Linde will also supply equipment for purification and 
liquefaction, tanks for intermediate storage of the 
product, and loading facilities.
•	
Groundbreaking recently took place for a major 
carbon capture pilot project: the 10-megawatt project 
at City Water, Light and Power (CWLP) in Springfield, 
Illinois. The Linde/BASF Advanced Post-Combustion 
CO2 Capture Technology used in this project is a major 
step in demonstrating how capture technologies can 
be successfully integrated into industrial facilities to 
reduce CO2 emissions.
•	
Linde has signed a long-term agreement with 
ExxonMobil for the off-take of carbon dioxide 
associated 
with 
Linde’s 
new 
clean 
hydrogen 
production in Beaumont, Texas. Under the terms of the 
agreement, ExxonMobil will transport and permanently 
store up to 2.2 million metric tons of carbon dioxide 
each year from Linde’s hydrogen production facility, 
equivalent to the emissions from nearly half a million 
cars per year.
•	
Linde’s engagement in CCUS extends to fostering 
innovation. To this end, Linde has opened its first 
R&D center for CCUS technologies in Saudi Arabia’s 
Dhahran Techno Valley. Aside from developing 
solutions, the center will offer training and education 
for professionals, customers, and universities.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR A LARGE VARIETY OF CARBON 
INTENSITIES AND SOURCES
The projects and innovative activities described above rely 
on our extensive portfolio of technologies and services 
along the whole CO₂ value chain. When deciding which 
solution to select, the company’s engineers first verify 
which CO₂ concentrations need to be addressed – low, 
medium, or high (Figure 1). Linde provides solutions for 
many different CO₂ emitting industries. The technologies 
are further divided into their suitability for the CO₂ source, 
whether it be flue gas, natural gas, syngas, or tail gas.
Figure 1: Overview of Linde’s tecnology portfolio along the CO2 value chain.
1 OASE® is a registered trademark of BASF SE
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Linde’s offering relating to CCUS:
•	
Economical and technical feasibility studies
•	
CO2 capture as a service (build, own, operate)
•	
Full engineering, procurement, construction (EPC) solution
•	
EPC services
•	
Training of operational and maintenance personnel
CARBON MANAGEMENT AS A SERVICE
As efforts to reduce greenhouse gases, such as carbon 
dioxide (CO2), intensify, finding a reliable supplier who 
can navigate the complexity of large-scale, multi-year 
projects is essential for industries such as oil & gas, 
chemicals, steel, cement, and power generation. Linde has 
extensive, proven expertise in the treatment of CO2 along 
its entire value chain, including its separation, purification, 
compression, and liquefaction. Furthermore, the company 
helps its customers explore all their options to store or 
potentially reuse captured carbon in other processes. 
Linde also covers carbon sequestration and collaborates 
with other companies around the globe.
Projects for managing carbon are performed in the 
framework 
of 
an 
EPC 
(engineering, 
procurement, 
construction) or as a BOO (build, own, operate). At the same 
time, Linde invests in own plants and aims to minimize CO2 
emissions in its own production and operations.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@linde.com
Web: 	
www.engineering.linde.com/CO2
LINDE
Linde provides services along the whole value chain
Logistics and 
application
Conditioning
Capture and Processing
CO2 content in sources
<3%
>98%
Medium
High
Low
Power generation
Olefins production
Iron and steel production
Cement and lime production
Steam Methane Reformer (SMR) 
flue gas
SMR syngas
Gasification
Partial Oxidation (POX)
Auto Thermal Reforming (ATR)
Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) process
Oxyfuel processes
Chemicals production
Natural gas sweetening
Linde technologies cover a broad range of CO2 containing gas streams
Sources
Flue gas
Natural gas
Syngas
Tailgas
OASE® blue
Amine wash
HISORP® CC
HISELECT®
Rectisol®
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
CO2 Processing Unit (CPU)
Compression
and dehydration
Liquefaction
Tank farms &
loading stations
Logistics and
distribution
Storage (CCS)
Industrial
Synthesis
Food and 
beverage
Electronics
1


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FOR GAS STREAMS WITH LOW CO₂ CONTENT
OASE® blue technology for Post-Combustion CO2 
Capture (PCC)
Post Combustion CO2 Capture (PCC) is a mature option 
to capture CO2 from flue gas streams and thus ensure 
compliance with increasingly strict emissions thresholds. 
With the OASE® blue technology, CO2 is removed from 
the flue gas through chemical scrubbing with an aqueous 
amine-based solvent (Figure 2). It can be implemented 
downstream 
of 
existing 
assets 
without 
interfering 
with upstream processes. For new assets, advanced 
plant integration concepts and optimized total costs of 
ownership can be accomplished.
The optimal design of turnkey facilities using OASE® blue 
technology has been jointly developed by BASF and Linde. 
It leverages BASF’s capabilities in high-performance gas 
treatment technologies and Linde’s strength and proven 
track record in design and delivery of turnkey industrial 
plants. This results in an optimal interplay of solvent, 
process design, equipment, and plant integration.
The technology can be applied to flue gases from various 
sources, such as different types of power plants, gas 
motors, steam generators, cement plants, and furnaces, 
just to name a few. It easily covers a spectrum from 3 to 
25 vol% CO₂ content in the flue gas. The technology allows 
for CO2 capture rates higher than 95% and generates 
a CO2 product purity of 99.9 vol% (dry). This purity is in 
compliance with the CO2 product specification in most 
cases. Therefore, a further purification step may not be 
necessary.
This high-performance CO2 capture technology in 
combination with our solid track record in large-scale gas 
treatment plants ensure low risk in EPC projects.
Highlights
•	
Compact footprint
•	
High CO2 capture rate even at low CO2 concentrations
•	
20% lower energy consumption and 20% lower 
circulation rate compared to MEA solution
•	
Low solvent degradation rate even at elevated 
oxygen content in flue gas, and therefore low solvent 
consumption rate
•	
Different options for energy and heat integration
•	
Unique emissions control technology for minimum 
environmental impact
•	
> 500 OASE® gas treatment plants in operation for 
different applications
•	
> 65,000 hours of operational experience with OASE® 
blue
•	
Reference plants in Germany and the United States
FOR GAS STREAMS WITH LOW TO MEDIUM CO₂ 
CONTENT 
Amine wash
Amine wash processes are the standard for CO2 removal 
from steam methane reforming (SMR)-based hydrogen, 
syngas, and ammonia plants. CO2 capture from syngas 
(Figure 3) is a proven technology, which achieves a CO2 
recovery rate of 99.9%. Further advantages include a low 
investment and favorable operating costs. Amine wash 
units can be installed in various areas of a plant, from low- 
to high-pressure applications. They are also suitable for 
advanced CO2 removal as well as simultaneous removal 
of CO2 and sulfur. Amine wash units can also be combined 
with other Linde technologies, such as the Linde Ammonia 
Concept (LAC™), or with cryogenic processes for carbon 
monoxide production.
Highlights
•	
State-of-the-art process
•	
Compact design
•	
Favorable design for low-pressure and high-pressure 
applications
•	
Compatible for CO₂ removal and/or sulfur removal
Figure 2: OASE® blue post-combustion CO2 capture (PCC) process
Flue gas
Pre-conditioning
Power generation / SMR /
Production of cement, lime,
iron, steel and olefins
Absorption
Emissions control
Power generation / SMR /
Production of cement, lime,
iron, steel and olefins
Heat
recovery
Regeneration
Reclaiming
product
OASE® is a registered trademark of BASF SE
Figure 3: Amine wash-based CO2 capture process from syngas
CO2 containing 
syngas
Amine-based
CO2 removal system
Gaseous CO2
(wet)
CO2 capture 
rate >99.9%
SMR / ATR / POX
Temperature Swing
Absorption (TSA)
Gaseous (dry)
CO2 product
to sequestration
Lean
syngas


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HISORP® CC 
HISORP® CC is a mature carbon capturing process based 
on adsorption and cryogenic separation technologies. It 
follows a toolbox approach for customizing the process 
setup on a case-to-case basis with the aim to minimize the 
carbon footprint of CO2-emitting industries. 
HISORP® CC can be applied for pre- and post-combustion 
carbon capture from various CO2-emitting sources. One 
application is for blue hydrogen production plants (both 
for new builds and retrofits), such as SMR, autothermal 
reforming (ATR), partial oxidation (POX), and gasification. 
Here, the toolbox approach shows its advantages by 
optimally combining separation technologies to minimize 
carbon intensity and maximize hydrogen production. To 
produce blue hydrogen, HISORP® CC can be applied in 
the syngas or the tail gas route of the hydrogen Pressure 
Swing Adsorption (PSA) of existing SMRs and ATRs. 
Especially for newly built ATR and POX reactors, HISORP® 
CC is used for carbon capture in the tail gas of the H2 PSA 
with advantages regarding reliability of H2 production 
and specific energy consumption for CO2 removal. In 
addition, for existing SMRs, post-combustion CO2 capture 
(PCC) from the flue gas is often the preferred approach to 
minimize carbon intensity. Furthermore, HISORP® CC can 
be applied for PCC from various other flue gases of hard-
to-abate CO2 sources, e.g., cement and lime production, 
steel production, and power generation. 
HISORP® CC achieves overall CO2 capture rates of up to 
99.7% and is flexible in regard to scale (covering all relevant 
industrial sizes), CO2 feed concentration, the state of the 
CO2 export product (in gaseous, liquid, or supercritical 
form), and all purity levels (e.g., industrial grade or high-
purity food & beverage grade).
Highlights
•	
Combines Linde’s inhouse adsorptive and cryogenic 
technologies
•	
Individual HISORP® CC concepts for different feed 
streams by using Linde’s toolbox 
•	
Flexible in size and scale
•	
All individual process units within the HISORP® 
CC process are in operation and have technology 
readiness level 9
•	
HISORP® CC can be adapted to various CO2 product 
requirements (gaseous/liquid/supercritical CO2, purity 
grade for sequestration or utilization)
•	
Packaged unit design (pre-manufactured & workshop 
tested) for minimized on site construction effort
•	
CO2 capture rate >99%
•	
No steam required (only electrical power)
•	
No consumption, handling, makeup, and disposal of 
chemical washing agents
•	
No hydrogen losses when applied for CO2 capture in 
blue hydrogen production
•	
Includes 
smart 
pre-treatment 
for 
trace-impurity 
removal from flue gases  
HISELECT® powered by Evonik membranes
The HISELECT® membrane was originally developed 
with a focus on natural gas and process gas industries. 
For natural gas resources with sour and acid fractions, 
membranes are an excellent alternative to conventional 
amine wash systems for acid gas removal. Driven by partial 
pressure difference, the HISELECT® membrane works like 
a semi-permeable barrier and separates the feed gas into 
a low-pressure permeate, rich in the gas to be removed 
or recovered (such as CO2), and a high-pressure retentate 
with a low content of these components. A typical setup 
of a gas processing unit with membranes is shown in 
Figure 5. HISELECT® membranes efficiently remove CO2 
from natural gas over a wide flow rate and concentration 
range. The membranes demonstrate high selectivity 
for CO2, irrespective of high hydrogen content (HHC) 
and CO2 partial pressure. Additionally, strong resistance 
to unsaturated hydrocarbons, mechanical robustness, 
and high resistance to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) result in 
low maintenance requirements and a rapid return on 
investment. Beside applications in natural gas sweetening, 
HISELECT® membrane technology can also be applied in 
hybrid solutions with pressure-swing or temperature-swing 
adsorption units to efficiently remove CO2 or other gases 
from process gases.
Highlights
•	
Low CAPEX and OPEX with high operational flexibility
•	
High separation capacity and high selectivity for 
maximum recovery rates and high purities
•	
Ability to tailor membrane capacity and selectivity to 
customer requirements
•	
High volume efficiency due to optimized packing of 
hollow fiber membranes
•	
Production flexibility with wide feed stream condition 
range and supporting temperatures up to 100°C and 
pressures up to 200 bar
•	
Resistant to CO2 partial pressure of up to 50 bar
•	
Robust and stable performance over time under harsh 
operating conditions, reducing need for overdesign
•	
Reduced pre-treatment effort due to excellent 
resistance to heavy hydrocarbons and plasticization
•	
Mechanical resistance to process fluctuations during 
operation
Figure 4: HISORP® CC: Mature toolbox approach to reduce CO2 emissions from various industries.
Figure 5: Typical process design of a gas processing unit with HISELECT® for natural gas acid removal
Raw NG
upstream
Membrane
separation II
Membrane pre-treatment
Membrane
separation I
CO2 removal


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Rectisol® wash unit
Linde’s Rectisol® wash unit is able to extract sour gas 
from syngas. The solution uses proven technology that 
is adjusted to the actual needs and requirements of plant 
operators. Its application in syngas is indicated in Figure 6. 
It is flexible with respect to upstream syngas generation as 
well as gas specification for downstream applications.
Rectisol® can either be used for selective removal of 
CO2 and sulfur, or it can be designed for designated 
CO2 capture. In case of selective removal of CO2 and 
sulfur, about 99% of the CO2 can be captured sulfur-free, 
which means that no additional desulfurization units are 
required. Rectisol® can be integrated with other Linde gas 
processing technologies (such as downstream PSA and 
cryogenic processes). Nominal capacities can vary widely, 
from small-scale plants (30,000 Nm3/h feed gas) up to high 
one-train capacity plants (2,000,000 Nm3/h feed gas).
Highlights
•	
State-of-the-art process
•	
Used for the treatment of feed gas containing sulfur 
and CO2
•	
Water- and sulfur-free CO2 product for further 
processing
•	
Enriched H2S fraction can be realized within one 
process
•	
Easy solvent handling (chemically stable, low cost, and 
readily available on the market)
•	
Enhanced trace component handling
•	
Low product losses (H2 and CO)
FOR GAS STREAMS WITH MEDIUM TO HIGH CO₂ 
CONTENT
CO₂ PSA
Linde’s pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system is an 
innovative, efficient, and low CAPEX technology for the 
recovery of CO2 from process gas streams covering a wide 
concentration range, such as from process gases including 
syngas streams and iron and steel production off-gases, as 
shown in Figure 7.
In the case of syngas, PSA technology is used to recover 
CO2 from upstream, high-pressure raw syngas streams 
or low-pressure off-gas streams generated by SMR or 
gasification processes. In many cases, PSA technology is 
a more cost-effective alternative to conventional washing 
systems due to its lower investment and operating costs.
In the iron and steel industry, PSA technology can be 
used to efficiently remove CO2 in direct reduction or 
blast furnace off-gases. The process removes maximum 
amounts of CO2 yet leaves valuable gas components, 
such as H2, CO, and CH4, in the gas stream for further 
processing.
A CO2 PSA unit can achieve a product purity of up to 95 
vol%, with unit capacities ranging from a few thousand 
Nm3/h to around 300,000 Nm3/h.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust purification technology
•	
No electricity consumption
•	
No steam required for regeneration (thereby no 
additional CO₂ generation)
•	
No solvent is applied
•	
No negative environmental impact due to the 
emissions of solvent traces in exhausts or CO₂ product
•	
No extra cost for solvent makeup and handling
•	
Low CAPEX and OPEX 
Figure 6: Typical Rectisol® process design for CO2 capture from syngas
SMR / ATR / POX
CO2 + H2S / COS
containing syngas
Rectisol® wash unit
CO2 removal system
Lean syngas
Gaseous CO2 (dry)
CO2 capture rate >99%
H2S / COS fraction to SRU
Gaseous
CO2 product to
sequestration
Figure 7: Typical CO2 PSA process design for efficient capture of CO2 from process gases
Low / medium / high CO2
concentration source
CO2 PSA
CO2 export


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CO₂ PROCESSING UNIT
Linde’s CO2 Processing Unit (CPU) is applied to purify CO2 
-containing gas streams to provide typical CO2 product 
specifications for a variety of industrial applications. 
Typical CPU feed gas streams are CO2-rich gases 
generated from CO2 capture processes, flue gases from 
oxy-fuel combustion processes, and CO2-rich off-gases 
from chemical plants, such as ammonia, ethylene oxide, 
methanol, or ethanol plants. As shown in Figure 8, an 
extended toolbox of processes and technologies allows for 
the removal of different trace components, such as sulfur- 
or nitrogen-containing compounds, hydrocarbons, heavy 
metals, and air gases.
Linde initially developed and commercialized the CPU 
technology to treat oxy-fuel flue gases at an oxy-fuel lignite-
fired power plant at Schwarze Pumpe, Germany. More 
recently, Linde’s CPU has been considered for oxy-fuel 
projects in the cement industry. Mature CO2 processing 
technologies in combination with Linde’s track record 
in large-scale gas-treatment plants ensure low-risk EPC 
projects for clients.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust purification technology
•	
Reference plant in Schwarze Pumpe, Germany, for 
treatment of oxy-fuel flue gases
•	
Multiple EPC and Linde operation references for 
production of food-, chemical-, and electronics-grade 
CO2
•	
Standardized and skid-mounted modules as well as 
large-scale customized, stick-built solutions available
CO₂ COMPRESSION/DEHYDRATION
CO2 compression and dehydration (see Figure 9) are the 
most common process units in all CO2 plants. If the CO2 
purity already meets specification requirements after the 
CO2 capture process, the downstream CO2 treatment 
usually involves compression and dehydration. It is also a 
typical process unit for CPU and CO2 liquefaction plants.
Depending on the plant capacity, different types of 
compressors can be used, such as piston, screw, and turbo 
compressors. And depending on local costs for utilities, 
electrical or steam-driven compressors can be employed.
The targeted CO2 product pressure is defined by the 
downstream application or distribution concept. Pressures 
of up to a maximum of 215 bar have been realized.
Compressor stations not only compress the main CO2 
feed gas stream, but can also be used to integrate and 
compress boil-off gases from storage tanks and other CO2- 
rich vents from the plant.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust technology
•	
Various options for compressor type
•	
Multiple references for different scales worldwide
Figure 8: Typical CO2 Processing Unit (CPU) design
Oxyfuel plant /
CO2 capture plant / 
Chemical plant
product
Liquefaction and
rectification with
refrigeration unit
Purification
toolbox II
Purification
toolbox I
Compression
Raw CO2
Figure 9: Typical CO2 compression and drying process design
Chemical plant /
CO2 capture plant
Drying
CO2 compression
Raw CO2
product
Vent
Boil-off from
storage
Other
recycles


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CO2 LIQUEFACTION
CO2 liquefaction, as shown in Figure 10, can be an 
additional process step attached to a CO2 capture and 
processing plant. For example, when CO2 is purified 
by means of cryogenic separation (rectification), CO2 
liquefaction is involved. In addition, CO2 liquefaction might 
be required because of the CO2 logistics concept when 
transporting it via road trailers, trains, or ships.
Linde’s largest liquefaction plant, in operation since 2015, 
is producing approximately 1,350 tons of CO2 per day. The 
CO2 is used in enhanced methanol and urea production.
Additional large-scale plant references can be found 
in Norway and the United States for carbon capture 
and storage (CCS) and food applications, respectively. 
Depending on local needs, the integration concept, safety 
considerations, and cost efficiency, different refrigerants 
can be considered for use in the refrigeration unit.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust technology
•	
Various options for refrigerants available
•	
Extended reference list at various product capacities
•	
Standardized and skid-mounted modules as well as 
large-scale customized, stick-built solutions available
CO₂ TANK FARM AND LOADING STATIONS
Linde offers state-of-the-art tank farms to store liquid CO2. 
A range of configurations are available. For example, 
the storage tanks can be spherical or cylindrical (vertical 
or horizontal). Tank farms can be equipped with boil-off
 
gas re-liquefaction as well as integration of gas return 
lines. Moreover, an essential component of a tank farm 
is a loading station. While most tank farms feature trailer 
loading stations, Linde has also built train and ship loading 
stations (see Figure 11). This covers the whole range of 
potential distribution concepts.
Highlights
•	
Extended reference list at various product capacities
•	
High degree of standardization and skidded packages 
to reduce CAPEX
Figure 10: Typical CO2 liquefaction process design
Chemical plant /
CO2 capture plant /
CO2 processing units
Raw CO2
Rectification
Sub-cooler
Refrigeration unit
Liquefier
Vent gas
Vent gas
treatment
Liquid CO2
to storage
Figure 11: CO2 tank farm and loading station
CO2 liquefier
Liquid CO2
Boil-off
liquefaction
Storage
Distribution
Boil-off to
compression
Gas return
lines
Ship loading
Train loading
Truck loading


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DESCRIPTION
SECTION 1: TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
NET Power has developed and optimized its technology 
during more than a decade of research, development, 
and operational demonstration. From the very beginning, 
the NET Power Cycle was designed to overcome the 
challenges faced by both conventional and renewable 
energy technologies pursuing grid-scale decarbonization. 
It solves the energy "trilemma" by providing clean, 
affordable, and dispatchable power. By meeting these 
three criteria, NET Power is able to integrate into existing 
grid infrastructure and markets while delivering additional 
benefits, such as capturing nearly all carbon emissions.
NET Power achieves this through its unique combination 
of oxy-combustion of natural gas with a supercritical CO2 
power cycle. In the process, natural gas is burned using a 
mixture of oxygen and CO2. The combustion produces CO2 
and water, which are added to the CO2 process stream 
at high pressure. The high-pressure fluid flows through a 
turboexpander, which produces power and condenses 
water from the process fluid while capturing the CO2. Most 
CO2 returns to the process through compression and 
pumping, while a stream of continuously captured CO2 
is removed from the process at high purity and pressure 
suitable for permanent storage or utilization. The result: 
carbon emissions are contained during the process, so 
there's no need for costly post-combustion capture.
In more detail, The NET Power Cycle can be broken into 
seven steps: 
1.	
Air Separation: The NET Power Cycle begins by 
purifying and compressing atmospheric air into the 
separation systems. An insulated, specially engineered 
“cold box” then separates the air into its component 
gas molecules (including oxygen, argon, and nitrogen).
2.	 Oxy-Combustion: The oxygen filtered out in the air 
separation unit (ASU) is combusted with natural gas 
and recuperated supercritical carbon dioxide in a 
series of parallel, direct-fired combustors feeding 
the turbine-generator. The natural gas is burned in 
99.5% pure oxygen and CO2 resulting in a stream of 
predominantly steam and CO2.
3.	 Turboexpander: The combustion process creates a 
high-pressure CO2 working fluid that expands and 
turns the turboexpander to generate electricity.
4.	 	
Heat Exchanger: The turboexpander reduces the 
pressure of the CO2, which exhausts to a series of 
recuperative heat exchangers to cool.
5.	 Water Separator: The byproducts of the oxy-
combustion process are water and CO2. As the 
working fluid cools, it is routed through a condensed 
water circulation loop that condenses the water vapor 
and separates the low-pressure, high purity CO2.
6.	 Compressor: Some of the high purity CO2 is removed 
and exported via pipeline for sequestration or 
utilization, and the remaining CO2 is re-compressed 
in adiabatic and isothermal processes, where process 
heat and mass are recycled.
7.	
Recirculation: 
Recycled 
CO2 
is 
reheated 
and 
recirculated to be mixed with natural gas and oxygen 
in the combustor, starting the cycle again.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
The utility-scale NET Power system is being designed to achieve the following benefits:
•	
Clean: Average Carbon Intensity (CI) of 58g CO2e/kWh and can capture CO2 at rates >97%, providing for 87% CO2 
emissions reduction in comparison to conventional Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) technology. No risk of NOx, 
SOx, or particulate emissions.
•	
Reliable: Provides 24/7 dispatchable, baseload power with a targeted capacity factor of 92.5%, power ramp rates of 
10% to 15% per minute, and 0% to 100% load following capabilities while capturing all emissions.
•	
Low-Cost: Initial NET Power plants target a levelized cost of energy between $26-55/MWh.
•	
Utilizes Existing Infrastructure: NET Power plants can leverage existing pipeline and electricity transmission networks 
for planning and operations.
“THE ENERGY TRIFECTA” - CLEAN, RELIABLE, & LOW-COST ENERGY FROM NATURAL GAS. 
NET Power delivers the “energy trifecta” – clean, reliable, 
and affordable energy from natural gas. 
NET Power combines a semi-closed loop cycle that 
inherently captures CO2 and produces power. The 
company combines oxy-combustion and a supercritical 
CO2 (sCO2) power cycle to deliver on-demand natural gas 
power while capturing nearly all emissions. The CO2 from 
oxy-combustion is recirculated back to the combustor and 
a portion is exported for utilization or sequestration.
NET Power’s recent momentum is built upon more than 
a decade of milestones, including key investments, 
construction and testing at a 50 MWth demonstration 
facility in La Porte, Texas, a slate of strategic engagements, 
and the announcement of its first commercial facility in 
West Texas. In February 2022, NET Power formed a Joint 
Development Agreement with Baker Hughes to advance 
the design of key turbomachinery and equipment used in 
the NET Power Cycle. In June 2023, NET Power completed 
its business combination with RICE Acquisition Corp II 
(NYSE:RONI), making Net Power a publicly traded company 
(NYSE:NPWR).
CONTACT
Scott Martin, Chief Technology Officer
Email: 	 netpower.media@netpower.com
NET POWER
•	
Compact Footprint: Less than 50% footprint of a similarly sized CCGT facility with post-combustion capture; further 
enables use of brownfields sites.
•	
Value of Carbon: The NET Power Cycle inherently captures high-purity, pressurized CO2 for sequestration or utilization 
in Enhanced Oil Recovery, eFuels, synthetic chemicals, and product integration.
Figure 1: The NET Power Process


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Figure 2: NET Power’s La Porte Demonstration Facility
NET Power is developing a 300 MW Class utility-scale 
power plant producing clean, dispatchable energy 
alongside 850 Mtpa of high-pressure, high-purity CO2 
and 500 gallons of water per minute at a target net 
efficiency approaching 50% for the first generation of 
plants. Electricity output is designed to be ramped at a 
rate of 10%-15% per minute with full carbon capture across 
the operating spectrum. Meanwhile, criteria pollutants are 
avoided and CO2 emissions are captured as an inherent 
feature of the cycle.
This performance is possible by using pure oxygen 
instead of air in the combustion process; the byproducts 
of combustion are primarily water and CO2. Rather than 
intaking new air with each cycle and releasing emissions 
into the atmosphere like a traditional gas turbine, the cycle 
extracts the remaining heat from the exhausted working 
fluid and reintroduces a substantial portion of CO2 back 
into the turboexpander after removing the water. The 
semi-closed-loop cycle recirculates the vast majority of 
the combustion-derived CO2 as the working fluid used for 
power generation in the turboexpander. In this way, CO2 
is inherently captured at high pressure as a fundamental 
feature of the cycle and not as an add-on process. 
The use of sCO2 as the working fluid offers two main 
advantages. First, CO2 has a higher specific heat than other 
gases (e.g., air) due to its high molecular weight. Second, 
supercritical CO2 has the density and compressibility of 
a liquid while having gas-like viscosity. These physical 
properties enable NET Power facilities to use smaller 
equipment when compared to similarly rated conventional 
power plants. Its high-pressure operation also allows 
for significant power production at the turboexpander. 
In addition, the high density of a CO2 working fluid 
allows pumping to replace centrifugal compression for 
pressurization, which further enhances cycle efficiency. 
Smaller equipment requires a smaller footprint (3.24 to 
5.38 ha for NET Power plant) and, therefore, land use for 
the plant is approximately 40 to 50% less in comparison 
to similar output gas-fired power plants (7.5 to 11 ha for 
combined cycle gas turbine).
SECTION 2: DEMONSTRATION FACILITY
In order to demonstrate the NET Power Cycle at scale, 
the company designed and built a test facility in La Porte, 
Texas. The facility, commissioned in 2018, covers five acres 
and has over 1,500 operational hours as of October 2022. 
During testing, the test cycle underwent start-up, shutdown, 
and transient/excursion tests at key operating points. This 
included building CO2 inventory, shedding CO2 inventory, 
verification of process chemistry, validation of control and 
safety systems, operations of pumps and compressors, 
and testing of process stability and controllability. In late 
2021, the facility achieved synchronization with the Texas 
ERCOT grid. 
During this testing, the facility completed multiple 24-
hour test campaigns while further validating stop/
start sequences, steady state operation, and ramping 
operations, allowing for the refining of the plant control 
system. The facility has also successfully exceeded 
numerous utility-scale plant specifications, including 
turboexpander inlet temperature and balance of plant 
operating pressures. In addition to achieving these 
milestones in technical validation, the plant informs the 
design of NET Power's commercial product - the utility-
scale 300 MW Class plant. The NET Power test facility also 
drives further development of key intellectual property 
and procedures, as well as enabling hands-on training for 
future NET Power technical, operations, and maintenance 
personnel. 
SECTION 3: JOINT DEVELOPMENT AGREEMENT (JDA)
NET Power formed a strategic partnership with Baker 
Hughes in February 2022 through a Joint Development 
Agreement (JDA) supporting the technical and commercial 
deployment of NET Power’s technology. As part of the 
agreement, Baker Hughes has invested cash equity into 
NET Power and is partnering in the global development 
and commercialization of NET Power technology. 
As part of this technical development program, Baker 
Hughes is leveraging its advanced technology capabilities 
to develop supercritical CO2 turboexpanders and other 
critical pumping and compression technology for NET 
Power facilities. Baker Hughes also brings a deep 
experience in systems integration and process knowledge, 
which will help benefit NET Power's design and 
deployment. The structure of the JDA facilitates the sharing 
of best practices and lessons learned, while also aligning 
commercial efforts globally through joint marketing of the 
technology.
The JDA program has entered its development stage in 
2023. Testing on the first industrial-scale combustor and 
turboexpander will begin in 2025 at La Porte in preparation 
for the first utility-scale deployment and commercial 
operation of a full-scale NET Power facility.
SECTION 4: NEXT STEPS
In November 2022, NET Power announced that its first 
utility-scale plant will be built in West Texas. The new plant 
will capture CO2 at unit-wide rates above 97% and utilize 
both currently operating CO2 transport and subsurface 
infrastructure to store captured CO2. The project will be 
supported by a strategic consortium of partners consisting 
of leading developers, power plant operators, CO2 
transportation & storage experts, offtake specialists, and 
technology providers. Additionally, NET Power intends to 
leverage existing tax incentives, such as 45Q, and DOE 
funding opportunities like grants and loans, to support and 
further de-risk the first project. The successful deployment 
of NET Power's first utility-scale plant will pave the way for 
other commercial projects already in development.
NET Power is currently engaged in discussions globally 
with companies and governments pursuing clean, 
reliable, and low-cost power. Many global markets present 
incredible opportunities, and NET Power is actively 
identifying these bright spots to ensure decision-makers 
are aware of the technology’s immediate potential. 
Several use cases present immediate hub opportunities. 
Pairing NET Power with Direct Air Capture (DAC) is one 
exciting application. DAC deployments require significant 
amounts of reliable, low-cost, emissions-free power to 
maximize their negative emissions impact and economics. 
DAC facilities require clean, baseload power generation 
and are unable to quickly ramp in response to variable 
renewable energy (VRE) production. Alternatively, DAC 
projects are forced to rely on grid backup, storage, or grid 
power itself to operate at high capacity factors, driving up 
costs and impacting overall carbon intensity. 
NET Power has emerged as a leader in solving the major 
challenges of large-scale DAC deployment and can 
accelerate the economic case for direct carbon removal. 
NET Power is also exploring integration with chemical 
production facilities that have both on-site power demand 
and a utilization opportunity for the CO2 produced in the 
Cycle.
Another application for NET Power’s technology is in 
replacing retiring baseload plants. Approximately 500 GW 
of natural gas, coal, and nuclear retirement candidates 
in the United States are within 40 miles of CO2 storage. 
This proximity, coupled with NET Power’s unique ability to 
leverage brownfield facilities due to its compact footprint, 
means an extraordinary number of brownfield sites can 
be repowered with clean, dispatchable, and low-cost 
NET Power facilities. NET Power has received significant 
inquiries from independent power producers and electric 
utilities, especially in regions with high VRE production or 
retiring baseload assets.
NET Power is uniquely positioned to deliver the energy 
trifecta of low-cost, reliable, and clean electricity and has 
established the partnerships and pathways to deliver on 
this mission. NET Power has successfully demonstrated its 
technology at the 50 MWth scale and will soon deliver its 
first utility-scale 300 MW Class facility. The company, along 
with its commercial and technical partners, are accelerating 
the energy transition and the CCUS market.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Enzymatic carbon capture is reliable
•	
Requires less equipment, lowering the risk of potential downtime
•	
Involves no prototype equipment – everything is built at scale
•	
Avoids the risk of more stringent regulatory requirements 
Enzymatic carbon capture is efficient
•	
Yields high purity CO2 (≥ 99%)
•	
Can capture > 95% of CO2 in flue gas
•	
Runs on less costly, low-grade residual heat 
•	
Involves less equipment to build, operate and maintain
•	
Tolerates flue gas contaminants (no pre-treatment necessary)
Enzymatic carbon capture is sustainable
•	
Uses a non-toxic, biodegradable solvent
•	
Produces no toxic waste and forms no toxic aerosols
•	
Solvent relies on a renewable resources in the production 
ENZYMATIC CARBON CAPTURE
Amines enable you to capture carbon efficiently. But did 
you know there is an equally efficient solution for carbon 
capture that is truly sustainable? It also can cost less. By 
replacing amines with a powerful biocatalyst – enzymes 
– you not only avoid the risks associated with toxic 
chemicals. You can reap the rewards for decades.
Enzymatic carbon capture is a proven technology that can 
make your process more reliable, efficient and sustainable. 
If your plant – like many – produces waste heat, you have 
an especially compelling reason to use biocatalysts.
Novozymes and Saipem (see separate listing) have joined 
forces to deliver carbon capture solutions based on 
enzyme (biocatalyst) technology. Novozymes is the world 
leader in industrial enzymes and has unmatched expertise 
in solving industrial challenges with biotechnology. Saipem 
is a carbon capture process and equipment expert with 
more than 60 years of demonstrated expertise in EPC. 
Together we are changing the future of carbon capture. 
Together we can improve yours.
CONTACT
Email: 	 KLSL@novozymes.com
Web: 	
www.novozymes.com
NOVOZYMES
DESCRIPTION
ARE AMINES WORTH THE RISK?
The overall process of amine-based carbon capture is 
sound. However, its dependence on toxic chemicals is 
steeped in uncertainty. 
Some of the current risks you face with an amine-based 
system:
•	
The energy-intensive high temperatures required for 
the process are costly. Amines have a parasitic load 
(energy penalty) of 20-30% for CO2 capture; experts 
forecast that amine systems can get only 10-20% more 
efficient.
•	
The toxic degradation products generated need 
additional handling.
•	
More – and more costly – equipment is required than 
with our biotech-enabled alternative. More equipment 
equals higher maintenance costs and greater 
downtime risks.
•	
Worker health issues can arise.
•	
Amines, produced from the hazardous chemicals 
ethylene oxide and ammonia, strain Earth’s limited 
resources. 
Longer term, it also pays to consider these risks:
•	
Regulations are likely to change as the push to achieve 
net-zero emissions intensifies and more plants use 
amine-based carbon capture. 
•	
Meeting the IPCC’s goal of capturing 1,000 million 
tonnes CO2 in 2030 will require doubling amine MEA 
production. What will regulators say to twice as many 
amines based on hazardous chemicals flooding the 
market every year?
•	
Will you be allowed to keep using chemicals in the 
same way? Will you want to? Where will plants displace 
millions of tonnes of amines and other second-
generation solvents?
•	
Pressures on processing and processing equipment 
are likely to increase, putting more limits on your plant, 
wastewater stream and sludge.
BIOTECHNOLOGY IS TRANSFORMING INDUSTRY 
Novozymes already helps more than 30 different industries 
boost efficiency and sustainability with enzymes (biological 
catalysts). Enzymes are proteins found everywhere in 
nature. When one substance needs to be transformed into 
another, nature uses enzymes to speed up and control the 
process.
For example, our industrial enzymes have been enabling 
low-carbon fuel technologies and sustainable biorefining 
for decades. 


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REPLACE AMINES WITH BIOTECHNOLOGY
To minimize the risk and maximize the value of carbon 
capture, forward-thinking businesses are considering 
replacing toxic amines with biocatalysts.
This proven biotechnology, called enzymatic carbon 
capture, is powerful enough to meet the toughest industrial 
challenges. And it’s sustainable enough to stand up to the 
toughest scrutiny. 
BIOCATALYSTS BENEFIT YOUR BUSINESS TODAY AND 
TOMORROW
Enzymatic carbon capture delivers CO2 absorption capacity 
and kinetics on par with amine solutions. It has a capture 
efficiency of above 95% with CO2 purity of >99%.
Biocatalytic enzyme technology can strip CO2 at lower 
temperatures, saving valuable energy. Unlike the amine-
based approach, enzymatic carbon capture does not 
require costly, energy-consuming steam. Instead, it 
consumes a low level of the plant’s energy output, 
translating into up to 20% lower energy costs if waste heat 
is available.
You also have less equipment to build, operate and 
maintain with enzymatic carbon capture and there’s 
no prototype equipment – everything is built at scale, 
simplifying implementation.
There are no worker health issues to handle and no need 
to clean the wastewater when replacing solvent with a 
benign salt solution and biodegradable enzymes. No 
toxic degradation products or aerosols need handling or 
cleaning. Operators face fewer risks.
ONLY NOVOZYMES AND SAIPEM CAN DELIVER A 
BIOLOGICAL SOLUTION THAT STANDS UP TO YOUR 
TOUGHEST CHALLENGES
Our enzymatic carbon capture process is very similar to the 
established post-combustion process – it simply replaces 
toxic amines with biocatalytic enzymes. And, it requires 
less equipment.
The novel catalyzed solvent solution offers strong 
chemical stability, non-toxicity, non-volatility and low-grade 
temperature regeneration. 
The catalyst is an enzyme type used by all living organisms 
to regulate CO2. Called carbonic anhydrase, this biocatalyst 
is used in the absorber, along with carbonate. When the 
flue gas passes through the absorber, the enzyme converts 
the CO2 to bicarbonate, binding it in the bicarbonate. When 
the circulating bicarbonate fluid reaches the stripper, it 
must be heated to only 75°C to release the CO2 – rather 
than the 100°C required for amine-based carbon capture.
Enzymatic CO2 regulation has been evolved by nature over 
millions of years. Highly efficient, the carbonic anhydrase 
enzyme provides 1 million catalytic reactions per second 
per molecule.
Our unique partnership combines Novozymes’ cutting-
edge enzyme expertise with Saipem’s unmatched carbon 
capture processes and equipment know-how. Saipem 
supplies the carbon capture process and equipment; we 
supply the enzymes that optimize the process.
We bring our game-changing catalyzed solvent technology 
and world-class project delivery capabilities. Thanks to our 
global supply chain and technical expertise, we have a 
track record of delivering reliable solutions to industry for 
more than 70 years.
YOU CAN START YOUR CARBON CAPTURE PROJECT 
NOW
Enzymatic carbon capture offers the same level of maturity 
(TRL-8) as advanced amine and other second-generation 
solvents but has much greater potential.
Saipem and Novozymes are offering both “CO2 Solutions 
by Saipem” to the market and “Bluenzyme,” a standardized, 
modular turnkey solution that reduces implementation from 
3 years to 1.5 years (see Saipem listing for details). 
Now you can achieve your decarbonization goals with 
operationally and environmentally sustainable technology. 
Enzymatic carbon capture from Novozymes and Saipem 
minimizes your risks and maximizes value.
Novozymes’ industrial enzymes are used at pulp and paper mills around the world to reduce the use of harsh chemicals such as 
chlorine dioxide in pulp bleaching.


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DESCRIPTION
A STEP-CHANGE IN INNOVATION
Carbon capture is central to any realistic plan for 
decarbonizing 
hard-to-abate 
sectors, 
according 
to 
the International Energy Agency (IEA). However, the 
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states 
that “deployment of carbon capture lags severely behind 
the schedule required to meet global climate mitigation 
targets”. Traditional liquid amine systems are currently the 
go-to method for capturing CO2, however, the extreme 
amount of energy required to regenerate the solvents 
results in a cost barrier that has been prohibitive to the 
technology’s widespread adoption. Nuada has developed 
a 
patented, 
ultra-energy 
efficient 
carbon 
capture 
technology that overcomes these deployment barriers and 
enables end-users in hard-to-abate industries to achieve 
their Net Zero targets whilst minimizing the impact on their 
bottom line.
Nuada is building advanced filtration machines that utilize 
ground-breaking MOF solid sorbent materials and operate 
via vacuum swing adsorption (VPSA) - a mature already 
scaled, gas separation technology. The technology enables 
the efficient separation of CO2 from process emissions via 
a “heatless” and solvent-free process. By using pressure 
rather than heat, the energy requirements for carbon 
capture decrease by up to 80% versus the state-of-the-
art scrubbing solutions. This represents a step change in 
innovation that slash the operating costs that long held 
back the mass adoption of carbon capture in hard-to-abate 
industries.
Nuada’s technology is an end-of-pipe (EoP) solution 
designed for point-source carbon capture. During the 
process, the CO2-rich flue gas is conditioned and routed to 
the carbon capture unit where carbon dioxide is selectively 
captured by the MOF filters. The lean flue gas returns to the 
stack to be released into the atmosphere. Once the MOF 
filters are suitably saturated, they are regenerated by using 
vacuum (instead of heat) and release the captured CO2 into 
a high-purity stream, ready for downstream operations. 
During this regeneration, the CO2-rich feed gas is diverted 
to another parallel column, yielding a continuous removal 
process. 
NUADA SCOUT – TAILORED PILOTING PROGRAMMES 
Nuada is offering tailored pilot programmes through Nuada 
Scout, a service that helps industrial emitters to assure 
their decision-making on carbon capture investments 
with accurate field data. Nuada Scout is an end-to-end 
testing service that allows industrial emitters to experience 
the benefits of Nuada’s advanced carbon capture 
technology through a short demonstration campaign. This 
comprehensive service includes transport, installation, 
operation, testing, and decommissioning of a pilot plant 
configured to site-specific flue gas. Nuada Scout provides 
a prefabricated, containerized plant for quick and accurate 
in-field assessment of Nuada’s carbon capture technology. 
This ISO container carries the core unit operations needed 
to evaluate carbon capture at a 1tpd (one tonne per day) 
scale, with scope to bolt-on post-treatment packages for 
full chain CCUS (carbon capture, utilization, and storage) 
assessments. The installation of this plant-in-a-box requires 
little site preparation and minimal utility usage. All needed 
to get started is the plant’s emissions plus an electrical 
supply. Emitters can benchmark Nuada’s ultra-energy 
efficient technology using real infield data and verify the 
benefits through a short and tailored test programme. This 
resource-efficient testing service provides the benefit to 
gain critical operational insights and de-risk investment 
decisions when selecting the optimal technology for a 
plant. 
CAPTURING THE FUTURE
Nuada has formed partnerships with the Global Cement 
and Concrete Association (GCCA) and leading cement 
companies such as Buzzi Unicem, Cementir Holding, 
and Heidelberg Materials, to pilot test the technology 
in their cement production sites. The first pilot plant 
by Nuada will be operational during the summer of 
2023, with trials starting from Buzzi Unicem’s cement 
plant in Monselice, Italy. Additionally, Nuada is actively 
discussing 
demonstration 
opportunities 
with 
other 
suitable sectors as steelmaking, waste-to-energy, and 
blue hydrogen production, to verify the technology’s in-
field performance and flexibility for treating various off-gas 
streams. Successful demonstrations would help establish 
Nuada’s presence in the CCUS market and expedite the 
technology’s commercial deployment. Compared to other 
next-generation technologies, the scale-up route for Nuada 
is less challenging since the manufacturing capabilities 
and supply chains for VPSA systems are readily available 
to facilitate rapid large-scale deployment. Moreover, 
Nuada has successfully scaled up the in-house sorbent 
production, being already able to meet the material 
requirements of commercial-scale units.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Ultra-Energy Efficient: By using pressure instead of heat to separate CO2, the energy penalty is reduced by up to 80% 
compared to incumbent solutions. 
•	
No Complex Integration:  No steam is required; The machines are powered solely by electricity and can be easily 
integrated into existing processes. 
•	
Mature Process Technology: The manufacturing capabilities and supply chains already exist for rapid large-scale 
deployment, unlike other 2nd generation technologies. VPSA is a mature and proven separation technology that has 
been industrially applied at scale for decades. 
•	
Flexible Applications: The use of very selective MOF sorbents enables to treat a broad spectrum of off-gases and 
capture CO2 from multiple point sources. 
THE NEXT GENERATION OF CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY
Nuada is a vertically integrated carbon capture company 
that strives to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors through 
its 
proprietary 
next-generation 
technology. 
Nuada 
deploys filtration machines by combining advanced solid 
adsorbents (Metal-Organic Frameworks or MOFs) with 
proven vacuum swing technology (VPSA) to vacuum 
CO2 out of industrial emissions through a “heatless” and 
solvent-free process. This represents a step change in 
innovation and yields an ultra-energy efficient system that 
reduces the energy penalty by up to 80% compared to 
incumbent solutions. Nuada has successfully demonstrated 
its advanced CO2 capture technology at bench scale and is 
now piloting the technology to the field with the backing 
of the Global Cement & Concrete Association (GCCA) 
and leading cement companies. The first pilot plant will 
be installed and tested in Buzzi Unicem’s cement plant 
in Monselice (Italy) in the summer of 2023, while Nuada 
is actively discussing demonstration campaigns in other 
suitable sectors such as steel, waste-to-energy, and blue 
hydrogen.
CONTACT
Email: 	 contact@nuadaCO2.com
Web: 	
www.nuadaCO2.com
NUADA
•	
Scalable: The modular nature of the technology provides the flexibility for capturing CO2 at different scales and de-
risking carbon capture investments. 
•	
Minimum environmental impact: The filters consist of stable solid sorbents with minimum environmental impact, 
unlike solvents which can evaporate and release hazardous emissions. 


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
The CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System can capture up to 99% of CO2 from post-combustion streams and is proven for CCS 
at a 1 Mtpa CO2-capture scale. It offers:
•	
a high-purity CO2 stream suitable for sequestration or utilization projects;
•	
a highly adaptable, standalone system suitable for retrofitting and greenfield developments across a wide variety of 
industrial applications, gas flow rates and CO2 concentrations;
•	
low operating costs; 
•	
continuous technological developments to reduce capture costs and energy requirements through extensive research 
and development, targeted piloting and demonstration campaigns;
•	
optimum integration with wider plant energy, space and utilities provisions; 
•	
pilot plant performance verification for in-situ flue gases for every type of emitter;
•	
wide range of unit sizes, from small and mid-sized modular offerings through to large-scale bespoke designs;
•	
project execution and construction management excellence. 
CANSOLV™ CO2 CAPTURE SYSTEM
Shell Catalysts & Technologies, in partnership with Technip 
Energies, offer a leading, amine-based, high-capacity post-
combustion carbon capture technology, CANSOLV™ CO2 
Capture System, that is robust and proven, and has an 
established record of performing cost-effectively in a range 
of industries. Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System 
captures up to 99% of the CO2 from post-combustion 
streams, for example, from power stations, waste-to-
energy units, cement processing, chemical plants and 
other industrial facilities.
As a standalone, low-pressure, CO2 capture technology, 
CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System is well-suited for either 
retrofitting to existing plants or including in greenfield 
developments. It uses a regenerable proprietary amine 
to capture CO2 that is released as a pure stream, which 
makes the technology highly suitable for CCS projects. 
Following technical and economic evaluations, capturing 
CO2 from flue gas using the CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture 
System may emerge as the preferred option because of 
the key features such as:
•	
CO2 purity: The high purity CO2 product enables CCS 
or utilization downstream of the plant.
•	
Adaptability: 
The 
standalone 
system 
is 
highly 
adaptable to retrofit scenarios and greenfield projects, 
a wide variety of industrial applications, gas flow rates 
and CO2 concentrations. Units have been designed for 
CO2 concentrations from 3.5 to 27% and treating gas 
flow rates from 11,000 to 4,500,000 Nm3/h.
•	
Asset integrity: The system has been designed for 
reliability through its high turndown capacity and 
the solvent’s resistance to oxidative and thermal 
degradation.
CONTACT
Justin Swain - justin.swain@shell.com
Julie Cranga - julie.cranga@technipenergies.com
www.shell.com
www.technipenergies.com
SHELL & TECHNIP ENERGIES ALLIANCE
•	
Low waste: The process uses a regenerable solvent, 
so very little waste by-product is generated, which can 
reduce project costs as the effluents are minimal.
•	
Low operating costs: The system offers cutting-edge 
performance. For example, its low parasitic energy 
consumption, fast kinetics and low volatility help to 
reduce the cost of operation and amine consumption.
•	
Track record: The technology is proven in large-scale 
CCS applications, having captured more than 5 Mtpa 
CO2 from a power station flue gas in Canada since its 
start-up in 2014.
Technip Energies support integration of CANSOLV™ 
CO2 Capture System into both new build and existing 
plants. With a strong focus on optimum heat and energy 
integration, intelligent use of space and tie-ins, enhanced 
constructability and construction methodologies and 
project management excellence, Technip Energies ensure 
the best possible application of CANSOLV™ System for 
each facility. 
Shell Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies 
have been working as an alliance since 2012, developing 
continuous 
technology 
improvements 
to 
enhance 
performance and reduce both capital and operational 
expenditure. We have been working in partnership to 
deliver a wide range of carbon capture unit sizes and 
offerings, to meet the needs of every emitter. Our pilot 
plant facilities offer in-situ testing and performance 
verification for all types of flue gas, whereas our small to 
mid-scale modular and containerized units deliver cost 
and schedule enhancements and project execution risk 
reduction in comparison with conventional bespoke 
approaches. Our robust, large-scale bespoke designs have 
been proven to cater to the most complex of projects and 
world first applications.


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DESCRIPTION
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows the CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System. The 
key steps are:
1.	
Feed gas is quenched and saturated in a circulated 
water pre-scrubber.
2.	 Gas contacts the lean amine solution in a counter-
current mass transfer, packed absorption column.
3.	 CO2 is absorbed and the treated gas exits to 
atmosphere.
4.	 Midway along the column, partially loaded amine is 
removed from the tower, cooled and reintroduced 
over a layer of mass-transfer packing.
5.	 CO2-rich amine from the absorption column is pumped 
through a lean–rich amine heat exchanger and then 
on to the regeneration column.
6.	 Rising, low-pressure saturated steam in the column 
regenerates the lean amine solution. CO2 is recovered 
as a pure, water-saturated product.
7.	
Lean amine is pumped from the stripper reboiler to the 
absorption column for reuse in capturing CO2.
8.	 The CO2 is directed to by-product management 
systems.
9.	 Energy is recovered through a system such as a 
mechanical vapour recompression compressor and/
or a condensate flash, which helps to reduce the net 
reboiler duty requirements for amine regeneration.
PROOF POINT: SASKPOWER 1 MTPA CCS PROJECT
Because of tighter regulations, SaskPower needed to 
reduce CO2 and SO2 emissions at its Boundary Dam power 
station in Saskatchewan, Canada, which is a significant 
source of power for the region. After carefully evaluating 
a range of technical options, SaskPower chose to add 
a CANSOLV™ SO2–CO2 Integrated Capture System for 
combined carbon capture and flue-gas desulphurization. 
It opted to do this for a 150-MW unit that was due for 
refurbishment. This involved adding a 55-m-tall CO2 
absorber, a 40-m-tall CO2 stripper, a 31-m tall SO2 absorber 
and a 17-m-tall SO2 stripper. In 2014, the power station 
became the first in the world to successfully use CCS at 
scale. The plant has been in operation now for over 7 years 
with the capacity to capture up to 1 Mtpa CO2, thereby 
helping SaskPower to meet strict Canadian regulations 
on CO2 emissions from coal-fired power stations and 
thus retain its licence to operate. The CO2 is compressed, 
transported through pipelines and permanently stored in 
deep geological formations as part of an enhanced-oil-
recovery operation. The captured SO2 is converted to 60 
t/d of a marketable sulphuric acid that can be used as a 
feedstock for the local fertiliser industry. The learnings from 
this still-operating, first-of-a-kind deployment continue to 
help develop Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 capture system and 
promote and develop CCS projects globally.
PROOF POINT: POLARIS CCS PROJECT
Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System has been selected 
for the proposed Polaris CCS project, one of a series of 
low-carbon opportunities being explored to decarbonize 
the Scotford complex, Alberta, Canada, to create one 
of Shell’s proposed five global energy and chemicals 
parks. The initial phase is expected to start operations in 
about the middle of the current decade, subject to a final 
investment decision by Shell, which is expected in 2023. 
Polaris would have storage capacity of about 300 million 
tonnes of CO2 over the life of the project. When fully built, 
Polaris would contribute to the region becoming a blue 
hydrogen hub.
PROOF 
POINT: 
HAFSLUND 
OSLO 
CELSIO 
CCS 
PROJECT
Shell Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies are 
supporting Hafslund Oslo Celsio to build the world’s first 
carbon capture facility on a waste-to-energy plant as part 
of a full value chain, with transportation and permanent 
storage. The carbon capture plant at the waste to energy 
facility in Oslo will reduce the city of Oslo’s fossil CO2 
emissions by 17%. As their partner from initial concept 
through to construction, Shell Catalysts & Technologies 
and Technip Energies are assisting Hafslund Oslo Celsio 
to turn their ambition into commercial reality. With the 
opening ceremony on site in September 2022 and laying 
the initial groundwork for the commercial plant, Shell 
Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies are now 
continuing their joint journey to final project delivery and 
operation by 2026. 


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DESCRIPTION
CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY FOR LOW PARTIAL 
PRESSURE FLUE GAS
NRICI started the research on CO2 capture technology for 
low partial pressure flue gas as early as 1980s. With MEA 
solvent as the main body, in response to the problems of 
corrosion and degradation of flue gas carbon capture 
units in the industry at that time, NRICI has developed the 
corresponding corrosion inhibitor and antioxidant system 
and formed the first generation of flue gas carbon capture 
solvent and technology, which was successfully applied 
in the flue gas CO2 recovery unit of natural gas boiler in 
Guizhou Chitianhua Group in 1999. After that, it has been 
applied in Huaneng Beijing Thermal Power Plant 3000 t/ 
a CO2 recovery unit and Huaneng Shanghai Shidongkou 
Power Plant 120,000 t/ a flue gas carbon capture unit, 
which has promoted the development of CCUS in China.
By 2015, NRICI successfully screened a high-efficiency and 
low-energy capture solvent MA-1 after basic research, lab 
scale test and 5Nm3/h test research. After industrialized 
pilot study on 40,000 t/a CO2 capture unit in Shengli Power 
Plant, it successfully carried out industrialized application 
in Sichuan Vinylon Plant, and the results showed that, 
compared with the original MEA method, the solvent 
circulation volume decreases by 34.7%, the regeneration 
energy consumption decreases by 41.8%, the consumption 
of circulating water is reduced by 200 t/h, and the cost 
is significantly reduced under the condition that the 
production requirements are met.
By 2020, NRICI continued to optimize the solvent and 
technology, and successfully developed a new high-
efficiency and low-energy capture solvent MA-2. According 
to the results of the small-scale and pilot-scale test study, 
the comprehensive performance of this solvent is better 
than other existing absorption systems on the market, and 
finally applied to the largest coal-fired power plant flue gas 
carbon capture unit in operation in China - Guohua Jinjie 
Power Plant 150,000 t/a flue
gas carbon capture unit. The application result s howed 
that under the optimized test conditions, the capture rate 
is 96%, the regeneration energy consumption is <2.4GJ/
tCO2, and the operating loss is ~1.0kg/tCO2, and the overall 
level reaches the international advanced level.
NCMA DECARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGY
NRICI started research on polyamine decarbonisation 
technology 
from 
the 
1980s 
and 
developed 
the 
NCMA decarbonisation technology in 2003. Through 
proprietary decarbonization solvents, flexible process 
flow and precisely matched process parameters, NCMA 
decarbonisation technology is able to achieve customized 
requirements for CO2 content in purified gas, down 
to meeting the requirements for CO2 in the feed gas 
to deep-cooled separation systems such as LNG, and 
outperforms similar products in the industry in terms of 
corrosion and foaming. NRICI’s NCMA decarbonisation 
technology has been successfully applied to more than 
a hundred decarbonisation units from different gas 
sources, extensively proving its fine balance between 
decarbonisation performance and energy saving and 
consumption reduction. Typical applications include the 
natural gas decarbonisation unit at Songnan gas field, 
the synthesis gas decarbonisation unit at Chongqing 
Fuyuan fertiliser plant, the drygas decarbonisation and 
desulphurisation unit at Wuhan Petrochemical refinery, and 
the blast furnace gas decarbonisation unit at Xinjiang Bayi 
Steel.
CATALYTIC HOT CARBONATE DECARBONIZATION 
TECHNOLOGY
Depending on the type of reaction cycle gas, the current 
NRICI catalytichotcarbonate decarbonisation technology 
is mainly applied to two gas sources, the Fischer-Tropsch 
reaction cycle gas and the EOEG cycle gas.
In 
the 
area 
of 
Fischer-Tropsch 
recirculating 
gas 
decarbonisation, NRICI started the development of a pilot 
process package as early as 2005, and has now formed a 
monopoly in the field of recirculating gas decarbonisation 
for coal-to-oil projects in China. Typical application cases 
include Shaanxi Future Energy’s 1 million t/a and Shenhua 
Ningxia Coal’s 2 x 2 million t/a coal-to-oil circulating gas 
decarbonisation plant.
In the field of EOEG recirculating gas decarbonisation, 
NRICI has successfully reduced the CO2 molar fraction 
of the reactor inlet gas from 4.45% to below 2% after 
a domestic modification at Sinopec Tianjin Branch in 
2009. Subsequently, it has been successfully applied in 
PetroChina Xinjiang Dushanzi Petrochemical and Sinopec 
Maoming Branch. The application results show that th 
technology has achieved better performance indicators 
than overseas introduced technologies
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Rich experience in carbon capture engineering, able to skillfully solve various problems encountered during the 
operation of industrial carbon capture units.
•	
Well established testing and analysis facilities, able to carry out various small- scale and pilot- scale test studies in the 
field of carbon capture and utilization 
•	
Continuous R&D capability, able to continuously optimize and improve the existing carbon capture solvents, 
processes and equipment.
•	
Advanced technology user, overall at a domestic leading international advanced level in the field of carbon capture 
technology.
•	
Customised Technology solutions, provide the best technical solutions to obtain the most economical and efficient 
carbon capture products according to customer needs.
NAME OF TECHNOLOGY
SINOPEC Nanjing Research Institute of Chemical Industry 
Co., Ltd. (NRICI) was founded in 1958, formerly known as 
Nanjing Chemical Industrial Institute of the Ministry of 
Chemical Industry, is a technology enterprise specialized in 
the research, development, design and production of the 
chemical products.
NRICI has long been committed to the research and 
development of CO2 capture and utilization technology.
Presently, 3 types of CO2 capture technologies have 
achieved mature industrial applications, including CO2 
capture technology for low partial pressure flue gas, 
NCMA decarbonization technology, catalytic hot carbonate 
decarbonization technology. Besides, NRICI is developing 
new carbon capture and utilization technologies, such 
as new solvents, membrane separation, chemical and 
mineralization utilization, etc.
CONTACT
Email: 	 guobs.nhgs@sinopec.com
Web: 	
www.sinopec.com
SINOPEC NANJING RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF 
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY CO. , LTD


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NEW CO2 CAPTURE SOLVENTS
In addition to traditional amine solvents, NRICI has also 
carried out research and development of new CO2 
capture solvents such as ionic liquids, amino acid salts 
and phase change absorbent. As CO2 capture solvents 
with the potential to replace amine solvents for large-scale 
industrialisation in the future, ionic liquids, amino acid salts 
and phase change absorbent have significant advantages 
in a reas such as loss, stability and energy consumption. At 
present, the ionic liquid flue gas carbon capture technology 
has completed a 50Nm3/h pilot test, while the amino acid 
salt and phase change absorber have completed a 3Nm3/h 
enlarge test, and a pilot test of 50Nm3/h phase change 
absorbent for flue gas CO2 capture is underway. In the 
future, NRICI will continue to optimise and improve the 
formulation and process in order to realise the industrial 
application of the new CO2 capture solvent as soon as 
possible.
ADSORPTION METHOD
The adsorption method of CO2 capture technology can 
effectively overcome the problems of easy volatility, 
high energy consumption and corrosiveness of the 
absorption method, which is one of the main research 
directions of CO2 capture technology at present. NRICI, 
in cooperation with Sichuan University, has jointly 
carried out the development of amine-loaded porous 
adsorbent decarbonisation technology. 1 Nm3/h solid 
amine adsorption for CO2 capture has been completed, 
and the developed adsorbent has an adsorption capacity 
>160mgCO2/g after 50 adsorption and desorption cycles, 
and the total energy consumption is about 2.39 GJ/tCO2. 
In addition, NRICI together with Nanjing Normal University, 
has carried out research on integrated CO adsorption-
catalytic conversion technology. Smallscale test has shown 
that the preferred bifunctional adsorbent has a CO2 capture 
efficiency greater than 90%, a CO2 conversion rate greater 
than 80% and a selectivity greater than 95%.
MEMBRANE SEPARATION METHOD
Membrane separation is a promising method for capturing 
CO2 from flue gas due to its simplicity, low investment 
in equipment, low energy consumption, flexibility in 
operation and small footprint. NRICI, together with Tianjin 
University and Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, 
CAS, based on national key R&D projects, has carried 
out a 30Nm3 /h pilot test and a 50,000Nm3 /d industrial 
demonstration research. Among them, the 50,000Nm3 /d 
industrial demonstration is the first in China for membrane 
separation with independent intellectual property rights. 
The demonstration results showed that the CO2 purity 
is >95% and CO2 recovery rate is >80% after three-stage 
membrane separation, which has reached the international 
advanced level.
Figure 1: 50Nm3/h ionic liquid pilot test
Figure 3: 50000Nm3/d membrane separation demonstration
Figure 2: 3Nm3/h phase change absorber enlarge test


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DESCRIPTION
OXYFUEL
Oxyfuel is a mature and robust technology based on 
commercially proven components. When used in plants 
firing carbon neutral fuels, including biomass, residues, and 
waste, Oxyfuel leads to overall negative carbon emissions 
or the production of biogenic and sustainably sourced CO2 
for further synthesis.
The technology was demonstrated at a 30 MWth facility 
in the Fundacion Ciudad de la Energia (CIUDEN), Spain 
during the 2010s, accumulating thousands of operational 
hours under various conditions.. Subsequently, commercial 
development with partners led to the completion of FEED 
activities and development of a readily available 300 MWe 
Oxyfuel power plant design. SFW’s engineering and R&D 
experts have continued to develop the solution and adapt 
innovations into the delivery of new carbon capture plant 
designs.
Oxyfuel applied in circulating fluidized beds (CFBs) 
allows capturing carbon and taking full advantage of the 
efficient circulation and management of solids and gases. 
Beside the fuel flexibility, CFBs hydrodynamics enable 
different fluidizing gas regimes, switching between air and 
oxyfuel mode or different oxygen enrichment levels while 
maintaining elevated performance of energy generation.
Oxyfuel can be applied as a retrofit in existing CFB plants 
or as part of a new build project. In both scenarios, the 
efficient energy generation leads to lower emissions per 
unit of energy and can increase the gross production of 
energy from the power plant or industrial boiler.
The technology allows sector coupling and industrial 
synergy, whereas by-product oxygen from hydrogen 
electrolysis can be utilized reducing production costs for 
both capturing carbon and the further synthesis of green 
chemicals, fuels and materials.
FEATURED PROJECT: 
30 MWTH OXYFUEL PLANT IN PONFERRADA, SPAIN
SFW realized a carbon capture demonstration plant in 
cooperation with Endesa and CIUDEN during 2009-2017 
(see picture left). SFW’s ongoing project development 
activities in close collaboration with industrial partners aims 
for commercial operation starting from 2026 for Oxyfuel 
fired biomass and energy from waste plants.
•	
No additional OPEX related to solvent procurement 
and waste disposal
•	
Can be applied as part of a post-combustion capture 
solution such as Calcium looping (CaL)
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Wide applicability to solid, gas and liquid fuels 
•	
Increases operational flexibility compared to air-fired units 
•	
More efficient energy generation, higher fuel capacity in similar sized air-fired units
•	
Low energy penalty of 1.7 GJ/tCO2, mainly consumed in oxygen production and CO2 compression
•	
Enables sector coupling and oxygen synergy with green H2 synthesis plants, further reducing the energy penalty
•	
New builds for optimized Oxyfuel performance reduce equipment sizing
OXYFUEL SOLUTIONS
SFW’s Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) technology can 
be operated in an oxygen-rich environment allowing the 
highly efficient recovery of heat and power. This produces 
a concentrated CO2 stream readily available for capture 
purposes rather than the typical flue gas emitted. 
By replacing air in typical energy generation units with 
oxygen and recirculated CO2 rich gas, capturing emissions 
becomes part of the integrated energy production step. 
This leads to significant reduction in energy penalty 
typically required with capturing CO2  from diluted flue gas.
CONTACT
Email: 	 mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com
Web: 	
www.shi-fw.com
SUMITOMO SHI FW 
Schematic of SFW fluidized bed solutions. Source (Sumitomo 
SHI FW)
Gas composition and heat flux ratio in SFW fluidized bed solution 
in both Air fired and Oxyfuel operation. Source (Sumitomo SHI 
FW)


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DESCRIPTION
CALCIUM LOOPING
Calcium looping or CaL utilizes a natural and non-toxic 
sorbent, calcium, to capture and release high purity CO2. 
The energy required to capture CO2 is supplied via the 
oxyfuel calcination of sustainably sourced bio-residues and 
waste. 
CaL creates added value for industrial plant operators in 
the form of circular economy applications, decarbonizing 
energy 
generation 
and 
enabling 
sector 
coupling 
opportunities. In essence, CaL addresses scope 1, 2 
and 3 emissions. CaL is supplied either as a tail-end 
configuration, capturing CO2 and producing energy and 
lime, or as an integrated configuration in which the capture 
system exchanges material and heat streams with existing 
industrial units. 
As such, CaL can be integrated to any industrial emission 
source, especially those with an existing lime cycle in 
operation such as cement, steel, and pulp and paper. The 
sorbent purged from the capture system, a mixture of lime 
and valuable minerals, is a viable feedstock, for the green 
manufacturing of construction materials.
Like oxyfuel, CaL provides synergy with green hydrogen 
plants, whereas cheap and available by-product oxygen 
is utilized for the carbon capture purposes. This leads to 
reductions in capture costs and the efficient synthesis of 
carbon negative fuels and materials.
CaL is a multiproduct technology which drives project 
feasbility due to numerous potential revenue streams, such 
as, excess electricity, high quality heat, waste gate fees, 
carbon removal credits, calcined lime and hydrogen or 
nitrogen from the oxygen production plant.
Calcium Looping has been tested and demonstrated since 
2012 under industrial operating conditions at the La Pareda 
power plant, Spain. Sumitomo SHI FW has supplied the 
demonstration unit and continued to support innovation 
with our technical advisory services
FEATURED PROJECTS: 
1.7 MW CaL demo plant in LaPareda, Spain 
Supplied and commissioned by Sumitomo SHI FW in 
2012, the plant (see picture left) demonstrated a capture 
efficiency of over 90%. The plant has continued to operate 
flexibly for over 5000 hours under different process 
conditions to optimize the technology.
CaLby2030 project for hard to abate sectors
Sumitomo SHI FW will design and engineer three 
integrated CaL pilot plants to be operated in relevant 
industrial environment across Europe. The demonstration 
campaigns will be carried out with the aim of exceeding 
90% CO2 capture rates and even approaching 99% in 
specific configurations. The demonstrated results will be 
then scaled up to generate concepts and basic designs 
for the commercial carbon capture projects for Thomas 
Zement’s integrated cement plant in Karsdorf, Germany, 
Alleima’s Sandviken steelworks plant in Sweden, Hunosa’s 
LaPareda power plant in Spain and IREN’s waste to energy 
plants in Italy.
HERCCULES project for WtE plants
SFW will engineer a CaL carbon capture plant to be 
installed at the Milan Silla-2 waste-to-energy plant, 
owned and managed by a2a Ambiente, a member of the 
a2a group. The plant is one of the largest Italian waste 
management facilities that handles around 550 000 
tons of municipal solid waste and non-hazardous special 
waste per year. The pilot plant will operate for up to 4000 
hours and the project will conclude with the design and 
development of FOAK commercial size facility.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Added value in the form of revenue streams from green electricity and lime
•	
CO2 capture efficiency higher than 90%
•	
Lower energy penalty than from other post combustion capture technologies
•	
Captures other acid gases present in flue gas
•	
Fluidized bed can handle challenging flue gas conditions (higher temperature and level of impurities compared to 
liquid solvent solutions such as amine scrubbing)
•	
Commercially available, scalable, and cost-effective components
•	
Can be integrated to emission source in cement, steel and other carbon intensive industry
•	
Sector coupling and oxygen synergy with green H2 synthesis plants
CALCIUM LOOPING
SFW’s Calcium Looping (CaL) is a scalable and retrofittable 
post combustion CO2 capture technology based on 
Circulating Fluidised Bed reactors (CFBs). The technology 
is built on SFW’s experience of delivering over 500 CFB 
commercial units. 
It is a cost- and environmentally effective and highly 
adaptable solution for capturing carbon emissions from 
multiple industries. With Calcium Looping technology, we 
at SFW serve the energy from waste, cement, steel, pulp & 
paper and metallurgical industries.
CONTACT
Email: 	 mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com
Web: 	
www.shi-fw.com
SUMITOMO SHI FW (SFW)
Sector coupling opportunity and material flows enabled by CaL 
capture system (Source: HERCCULES project)
CaL industrial cases examined in the CaLby2030 project 
(Source: CaLby2030 project)


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DESCRIPTION
HOT POTASSIUM CARBONATE, HPC
SFW’s Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) capture technology 
starts with the cooling and compression of flue gas to 
enhance CO2 absorption. The capture system removes 
CO2 and regenerates the solvent via the following 
reversible reaction:
K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O ↔ 2KHCO3.
Expanding the CO2 depleted flue gases over an expander, 
recovers a large part of the compression energy. The heat 
recuperated from the flue gas and product CO2 streams 
is used internally in the capture system and the remaining 
heat can be exported to an available district heating 
network. 
The SFW HPC plant is aimed at producing biogenic CO2 
from retrofitting biomass and waste to energy plants with 
carbon capture, creating potentially negative emissions or 
providing biogenic carbon for e-fuel synthesis. 
The carbon capture plant can also be delivered as part of 
a new build wasteWOIMA® waste-to-energy plant, or be 
retrofitted to any other CO2 emitting source. 
•	
The HPC process gives a high capture rate over 90% 
and produces a CO2 product and yields a high purity 
CO2 product suitable for compression purposes. 
•	
The HPC process can be powered by electricity, or 
a combination of steam and electricity, giving more 
flexibility. 
•	
The Full Electric Capsol EoP® technology claims for 
a low energy consumption between 0.7 and 1.5 GJ/
ton CO2 captured and minimizes the disturbance of 
existing operations at the site during construction.
•	
The heat recovered from the HPC process can be 
recovered in district heating
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
HPC is a well-proven carbon capture process with hundreds of references and decades of operational experience in 
the chemical and Oil & Gas industries.
•	
Potassium carbonate is a widely and freely available material that is tolerant to oxygen, non-toxic, non-volatile, and 
non-carcinogenic.
•	
This makes the HPC solvent low-cost with low make-up need, reducing the solvent management cost of the carbon 
capture plant. 
•	
It further ensures that the HPC solvent does not pose risks to environment and health, facilitating simpler permitting.
HOT POTASSIUM CARBONATE
SFW’s liquid solvent based carbon capture solution is 
based on the well-proven Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) 
process, enabling capture rates of over 90% from industrial 
stacks. HPC is a widely available, low-cost, safe, and 
environmentally friendly solvent.
The 
SFW 
HPC 
solution 
includes 
the 
proprietary 
Capsol EoP® End-Of-Pipe technology for lower energy 
consumption in the process than comparable post-
combustion capture technologies. The solutions can be 
powered with electricity only or a combination of power 
and steam, giving more flexibility in implementation.
CONTACT
Email: 	 mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com
Web: 	
www.shi-fw.com
SUMITOMO SHI FW 
Schematic of HPC solution (Source: Capsol Technologies AS)


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DESCRIPTION
TOSHIBA’S CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION FLOW
Toshiba has focused on continuing research and development activities for post-combustion CO2 capture technology 
and possess its own pilot plant for testing and development of high-performance amine-based solvents, efficient process 
design conditions, degradation evaluations and applied it to various commercial plants.
Toshiba has developed the high-performance amine solvents (TS-1), and most efficient amine emission mitigation 
technology which uses spray type washing system to minimize amine emissions levels which are safe for human and 
aquatic life in surrounding atmosphere. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Significantly low recovery energy demand resulting in low steam consumption
•	
Low solvent degradation and low amine loss resulting in longer service life
•	
Possess extensive experience with integrated utilities, operations and maintenance of carbon capture plant with coal/
biomass /incineration (WtE) plant.
•	
Applicable to both existing and new builds power plants and providing CO2 purity in excess of 99.9%.
•	
Adapting to customer’s demand for both full and partial CO2 capture. 
•	
Possess own pilot plant to carry out in-house research & development activities.
AMINE-BASED POST-COMBUSTION CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY
Amine-based post-combustion CO2 capture is a promising 
technique that can be employed at large scale to various 
flue gases safely in order to ensure a substantial reduction 
in CO2 emissions from man-made sources of CO2 such as 
the power generation industry, cement industry, iron, and 
steel industry and so on. Based on this understanding, 
Toshiba has focused on developing post-combustion CO2 
capture technology since 2007 and has designed and 
constructed a 10- tpd CO2 scale pilot plant at Mikawa city, 
Japan in September 2009 which accomplished more than 
13,000 hours of operation at present with live flue gases 
from biomass/coal-fired thermal power plant. Through the 
long operation of its own pilot plant in Mikawa, Toshiba 
demonstrated high reliability and stable operation under a 
wide range of process conditions which eventually allowed 
Toshiba to deploy its proven CO2 capture technology at a 
commercial scale at Saga Incineration plant (10 tpd CO2 
scale) and Demonstration plant of 600 tpd CO2 scale in 
Japan. Toshiba also developed and employed its own 
proprietary amine-based aqueous solution and efficient 
process techniques in aforesaid commercial projects which 
have shown significant reduction in CO2 recovery energy, 
less degradation of solvent, and lower amine emissions. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 keisuke1.hasegawa@toshiba.co.jp
Web: 	
www.global.toshiba/ww/company/energy.html
TOSHIBA ENERGY SYSTEMS & SOLUTIONS 
CORPORATION
Picture of Mikawa pilot plant


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SAGA CCU PLANT 10  TPD CO2 
•	
World’s first commercial-use CCU system constructed 
in a waste incineration plant.
•	
CO2 offtake primarily used for algae cultivation 
and also used for cucumber cultivation as a smart 
agriculture.
•	
Accomplished long hours of operation (more than 6 
years) of capturing CO2 from live flue gases from waste 
incineration plant having variable CO2 concentrations.
•	
Demonstrated 
easy 
integration 
techniques 
of 
operating CO2 capture plant with waste incineration 
plant.
•	
Possess know-how of stable plant operation and real- 
time performance data including solvent degradation.
•	
Possess experience working as a partner to Saga city 
incineration plant and can act as an important partner 
to guide on integrated plant operation.
Specification
•	
Location: Saga City, Saga City Waste incineration (WtE) 
plant
•	
Commenced Operation: September 2016
•	
Source Gas: Flue gas from Waste incineration (WtE) 
plant
•	
Captured CO2: 10 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate: > 90%
•	
CO2 Purity: > 99.9%
 
CO2 CAPTURE DEMONSTRATION PLANT 600 TPD CO2 
OF MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT, JAPAN
•	
World’s first BECCS ready project integrated with 100% 
Biomass based thermal power plant.
•	
This plant captures 600 tpd CO2 from the flue gas of 
the Mikawa Power Plant (more than 50% of its total 
emissions) and is integrated with this power plant 
with turbine extraction steam feeding the energy for 
desorbing CO2 at the stripper.
•	
CO2 capture plant applied with Toshiba proprietary 
solvent TS-1 with CO2 concentration as 15vol% in dry 
basis 
•	
Demonstrated integrated operation of CO2 capture 
plant with 100% Biomass based thermal power plant.
•	
This Demonstration Plant applied with Toshiba novel 
technology Spray type washing system that has shown 
drastic effect of suppressing total amine emission to 
the atmosphere.
•	
Toshiba is also the Steam turbine system supplier and 
has immense experience of steam turbine operation. 
Thus, we can integrate CO2 capture plant with thermal 
power plant and have experience of integration of 
large size CO2 capture plant in this Ministry of the 
Environment project 
Specification
•	
Location : Omuta City, Fukuoka Inside Mikawa Thermal 
Power Plant
•	
(Property of SIGMA POWER Ariake Co.Ltd.)
•	
Commenced Operation : October 2020
•	
Source Gas : Flue gas from biomass fired thermal 
power plant
•	
Captured CO2 : 600 tpd CO2
•	
Solvent : Toshiba solvent-1 (TS-1)
•	
CO2 in flue gas : 15 vol.% in dry base
•	
Capture rate : > 90%
THE FUTURE OF AMINE SOLVENT TECHNOLOGY 
DEVELOPMENT
Toshiba currently involves in developing the next 
generation of amine solvents that achieves low energy 
levels similar to TS-1, while also having characteristics of 
better stability (resistance to degradation) and low amine 
emission.
After conducting long-term testing, we plan to supply it to 
the market for our customers.
Specifically, regarding lower amine emissions, Toshiba 
intends to offer a pathbreaking technology with very low 
amine emission by combining Toshiba’s proprietary spray 
technology with the low amine emission next-generation 
solvent.
MIKAWA PILOT PLANT 10 TPD CO2 
Tested 
in-house 
developed 
amine 
based 
solvent 
performance (CO2 capture amount, CO2 capture rate, 
CO2 recovery energy, etc.) against CO2 gas concentration 
ranging from 4 to 30 vol %.
•	
Evaluated 
system 
improvement 
with 
various 
components.
•	
Demonstrated more than 13,000 hours of operation 
on a live flue gas of biomass/coal fired thermal power 
plant
•	
Achieved CO2 recovery energy less than 2.4 GJ/ ton-
CO2 (At 90% CO2 Capture, CO2 Conc. approx. 12% vol) 
Specification
•	
Location: Omuta City, Fukuoka Inside Mikawa Thermal 
Power Plant (Property of SIGMA POWER Ariake 
Co.Ltd.)
•	
Commenced Operation: September 2009
•	
Source Gas: Flue gas from biomass/coal fired thermal 
power plant
•	
Captured CO2: 10 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate: > 90%
Picture of Saga CCU commercial plant
Picture of Demonstration plant of Ministry of the Environment, 
Japan


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DESCRIPTION
CO2 CAPTURE PLANT PROCESS 
The Svante carbon capture process consists of a series of 
steps which include passing flue gas, regenerating steam, 
and conditioning air through structured adsorbent beds in 
a specific order. 
1.	
Adsorption: The first step in the process is the 
introduction of the feed gas into the structured 
adsorbent beds, where CO2 is adsorbed onto the 
surface of the adsorbent, while the remainder of the 
flue gas mainly N2, O2 and H2O is sent to the stack as 
spent/exhaust gas.
2.	 Regeneration: The CO2-rich adsorbent bed then 
rotates to a sector of the process where low pressure 
steam flows through it, requiring only a small amount 
of superheat to overcome heat losses from the 
system. This is the first regeneration step, where 
steam regenerates the adsorbent, releasing a stream 
composed primarily of CO2 and steam.
3.	 Conditioning: After regeneration with steam, the 
bed rotates through a sector of the process where 
heated ambient air is used to condition and cool the 
structured adsorbent. The ambient air stream, termed 
Conditioning Gas, removes most of the water vapor 
from the adsorbent. The adsorption, regeneration, and 
conditioning functions described above are integrated 
and implemented in the RAM, as shown in the figure 
below.
Svante is on the 2023 Global Cleantech 100 and was 
ranked second among private companies in the Corporate 
Knights Future 50 Fastest-Growing Sustainable Companies 
in Canada. Svante was also acknowledged in the 2023 
XB100, the definitive ranking of the world’s top 100 private 
deep tech companies, hosted by XPRIZE and Bessemer 
Venture Partners.
For more information on Svante, visit www.svanteinc.com.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Svante’s technology utilizes a single piece of compact equipment enabling a competitive reduction in capital costs 
compared to first generation approaches.
•	
Capacity is scalable in multiples of individual Rotating Adsorption Machines (RAMs) between 500 and 5000 tpd of 
CO2 captured, depending on the application and product purity requirements.
•	
Svante’s technology is flexible by using different adsorbents and can target low and high concentration industrial flue 
gases.
•	
Inherent ability to load follow and start and stop extremely quickly by easily controlling the rotation speed of the RAM. 
This feature enables CO2 capture from intermittent process such as lime production PFR kilns and electric arc furnaces.
•	
Svante’s proprietary VeloxoTherm™ process is environmentally friendly based on novel Structured Adsorbent Beds 
(SAB), which are not subject to nitrosamine and nitramine emissions.
•	
No process safety associated with new hazardous chemicals being brought onsite.
•	
Svante has built world-class collaborations and partnerships with world-class organizations across the CCUS value 
chain, including project developers, engineering, construction, and procurement companies, as well as utilization, 
transportation, and sequestration entities, which enables Svante’s customers manage their CO2 emissions from source 
to sink.  
CO2 CAPTURE PLANT PROCESS 
Capturing of CO2 from industrial operations using chemical 
solvents is technically proven, but the costs in terms 
of capital and energy use are high and the potential 
for toxic chemical emissions has prompted developers 
to seek other technological approaches. One avenue 
showing promise is the use of solid adsorbents. Svante 
Technologies Inc. (Svante) has developed a novel solution 
to capture large-scale CO2 emissions from hard-to-abate 
industries such as cement, hydrogen, oil & gas, aluminum, 
chemicals, pulp & paper, and more. The CO2 captured can 
be either safely stored deep underground or used to make 
other products in a closed loop. Svante’s post-combustion 
capture technology is currently being deployed in the field 
at pilot plant-scale by industry leaders in the energy and 
cement manufacturing sectors, including:
CO2MENT Pilot Plant Project: Lafarge Canada and Svante 
launched this one tonne per day (tpd) project in 2019 at 
a cement plant in Richmond, British Columbia, Canada. 
The CO2 captured here is planned to be used to make 
products such as sustainable aviation fuel, makeup bases, 
snowboard waxes, and more.
Cenovus: (formerly Husky Energy): This is a 30 tpd 
demonstration plant, which launched in 2019 at an 
industrial facility in Lloydminster, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Chevron USA: Svante’s latest pilot-scale project, a carbon 
capture plant set to capture 25 tpd came online in the 
Spring of 2023 in Bakersfield, California, USA.
In addition, several engineering projects for commercial-
scale carbon capture projects ranging from 500 to 4,500 
tpd are underway in North America and Europe.
To date, Svante has attracted more than US500millioninfundingsinceitwasfoundedin2007,withthelatestSeriesEfundraisingroundclosingatarecord−breakingUS318M 
with Chevron New Energies as the lead investor. Other 
participants included new and existing investors from large 
entities such as GE Vernova, 3M Ventures (the venture 
capital arm of 3M), United Airlines Ventures, Samsung 
Ventures, and more. 
The company is currently expanding its commercial filter 
manufacturing facility in Canada. In 2024, the new facility, 
The Centre of Excellence for Carbon Capture & Removal, 
located in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada will have 
an annual capacity to deliver filter modules capable of 
removing 5 Mtpa CO2. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 cnitta@svanteinc.com
Web: 	
www.svanteinc.com
SVANTE 
Svante’s energy efficient and low-cost technology, the 
VeloxoTherm™ carbon capture process, is an intensified 
rapid-cycle Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA) system 
using advanced Structured Adsorbent Beds (SAB). This 
novel process is designed to capture CO2 directly from 
industrial sources and release pure CO2 in less than 
60 seconds, compared to hours for other technologies 
and requiring significantly less capital cost. The capture 
process is implemented via a device similar to that of 
regenerative air heaters widely used in power plants, in 
which a proprietary structured adsorbent is arranged on 
a circular rotating structure, known as a Rotary Adsorption 
Machine (RAM). The device simultaneously exposes 
different segments of the structure to each step of the 
TSA cycle. A key advancement is the development of 
innovative adsorbent materials, which enable the use of a 
rapid temperature swing cycle.


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TRANSPORT 


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DESCRIPTION
Transmission is often considered to be the low-tech 
piece in the CCUS value chain, however a vast pipeline 
expansion is needed if CCUS is to take its place in the 
Future Energy world. The arms of this new pipeline 
network will reach throughout populated areas and must 
be designed to prevent rupture, “running fracture” and the 
hazards of CO2 gas release.
Impurities in CO2 can adversely affect transmission pipeline 
design and operation. In the coming era of growth, fluid 
“quality” specifications will emerge, and will be eventually 
regulated for hubs and networks. However, many CCUS 
projects will require “point-to-point” transmission pipelines. 
These may seek to transmit and inject CO2 with challenging 
impurities such as hydrogen sulphide, and potentially 
increased water content, in an effort to reduce the overall 
capital and operating cost of the supply chain.
Whilst pipeline design standards such as DNV-RP-F104 
(Design and Operation of Carbon Dioxide Pipelines) 
continues to evolve, the process of designing a pipeline 
is far from fully codified. It can also be very iterative and 
inefficient.
An ill-disciplined and unstructured approach to design can 
easily lead to multiple repetitions of the design, impacting 
design cost and schedule. Worse still, it can leave the 
project owner with some doubt as to whether their final 
design is actually optimal from either a capex or an 
operability perspective.
GHD’s pipeline engineering team is based in Australia but 
works with pipelines worldwide. The Australian pipeline 
standard, AS 2885 provides specific design methods for 
oil and gas pipelines, with some guidance on CO2 design. 
This standard encourages a risk-based and thoughtful 
design process and is an excellent platform from which to 
develop a formal method to reach optimal CO2 pipeline 
designs, without multiple iterations.
GHD will design CO2 pipelines for any jurisdiction in full 
compliance with the nominated pipeline standard, however 
our journey to reach this destination follows the robust 
design methodology that we have developed.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Reduced FEED cost and schedule
•	
Minimal risk when procuring pipeline material
•	
Maximum flexibility and operability of installed pipeline assets
•	
Sound basis for capex estimating at the end of FEED
GHD OPTIMISED CO2 PIPELINE DESIGN
GHD presents its CO2 pipeline design method, outlining 
the importance and complexity of reaching optimal 
designs. The GHD method is focused and systematic. It 
drives towards the optimal pipeline design with a minimum 
of iteration.
For a pipeline, Front End Engineering Design (FEED) 
typically takes the design to an advanced state, especially 
in the specification of the pipeline steel.
This enables pipeline material to be ordered shortly after 
the financial investment decision is made, which is often 
necessary due to its long delivery time. FEED also refines 
the route, designs major crossings, and allows other long 
lead items to be procured. GHD’s approach facilitates 
these steps and avoids the common experience of 
needing to repeat complex design work as the pipeline 
design “evolves”.
CONTACT
Email: 	 anthony.mills@ghd.com
Web: 	
www.ghd.com/en/
GHD
Inputs
-
Injection pressure
– Flow Scenarios
– Concept route
– Temps
–
Heat xfer coeff
–
Composition
– Topography
– Flow liner (unlikely) ?
– Booster pump sites 
where power is available
Outputs
– Inlet Pressure
– NOM Pipe Size(s)
– Pump location & duty confirmed
– Design Pressure
Approximate wall thickness
using design factor from
previous CO2 designs
NO
Gas comp
Operating
P&T
Det Des
Feed
Feed
Concept
Steady state hydraulics
Informal estimate of design
pressure
Release modelling
Safety 
Management 
Study
Further Inputs
-
Refine route
-
Location analysis
-
Threat analysis
-
Cyclic pressure ?
-
Crossing types
-
Subsea design ?
Outputs
-
Location classes
-
High Consequence zones
-
Fracture control req’ts
-
MLV Spacing
Wall thickness calc
Fracture Control Plan
Market 
Check-in
Materials Study
-
Corrosion
-
Stress corrosion cracking
Operations Inputs
-
Start up
-
Stop and cool
-
Restart
-
Depressuring
-
Slugging
-
Hydrates
-
Free water margin
Flow Assurance
(Transient hydraulics)
Injection well design
Crack 
arrestors
practical
(Y/N) 
Validated 
assumption of 
200-250J  
toughness 
available
Validity of 
Empirical 
Method OK ?
Yes- Proceed
No- Use Failure 
Strain Locus 
Modelling
Select
strength
Grade
Topo and geotech surveys
(can be FEED or early
Detailed Design)
Detailed Design Tasks
-
Onshore and Offshore detailed design
-
Line pipe procurement
-
Facilities design
-
Crossing design
-
Bending philosophy
-
Others.
Output:
Selected Wall Thickness
Outputs
-
Moisture spec
-
Corrosion allowance ?
-
Min design temp
Outputs
-
Steel type
-
Special req’ts ?


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DON’T CRACK! 
BUT IF YOU DO CRACK- TRY TO PULL IT TOGETHER…
The classic concern with CO2 pipelines is running ductile 
fracture, where the pipeline “unzips” over an extended 
length, thus multiplying the chances that the failure and 
subsequent fluid release will coincide with and harm the 
public. 
“Crack arrestors” were historically used on older pipelines, 
but in many cases were applied in a tokenistic way at long 
intervals that sometimes failed to meaningfully lower risk 
levels. Recent and currently planned projects rely instead 
in “intrinsic arrest” pipe, which will arrest running cracks 
within a reasonable distance. Fracture control almost 
always ends up determining the final wall thickness.
Leading researchers in the field have taken designers 
on a challenging journey since 2019. Prior to this time, 
CO2 pipelines were designed using a modified “Batelle 
Two Curve” (BTCM) method. This method used well 
known software- DUCTOUGH™ to model the running 
crack and GASDECOM™ to model CO2 decompression. 
However, it was recognised that resulting designs could 
be unconservative and potentially still be vulnerable to 
running ductile fractures.
Since then, a number of methods have been proposed in 
quick succession, as shown in the following diagram.
OTHER THINGS TO JUGGLE
Whilst all of this is playing out, the hydraulic modelling 
from the Concept stage is expanded into “flow assurance” 
work. This considers all the transient conditions where the 
real challenge in operating CO2 pipelines occurs, such 
as how to start and stop the pipeline, cool-downs, and 
depressurization. These processes need to consider the 
dangers of hydrate formation, rapid free-water corrosion, 
and auto-refrigeration embrittlement.
These design strands weave together to culminate in the 
full specification of the pipe material, as well as a good 
understanding of the route that the pipeline traverses 
and how it will be built. GHD can then estimate costs 
more accurately and pipe material can be purchased with 
confidence.
GHD reaches out to developers of CCUS projects 
worldwide. Our key CCUS team is based in Houston and 
Brisbane, Australia. We provide engineering all the way 
from CO2 capture plant through to reservoir pore space. 
Our pipeline design work is leading-edge but resides 
within a complete service offering that also includes CCUS 
approvals and environmental work.
At the time of writing, proponents really face a choice 
between three main design outcomes:
•	
Employ a “conservative design”, which requires 
only lab-scale material tests to validate. This usually 
involves extra millimetres of steel, and potentially even 
over-sizing of the pipeline in order to be able to safely 
rely on the results of historical burst tests. However, it 
is a valid technique for shorter pipelines.
•	
Procure pipe samples and perform full scale burst 
tests- this method is likely to produce the most 
efficient design on large projects, but extends lead 
time considerably.
•	
Undertake “Special Assessments”, which involve 
highly specialised computer modelling of the running 
fracture. (GHD is acquainted with the very few 
institutions who can perform this.)
In any of these approaches, it is necessary to know the 
phase envelope of the CO2 with its various impurities and 
then to identify the temperatures and pressures of different 
operating points along the pipeline and in different 
seasons. Special modifications to the classical equations of 
state may be needed to accurately predict the saturation 
pressure.
The designer can then predict how the supercritical 
or dense phase CO2 will decompress. When the fluid 
saturation line is encountered, the fluid becomes a boiling 
liquid that evolves large quantities of CO2 vapour, tending 
to maintain the pressure and causing the crack to “keep 
running”.
The figure below shows how GHD assessed this on a 
recent project.
As at mid-2023, it is possible that the industry leaders are 
reverting to highly corrected versions of the BTCM. GHD 
continues to track these developments.
The process begins during Concept stage, by defining 
fundamentals such as the injection pressure of the target 
geo-reservoir. This stage is dominated by the process 
of “Steady State Hydraulics”, which allows the pipeline 
diameter and design pressure to be nominally set and 
determines the need for mainline pump station(s).
Cost estimates using factored metrics from the natural gas 
pipeline industry allow the pipeline to be costed at this 
stage and if the overall CCUS project appears attractive, 
then pipeline design enters the next stage- FEED.
A CO2 pipeline FEED by GHD starts with a materials study, 
which identifies any special requirements such as stress 
corrosion cracking resistance and proposes a grade of 
steel that is likely to be optimal. API 5L Grade X65 is a 
likely starting point, however GHD checks in with pipe 
merchants at this stage to identify any trends in the market, 
which might promote a different strength steel, which may 
then increase or decrease wall thickness and therefore 
steel tonnage.
Also, during FEED, the pipeline route becomes “real”. 
Geographically localized threats to the safety of the 
pipeline are identified, as are nearby population centres. 
Advanced software such as PHAST™, SLAB™ and CHARM™ 
are utilised to simulate the release and abrupt partitioning 
of CO2 its gaseous and solid (snow) ambient phases and 
to examine how prevailing wind and topography might 
transport the plume over unexpectedly long distances. 
The effect of contaminants such as H2S that are potentially 
more dangerous than the CO2 itself is also considered. 
AS 2885 calls for a Safety Management Study to formalize 
this mile-by-mile risk assessment of the pipeline route, 
and GHD advocates this process for pipelines in all 
jurisdictions. The results from this process combine with 
further design inputs to produce a tentative wall thickness 
selection and the process then begins of designing the 
pipeline’s “fracture resistance”. A new generation of 
pipeline steels has appeared in the last few years. These 
offer stellar toughness as measured using the conventional 
“Charpy” test but are behaving unusually in some of the 
other standard material tests..


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DESCRIPTION
JFE’S MARTENSITIC CRA TUBING
JFE Steel is an integrated steel mill, having various type 
of steel product lineup. JFE is also a global supplier of 
martensitic stainless steel, especially for Oil Country 
Tubular Goods (OCTG) and has wide range of expertise 
for steel pipe materials and connection systems. OCTG 
were first manufactured and shipped at JFE Steel Chita 
Works in 1971. Since then, JFE has been developing and 
supplying martensitic CRA tubing globally. Starting from 
first 13Cr martensitic stainless sales in 1984, JFE has further 
developed with the expertise in the corrosion research 
the martensitic CRA materials, from modified 13CR (named 
JFE-HP2-13CR) up to 15CR-17CR (named JFE-UHP™-15CR 
and JFE-UHP™-17CR) and supplied to the operators of oil & 
gas industry with great satisfaction.
JFE’S PREMIUM CONNECTION
JFE’s connection development started in early 1980s. In 
the 1990s, JFE introduced the JFEBEAR™. More recently, 
in 2011, the JFELION™ connections were developed, 
designed to meet today’s toughest well conditions 
and industry testing protocols. These JFE’s flagship 
connections have been globally supplied over 400,000mt 
and 100,000mt, respectively, with satisfaction. In 2018, 
JFE have established the connection testing laboratory at 
JFE Connections America (JCA) to further accelerate the 
connection development and evaluation.
APPLICATIONS OF CRA TUBING AND CONNECTION TO 
CO2 UNDERGROUND STORAGE WELLS
With the growing global demand and necessity for carbon 
reduction, JFE sets great priority on the supplying of tubing 
and connection for the CO2 underground storage wells.
In general, CO2 accelerate the corrosion of injection tubing 
material because the CO2 decreases the pH of water. If 
other corrosive impurities such as SO2, NO2 and O2 are 
included in the CO2, severity to the CO2 tubing will be 
increased further.
JFE has evaluated their martensitic CRA grades including 
JFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR tubing where they 
have shown great CO2 resistant corrosion performance 
against certain CCS simulated environments. Some of the 
evaluation results were published in the technical paper1) 
for AMPP Annual Conference (former NACE International’s 
CORROSION Conference & Expo),and will be presented in 
the Eurocorr 2023 (The Annual Congress of The European 
Federation of Corrosion) as well. 
JFE has also evaluated the sealability performance on their 
robust JFELION™ connection simulating worst case thermal 
shock during CCS operations. JFELION™
showed seal performance even after temperature cycles 
between -35C/ambient temperature and rapid cooling with 
a temperature drop of 80 degrees Celsius.  
JFE has been involved intensely in the material selection 
discussion and supply of the tubing for CCS projects. 
Starting from 2008, JFE has supplied the CRA tubing with 
their premium connections to several CCS projects globally 
as shown below in Table 1.
JFE would continue to put weight on the investigation 
studies to establish further confidence in different impurity 
and water chloride levels depending on the CO2 source/
well environment. JFE is collaborating and discussing 
with the operators/industry for optimization and supply 
of the CRA tubing for future CCS projects, enhancing the 
worldwide storage capacity.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
JFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR Tubing have following benefits which could contribute the popularization of clients’ 
CCS projects.
•	
Tubing with corrosion resistance against CO2 with contaminated gas condition
•	
Lower cost compared to duplex stainless steel and higher CRA tubing
•	
Shorter delivery time compared to duplex stainless steel and higher CRA tubing
•	
Delivered with JFE’s robust premium connection such as JFEBEAR™ and JFELION™
JFE-UHPTM-15CR AND JFE-UHPTM-17CR TUBING
JFE Steel has been playing a key role of supplying the oil 
& gas industry with martensitic corrosion resistant alloy 
(CRA) tubing with their own robust premium connections. 
With the growing global demand and necessity for carbon 
reduction, JFE now sets great priority on the supplying of 
tubing and connection for the CO2 underground storage 
wells. JFE has evaluated their martensitic CRA grades 
including JFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR tubing 
together with the JFELION™ connection for the application 
in CO2 underground storage wells, where they have shown 
great and promising performance for the usage. Starting 
from 2008, JFE has supplied the CRA tubing with their 
premium connections to several CCS projects globally 
to demonstrate the feasibility of CCS and increase the 
storage capacity. JFE would continue the collaboration and 
discussion with the customers/operators to contribute to 
the CCS projects.
CONTACT
Email: 	 h-takai@jfe-steel.co.jp
Web: 	
www.jfe-steel.co.jp/en/index.html
JFE STEEL CORPORATION
Figure 1: Example of CO2 Corrosion
CO2 Corrosion
No Corrosion
Carbon Steel After 1 year Operation
JFE Material After 1 Year Operation


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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REFERENCE
1.	
Yuichi Kamo, Kenichiro Eguchi and Hiroyuki Takai, “Corrosion Behavior of Martensite-Based Stainless Steels in 
Chloride Solutions Saturated with CO2 Containing Impurity Gases,” AMPP Annual Conference 2023, paper No. 18908 
(Denver, Colorado,2023)
YEAR
AREA
MATERIAL 
GRADE
OD 
(INCH)
WT (POUNDS/
FEET)
CONNECTION
PROJECT TYPE
2008
N. America
HP2-13Cr-95
7
29
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2009
N. America
HP2-13Cr-95
4.5
18.9
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2008
N. America
13Cr-80
9.625
47
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2009
N. America
13Cr-85
4.5
12.6
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2009
Oceania
L80-13Cr
5.5
17
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2014
Japan
L80-13Cr
3.5
12.7
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2014
Japan
HP2-13Cr-110
3.5
12.7
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2022
Oceania
HP2-13Cr-95M
3.5
9.2
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2022
Oceania
L80-13Cr
4.5
13.5
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2022
N. America
L80
9.5
47/53.5
API 5B
Pilot
2022
Europe
UHP17Cr-110
7
29
JFELION
Commercial
2023
Japan
HP1-13Cr-110
OD:2.375” ~ 7”
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2023
N. America
L80-13Cr etc.
OD:2.875” ~ 5.5”
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2024
Asia
HP1-13Cr-110
7
29
JFELION
Pilot
2024
Asia
UHP17Cr-110
7
29
JFELION
Commercial 
(Under discussion)
Table 1: JFE’s Steel Pipe Supply Record for CO2 Injection. (Include Projects Under Discussion)
Figure 2: Image of JFE-UHPTM-15CR and JFE-UHPTM-17CR
Figure 3: Image of JFE Premium Connection (JFEBEARTM, JFELIONTM)
Figure 4:  JFEBEARTM, JFELIONTM company logos


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DESCRIPTION
WHAT IS DUOLINE 20 GRE LINED TUBING?
Duoline 20 is a Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) composite 
liner, which is inserted inside steel tubing to protect it from 
corrosion due to CO2, free O2, H2S, chlorides, water, and 
other constituents which may exist in the process fluids. 
This tubing is used downhole in injection and production 
wells. Duoline GRE also mitigates solid deposition inside 
the tubing.
Tubing made Carbon steel, lined with Duoline 20 GRE, can 
be utilized instead of expensive chrome and higher alloy 
steel grades, which are often the appropriate material for 
resistance to CO2.
Duoline 20 GRE Lined tubulars have been successfully 
employed in a variety of applications where they have 
been exposed to extreme process conditions – high 
temperatures, high pressures, high concentrations of 
dissolved gases, high chlorides, and high flow rates as 
well as mechanical “stresses” during multiple downhole 
interventions. The success of the technology is based 
on extensive testing and trials conducted by operators 
worldwide over five decades.
Duoline GRE liners are a proven flow assurance enabler. 
Benefits derived from the properties of the system include 
elimination of solid deposition, higher flow rates, reduced 
frictional losses and higher fluid temperature retention. 
These are attributed to the smoother surface of the Duoline 
GRE compared to steel, as well as the added insulation 
provided by the layers of grout and GRE. Enhanced 
flow assurance allows a more consistent, uninterrupted 
injectivity rate.
Duoline GRE has been proven to withstand:
•	
Temperatures from -51 °C (-60 °F) to 144 °C (291°F)
•	
More than 300,000 ppm chlorides
•	
100% wet, dry and dense phase CO2
•	
Over 18,000 psi pressure
Duoline 20 has been a workhorse in CO2 injection 
wells since 1984. This track record provides significant 
experience for knowledge transfer into material selection 
for carbon injection and utilization downhole in global 
CCUS projects. 
DESCRIPTION 
The Duoline 20 Lining system consists of a fiberglass 
reinforced epoxy resin composite liner cemented inside 
low alloy carbon steel tubing. The cement transfers fluid 
pressure to the steel. The ends of the liner are protected 
from mechanical damage by end caps called flares. A 
polymeric Corrosion Barrier Ring extends the corrosion 
barrier across the coupling between two adjacent flares.
DUOLINE 20 GRE LINED TUBING IN CO2 INJECTION 
The first miscible CO2 Injection EOR project in Canada 
began in 1984 in the Joffre Viking Tertiary Oil Unit by 
Vikor Resources and the Alberta Oil Sands Technology 
and Research Authority. This is the first known successful 
application of fibreglass-lined tubing to combat CO2 
corrosion.
Since then, Duoline 20 has been used extensively by 
Equinor, ExxonMobil and Oxy in CO2 injection wells. In the 
United States, nearly 20 million feet of Duoline GRE Lined 
tubing has been used in CO2 injection wells. In 1996, Statoil 
were among the first to use Duoline GRE Lined Tubing in 
offshore Water Alternating CO2 (WAG) wells.
Duoline 20 has since become the gold standard for tubing 
material in CO2 injection wells, CO2 WAG wells, carbonated 
water injection wells and hydrocarbon producers with high 
CO2 concentrations. Duoline GRE has been tested and 
field-proven to withstand dense phase CO2 (wet and dry) 
and low pH solutions from dissolved CO2, for decades.
Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing offers attractive savings 
compared to capital intensive high-chrome materials that 
are often the metallic selection for CO2 applications. 
CCUS projects depend on dehydration of the CO2 gas 
to prevent corrosion. It is undoubtedly challenging to 
maintain the 100% absence of moisture downhole. The 
impact of residual water from the reservoir during shut-in 
of CO2 injection wells is also a concern. In such cases, the 
dehydration of the gas will prove ineffective in combatting 
corrosion downhole. This risk necessitates a pre-emptive 
corrosion prevention strategy. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
There are two distinct contributions that Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing can make to reducing the carbon footprint of a CCUS 
project.
•	
Firstly, Duoline 20 GRE lining provides a corrosion barrier which protects carbon steel tubing for decades. The 
combined system costs a fraction of chrome and higher alloy steel tubing. Additionally, unlike sensitive alloy steels, 
Duoline GRE liners will offer consistent corrosion protection irrespective of contaminants in the flue gases from 
different industrial sources over the life of the project. 
•	
Secondly, eliminating the use of chemicals for corrosion inhibition means eliminating carbon emissions from chemical 
manufacture, transportation, and injection into the wells over the life of the well.
The above benefits of applying Duoline 20 GRE Lined tubing in CCUS applications enable significant reductions in CAPEX 
and OPEX over the lifecycle of the wells. This in turn enhances the overall viability of the project.
DUOLINE 20® FIBERGLASS (GRE) LINED TUBING IN CO2 INJECTION AND SEQUESTRATION
As CCUS projects are driven by the common goal of 
reducing global carbon emissions, the technologies 
employed in these projects have a critical role to play 
in achieving this goal. In several cases, existing ageing 
infrastructure from oil or gas field projects is repurposed 
for injecting CO2 for up to five more decades. Maxtube 
provides a technology that contributes to increasing the 
longevity of the asset while reducing the cost and overall 
carbon footprint of the project. 
Maxtube Limited are the proud owners of Duoline 
Technologies in the United States. Duoline are the 
pioneers of Fiberglass (GRE) Internal Lining systems, used 
to prevent corrosion in downhole tubulars. Over 110 million 
feet of Duoline GRE lined tubing has been installed in over 
55,000 wells worldwide.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccs@maxtube.com
Web: 	
www.maxtube.com
MAXTUBE


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Over the life of CCUS projects, it is expected that the 
injected gas may be contaminated with NOx, SOx and 
other contaminants from flue gases generated at various 
industrial sources. The performance of metallic alternatives 
is sensitive to variations in the composition of process 
fluids. Duoline GRE liners, on the other hand, will offer 
consistent corrosion resistance irrespective of variations in 
constituents over the life of the project. 
The selection of Duoline GRE lined tubing provides added 
insurance against potential process interruptions on the 
surface. Any disruption to surface facilities for dehydration 
or treatment of the injected gas will not interrupt CO2 
injection if the material used downhole is able to withstand 
all corrosive elements. It is also noteworthy that repairs due 
to avoidable downhole failures are far costlier and time-
consuming than repairs on the surface. Such cases justify 
the added insurance of Duoline GRE lining of tubing.
The above points demonstrate how Duoline GRE 
enhances the integrity and flow assurance of CO2 injection 
systems thereby reducing the overall carbon footprint of 
the project. Duoline GRE Lined tubing offers substantial 
value to the overall economic and environmental viability 
of CCUS projects. Whether the well is completed onshore 
or offshore, platform or subsea, Duoline GRE lining is a 
single solution for tubing corrosion prevention and flow 
assurance.
INDUSTRY AND REGULATORY AUTHORITY 
ENDORSEMENTS
Duoline GRE liners have been tested extensively for 
resistance to exposure to a variety of industry chemicals, 
full-scale combined loading inside tubing, pressure 
cycling, high erosional velocities, fatigue, and durability 
when exposed to downhole, coiled tubing and wireline, 
interventions. 
Saudi Aramco, Shell, BP, Eni, and Statoil have conducted 
tests to confirm the viability of Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing 
as an alternative to chrome alloy steels. 
Eni performed qualification tests on Duoline 20 GRE Lined 
tubing for high-velocity gas production. These include 
tests to confirm the erosion resistance and mechanical 
properties of Duoline GRE which proved that its fatigue 
resistance is about nine times higher than super-duplex 
stainless steel. Direct impact and straight pipe test 
results showed a very good resistance of Duoline GRE 
comparable to that of a Nickel Alloy 625 sample under 
similar conditions. 
BP performed comprehensive testing to demonstrate 
the fatigue resistance of the system. Duoline GRE lined 
assemblies were internally pressurized to 8,000 psi 
and exposed to one million load cycles. They were also 
subjected to ISO 13679 loading in the first quadrant. None 
of the assemblies showed any leaks or signs of damage to 
the GRE liner and the components in the connection area.
Duoline GRE has been used in wells with temperatures up 
to 145 °C (293 °F) and has also been tested for resistance 
to temperatures as low as -51 °C (-60 °F). The resistance of 
Duoline GRE to temperature swings is particularly relevant 
considering the phase change sensitivity of CO2 relative 
to temperature and pressure. Additional testing is planned 
to confirm the integrity of the system when exposed to 
uncontrolled flash freezing due to rapid pressure drop.
Operators have tested the compatibility of the Duoline 
20 GRE Lining System with several premium connections. 
These confirm that the Duoline’s GRE lining process 
and system components do not affect the connection 
dimensions, torque values and gas sealability. Duoline 
20 GRE Lining systems have been applied on premium 
connection tubing from Tenaris, Vallourec, JFE, and Voest 
Alpine, among others.
In the US, experience and good practices recorded in 
the field of CO2 injection are documented as regulatory 
alternatives and operating practices for the geological 
sequestration of CO2 by the United States’ Environmental 
Protection Agency (USEPA). Federal Requirements under 
the Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program for CO2 
sequestration wells, are codified in the US Code of Federal 
Regulations, known as the Geologic Sequestration Rule, 
which establishes a new class of injection well (Class VI) 
and sets minimum technical criteria and well construction 
guidelines for these wells for the purpose of protecting 
underground sources of drinking water (USDWs). This 
guidance describes the construction requirements for an 
approved Class VI injection well wherein GRE lined tubing 
is well accounted for.
VALUE ADDITION FROM FLOW ASSURANCE BENEFITS
Duoline GRE retains its surface smoothness over its life 
which retards, and even eliminates, the nucleation and 
subsequent deposition of solids such as scales, paraffins 
and hydrates on its surface hence enhancing flow 
assurance in wells.
Flow assurance benefits derived from Duoline 20 GRE 
Lining have also been attributed to the thermal insulation 
provided to the steel by the fiberglass and grout. Eni and 
Pertamina have published findings of higher temperature 
retention in wells with Duoline GRE lined tubing compared 
to bare steel tubing. 
For higher thermal insulation requirements, Duoline 
can engineer a lining solution compatible with Vacuum 
Insulated Tubing (VIT) to combine superior corrosion 
resistance with superlative thermal insulation.
Duoline GRE lining system has also been applied to 
flowlines. Eni, Shell, and Apache subsidiaries have been 
using Duoline GRE lined tubing to construct flowlines 
used for the transportation of oil and water. In a worldwide 
first, Shell constructed a high-pressure flowline network 
using premium connection tubing. In such a system, the 
combination of the metal-to-metal seal in the premium 
connection tubing, and the Duoline GRE backed by the 
steel body of the pipe, ensure that there is no permeation 
of dissolved gases through the flowline into the 
atmosphere.


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STORAGE 


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DESCRIPTION
CMG has been involved in subsurface modeling of the 
application of CO2 in the enhanced oil production since the 
late 1980’s centered around our GEM reservoir simulator. 
Following the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 a change in focus 
resulted in the forming of a research consortium between 
Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth 
(RITE) and Japan Oil Engineering and CMG to enhance 
GEM to produce the required capabilities allowing 
predictive modeling of the CO2 storage process in deep 
saline aquifers. 
Further investigations and extensions of the modeling 
environment at this time also led to the investigation of CO2 
injection into coal seams. This process provided two main 
benefits: The potential increase in methane production 
due to preferential replacement of the CH4 by CO2 on the 
coal surface; as well as the long-term storage of CO2 as it 
adhered to the coal surface. 
As the safety and liability frameworks were gradually 
created, understanding the ability to safely store CO2 
underground; the ability to contain the CO2 over extended 
periods of hundreds or even thousands of years; and 
the type of physical mechanisms that take place over 
both the short- and long-term storage, were crucial to 
moving the concept of aquifer storage forward. CMG’s 
GEM reservoir simulator, originally designed for oil and 
gas extraction modeling, was enhanced to provide the 
physical mechanisms required to simulate CO2 behavior in 
underground formations. This involved: 
•	
Detailed CO2 solubility calculations for the subsurface 
fluids; as well as molecular dispersion and diffusion 
models 
•	
Geochemical modeling to capture the geochemical 
interactions between the injected CO2; the reservoir 
fluids; and the minerals present in the aquifer rock. 
•	
Geomechanical analysis of the stresses induced 
to determine seal integrity and fault movement; 
reactivation of inactive faults leading to undesired flow 
and leakage.
•	
Temperature effect on fluid movement, geochemical 
reactions, and geomechanical response. 
•	
Coupling to surface facilities 
CMG’s CoFlow solution is an Integrated Reservoir & 
Production System Modelling software that allows detailed 
analysis of the well and pipeline systems feeding CO2 
into the subsurface, modelling steady state flow in the 
pipeline system. CoFlow’s multi-fidelity, multi-disciplinary, 
collaborative modeling environment, allows reservoir and 
production engineers to make informed decisions on large 
integrated oil and gas projects and is fully integrated with 
GEM to provide an end-to-end software solution to model 
CO2 transport and storage. 
For over 45 years, CMG has brought industry-first 
technologies to the market through extensive research 
and collaboration. In our recent collaboration, CMG joined 
hands with Kongsberg to form a research consortium with 
10 other oil and gas industry partners to investigate CO2 
storage in depleted oil and gas systems. This consortium 
has resulted in software that links Kongsberg’s LedaFlow 
transient pipe and well modeling product with CMG’s GEM 
reservoir simulator to accurately capture the CO2 behavior 
during transport and storage, focusing on the ability to 
start up and shut down injection operations safely and 
effectively. 
Further enhancements of CMG’s GEM simulator have also 
been developed over the years to allow for the additional 
complications of storage in the low pressure (and lower 
temperature) depleted oil and gas reservoirs
1.	
Pure CO2 behavior as well as impure mixtures, and the 
mixing with existing reservoir hydrocarbons. 
2.	 Rapid cooling to subzero temperatures around 
the injection wells and the consequences of such 
temperature changes to the local well environment 
and ability to inject. 
More recently, with the latest software development of 
Focus CCS, customers have access to a solution that 
supports their process from end-to-end, fast-tracks their 
time-to-value, and allows them to make business critical 
decisions regarding new CCS ventures, through faster and 
more efficient model creation, and automated regulatory 
reporting. 
CMG’s commitment to bringing industry-first solutions 
to market, coupled with high-quality user experience 
and expert customer support has always set us apart 
from the competition. CMG’s dedicated support team is 
comprised of practicing reservoir simulation engineers 
who will answer your questions, assist with installation 
and resolve technical issues to keep your business 
running smoothly. Our team of experienced and skilled 
professionals guide users through an immersive online 
or in-person learning process that builds capabilities that 
can be directly applied to real-world projects. Customer 
Success and Consulting experts average at least 10 years 
of engineering experience and offer over 30 courses that 
cover all recovery processes and reservoir challenges, with 
dedicated training facilities and global support.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
De-risk a range of Energy Transition projects related to CO2 storage; H2 storage and production; and geothermal 
processes 
•	
Analyse the subsurface uncertainties associated with injection and storage of CO2 
•	
Quantify the storage volumes; long term stability; and applicable injection rates for CO2 storage projects 
•	
Satisfy regulatory requirements through determining the long-term safe containment of CO2 
INNOVATORS IN SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY
Computer Modelling Group Ltd. (CMG) (TSX: CMG) is a 
global software and consulting company that combines 
science and technology with deep industry expertise to 
solve complex subsurface and surface challenges for the 
new energy industry around the world. For over 45 years, 
we have helped organizations unlock value from their 
assets through continuous innovation and consultation. 
Our expertise spreads across a broad spectrum of energy 
workflows, and our technology can help energy companies 
navigate this complex and changing landscape. CMG is 
headquartered in Calgary, AB, with offices in Houston, 
London, Dubai, Bogota, Bengaluru, and Kuala Lumpur. 
INNOVATION TO ADVANCE A NEW ENERGY SYSTEM 
Longer forecasting timescales, limited subsurface data, 
and public safety and environmental concerns increase the 
complexity of carbon storage projects exponentially. CMG’s 
20 years of experience in helping energy companies use 
CO2 injection to enhance oil recovery can be applied to 
accelerate the transition safely and effectively to a low-
carbon future. Our knowledge and real-world experience 
allow us to help companies in oil and gas and other 
carbon-intensive industries like refining, power generation, 
and manufacturing make the transition. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 Mark.Edmondson@cmgl.ca
Web: 	
www.cmgl.ca/; https://accelerate.cmgl.ca
CMG


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DESCRIPTION
Exploration Analyst is a straightforward Common Risk 
Segment mapping tool based in ESRI’s ArcMap or ArcPro 
that convolves any combination of geologic, environmental, 
regulatory, infrastructure, or other geospatial inputs to 
calculate storage volumetrics and Chance of Success on 
a map basis. Because Exploration Analyst has an easy-to-
master user interface and standard ESRI data structures 
it can be easily adopted and integrated into existing or 
evolving workflows. Exploration Analyst workflows can 
be standardized and shared and even run in batch. The 
concepts and functionality have been honed by decades 
of deployment in the hydrocarbon industry, with clear 
translation to carbon storage application. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Agnostic compilation of proprietary, vendor, and public data.
•	
Efficient integration of inputs from multiple disciplines that facilitates communication among diverse team members.
•	
Auditable conclusions that can be validated against well results.
•	
Volumetrics and risk evaluated in a single application.
•	
Inputs may be rigorously derived from data, loosely sketched from concepts, or anything in between.
•	
Workflows can be standardised and shared using Tasks, as well as run in batch using Exploration Analyst’s 
geoprocessing tools.
EXPLORATION ANALYST TO MAP AND EVALUATE STORAGE PLAY POTENTIAL
Exploration Analyst is an extension to Esri’s ArcMap and 
ArcGIS Pro software that assesses potential storage 
capacity, maps storage segments with common risk 
profiles, and high-grades storage areas with the best 
Chance of Success (COS). Exploration Analyst can 
validate COS maps against well results, calculate prospect 
volumetrics, perform multi-criteria block or lease analyses, 
as well as evaluate competitor positions and support 
portfolio strategy. Exploration Analyst creates individual 
COS layers for separate geological elements that 
contribute to successful storage, including reservoir, trap, 
and seal factors. Layers can be constructed from data or 
sketched from concepts, and are then combined into a 
geologic play-chance model. Additional environmental, 
regulatory, infrastructure, or other elements can be added 
to the analysis as required. Exploration Analyst provides 
a wide range of summary maps, graphs, and reports to 
quickly and intuitively communicate results.
CONTACT
Email: 	 Richard.Webb@getech.com
Web: 	
www.getech.com
GETECH
Risked storage capacity, by stratigraphic unit
Regional integrated Chance of Success


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DESCRIPTION
Getech prepares detailed regional  (102 - 105 km2) fault 
maps to support client evaluation of seal integrity and 
the potential for induced seismicity, as well as to guide 
additional, more detailed, investigations including the 
design of seismic monitoring networks and the acquisition 
of project specific 3D seismic surveys. The process begins 
with an inventory of existing Getech and client geophysical 
data, including gravity, magnetic, and seismic. The data 
are integrated and processed with advanced techniques 
including filtering, reduction to pole, and various derivatives 
appropriate to the specific local question addressed by 
the investigation.  Getech (alone, or in collaboration with 
the client) synthesize and evaluate available literature and 
other publicly available geoscience data against Getech 
global plate-tectonic models to establish a fundamental 
tectonic framework. Faults are interpreted from the 
processed geophysical data by human and machine 
methods, including by Automated Coherent Lineament 
Analysis and Selection (ACLAS, Cascone et al. 2017, 
Geophysics, v. 82. P. G87-G100, https://doi.org/10.1190/
geo2016-0337.1), and iteratively compared to topographic, 
remote-sensing, and geologic data to describe each fault 
according to its relative importance for compromising seals 
or inducing seismicity, and according to its kinematics. 
Individual faults are grouped into families of structures that 
share kinematic and activation histories. Fault-segment 
azimuths are compared to publicly-available regional stress 
orientations (± client local measurements, for example from 
image or caliper logs) to evaluate slip propensity. Fault 
interpretations are iteratively combined with 2D, 2.5D, 
and 3D inversion of gravity and magnetic data to sharpen 
the interpretation of subsurface lithologic geometry, 
including depth to significant boundaries, for example 
crystalline basement or clastic/carbonate transitions. The 
2.5D modelling also investigates lithologic variations 
within constrained geologic units via density (gravity) or 
susceptibility (magnetic) variation. Results are delivered in 
industry-standard, fully attributed, electronic files for a wide 
range of analytic platforms (for example ESRI ArcGIS, QGIS, 
Petrel, KINGDOM, Geographix, CPS3, IESX, SEG-Y, SPS, 
UKOOA, OGP, Landmark, ZMap and OpenWorks).
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Can be applied anywhere, even where seismic or well data are sparse.
•	
Existing Getech database, especially good in US Lower 48 onshore and shallow water, allows immediate project 
initiation without additional geophysical data acquisition.
•	
Total project time from kick-off to final delivery can be weeks instead of months or years.
•	
Existing Getech datasets are regionally consistent, they do not require compilation and QC of diverse legacy data, for 
example seismic surveys of varying vintage, quality and acquisition/processing parameters.
•	
Proven approach has been validated over many years in hydrocarbon and geothermal applications worldwide. 
REGIONAL FAULT MAPPING TO EVALUATE SEAL INTEGRITY AND INDUCED SEISMICITY RISK
Getech regional (102-105 km2) fault mapping starts with the 
world’s most comprehensive and quality-controlled gravity 
and magnetics database, applies advanced processing 
(including high-pass filtering, total horizontal derivative, and 
tilt angle), creates robust 2D, 2.5D, and 3D inversions, and 
picks potential faults using Automated Coherent Lineament 
Analysis and Selection (ACLAS), a process developed 
and published by Getech. Additional client geophysical 
data can be integrated to enhance the analysis, but is 
not required. Potential faults are iteratively validated and 
classified into temporal and kinematic families using 
available topographic, remote-sensing, and geologic 
(including seismic) data and Getech’s plate-tectonic 
models. Fault azimuths are compared to regional stress 
measurements to evaluate the chance for fault segments 
to be under extension or compression. The regional fault 
framework can be used on its own or serve as the basis 
for more detailed local interpretation, including planning 
seismic-monitoring networks or 3D seismic acquisition.
CONTACT
Email: 	 Simon.Campbell@Getech.com
Web: 	
www.getech.com
GETECH
Regional fault mapping symbolized by crustal scale and 
kinematics
Regional fault mapping symbolized by activation history


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DESCRIPTION
One of the initial challenges facing the global development 
of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is the identification 
and characterization of subsurface storage sites. While 
depleted oil and gas fields represent some of the best 
understood and commercially viable targets, there is simply 
not enough storage volume to tackle the scale of the 
challenge.  Saline formations are porous and permeable 
reservoir horizons that contain saline fluid as opposed to 
hydrocarbons and have a much larger storage potential. 
Fortunately, the concept of exploring for suitable saline 
formations shares many similarities with play-based 
exploration for hydrocarbon reservoirs. As part of the 
energy transition effort, our geoscientists have been 
focused on adapting traditional oil and gas workflows, 
gathering datasets, and investigating stratigraphy to help 
with CO2 storage identification. These workflows are 
underpinned by data and a global tectonostratigraphic 
model, combined with geoscience principles to enable a 
consistent global coverage of inputs for fairway analysis. 
Workflow results are collated together in storage atlases 
that provide immediate overviews of the storage potential 
and risks associated with assessed intervals. This enables 
a user to quickly familiarise themselves with the breadth of 
stratigraphic potential in a target area.
The consistent, reproducible screening workflows on 
CO2 Storage Screen, provide teams with an accelerated 
understanding of the subsurface and helps identify suitable 
saline aquifers for CO2 storage. The efficiency gains of 
cloud technology and leveraging a wealth of subsurface 
context, means that within minutes users can test storage 
concepts, investigate risks, and make informed decisions 
without significant investments of time and resources. 
The underpinning Neftex® Predictions context supports 
those without location specific subsurface understanding. 
In addition, comparing fairways via Prospective Storage 
Resource Calculation (PSR) provides initial ranking of play 
potential, allowing a user to quickly build a custom portfolio 
of storage targets anywhere around the world.
For users who wish to understand the deeper context, 
including the search for analogues or access to 
stratigraphy, tectonic or climate frameworks, a full 
subscription to Neftex® Predictions is recommended. This 
access will help the user gain a deeper understanding with 
the Neftex® interpretative framework and the wealth of 
conditioned and contextualised subsurface data. 
For more information on how DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 
Storage Screen or a comprehensive Neftex® subscription 
can meet the challenge of screening for suitable storage 
locations, please contact us.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Answer in minutes – Reduce the time required to generate a play fairway evaluation for CO2 storage potential from 
weeks to minutes, with comprehensive analysis, evaluation of multiple concepts and Prospective Storage Resource 
Calculation 
•	
Any play, anywhere - Model driven interpretive inputs allow global usage regardless of data coverage or exploration 
history
•	
Proceed with confidence – Identify suitable saline aquifers for CO2 storage with Neftex® Predictions unique integration
•	
Consistent analysis – Inputs supported by the Neftex® Predictions global tectono-stratigraphic framework deliver 
a consistent analysis regardless of differences in geography or stratigraphy
•	
	
Integrated assessment – Assess both the geographic and temporal distribution of play elements and risks related 
to reservoir, seal, supercriticality, or operations
•	
	
Connected workflows – Bring screened outputs into geospatial software or DecisionSpace® 365 applications
•	
	
Quickly tap into an area – Regional storage atlases provide immediate overviews 
•	
	
Portfolio risk and ranking
CO2 STORAGE SCREEN 
Screening, leading to site selection, is the first stage of the 
carbon sequestration workflow. This involves identifying 
stratigraphic units with storage potential and identifying 
locations with the greatest prospectivity. DecisionSpace® 
365 CO2 Storage Screen builds on over 20 years of 
subsurface insights to provide users with the subsurface 
context to rapidly screen sequestration targets around the 
world. Our screening inputs are derived from disparate, 
often siloed, publicly available data, combined with 
global subsurface models and geoscience principles, to 
extrapolate into white space and provide insight into data 
lean saline aquifers. Different stratigraphic units can be 
rapidly and uniformly assessed to test multiple scenarios 
or compare multiple fairways within the cloud hosted 
screening application. Storage volume calculations and 
risk assessments are collated in storage atlases to provide 
users with the understanding required to select potential 
storage intervals from an existing portfolio.
HALLIBURTON 
Play Fairway evaluation for 
CO2 storage potential
CONTACT
Scan the code to contact 
our Sustainability Experts


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DESCRIPTION
DWP takes well design and engineering through a standard 
process that can be customized for CCS well construction 
and design criteria. 
DWP’s offset well analysis enables the automated design 
of a new well by comparing operator defined KPIs and 
design parameters. It uses drag-drop capabilities to 
create a blueprint for the new design to automatically 
run engineering calculations for the new well. Offset well 
analysis includes:
•	
Casing depth selection
•	
Casing specifications
•	
Bottomhole Assembly (BHA) selection
•	
Fluid design
•	
Well barrier management
•	
Well operating parameters
DWP has detailed business process management 
workflows for the feasibility of a well prospect and the 
design of the well. A cloud based integrated suite of well 
construction technology, including EDT, takes the well 
construction process from trajectory design to completions 
design and analysis. Higher well construction performance 
is achieved by incorporating drilling decision optimization 
with integrated workflows.
WELLCAT™ SOFTWARE FOR CCS WELLS
WellCat™ software is part of the EDM suite and provides a 
precise solution for both wellbore analysis and integrated 
casing and tubing design. It calculates accurate downhole 
temperature and pressure profiles, which can be used for 
pipe-body movement and casing and tubing load analysis 
for production scenarios and CO2 injection. WellCat™ 
software helps understand various challenges in CCS wells 
and different load scenarios.
DRILLING DESIGN
The Drill Design module simulates flow and heat transfer 
during drilling operations, providing full transient analysis. 
CASING DESIGN
The Casing Design module analyzes casing loads, design 
integrity, and buckling behavior under complex mechanical, 
fluid pressure, and thermal-loading conditions with 
standard and automatic load-case generation. Analysis 
may be performed in conjunction with the Drill Design 
and Production Design modules, including tubingless 
configurations.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Digital Well Program® outcomes:
•	
Improved decision-making on drilling parameters using comprehensive and proven engineering
•	
Reduced time to select the optimum design by 60-80% due to running multiple design scenarios
•	
Automated workflows allow engineers to work on high value business decisions
•	
Perform advanced analysis through trusted Engineer’s Desktop™ computer software.
•	
Automatic update of design as new real time data is available
•	
Integration of the well plan with well site operations for real-time plan adjustments
Modelling and operational best practices can be leveraged to minimize the risk of chemical corrosion and mechanical 
property degradation. NETool™ software simulations enable an image of the expected behaviour of injected CO2 in specific 
reservoirs. Temperature, pressure, and flow of CO2 in the wellbore are estimated to ensure the injected CO2 remains within 
the safe boundaries. Preliminary CO2 injection screening and probabilistic system assessments help enable decisions in 
preliminary stages of a CCS project. 
CO2 STORAGE WELL CONSTRUCTION & INJECTIVITY TECHNOLOGY 
Digitally Integrated Well Construction is Halliburton’s 
approach to plan, design, and execute a well using 
Collaborative Well Engineering and Integrated Automation. 
As part of this approach, the Digital Well Program® (DWP) 
web based application integrates offset-well analysis with 
industry-proven engineering algorithms, and reporting 
tools to fast-track a cost-effective well program approval 
process and well delivery, while supporting continuous 
improvement of well design. Implementation of a DWP 
solution can help address most concerns including, reduce 
well program preparation time, increase well reliability, 
accelerate end-to-end well delivery, while lowering cost. 
CO2 injection modelling requires dedicated wellbore 
simulations to ensure operations are planned within 
safe and effective limits. NETool™ software is a steady-
state numerical simulator that provides user-friendly 
comprehensive modelling with the capabilities required for 
a simple vertical well, a long horizontal well, or a multilateral 
well with complex completions.
CONTACT
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ANNULAR BARRIER DESIGN
Halliburton offers a tiered portfolio of chemical barriers 
tailored to the injection plan and isolation zone of interest. 
These solutions include non-Portland solutions, such as 
ThermaLock™ cement system or WellLock® resin system, 
a resin-modified cement, CorrosaLock™ cement system, 
and a Portland based solution, CorrosaCem™ cement 
system. When combined with multi-stage cementing 
and mechanical barriers, additional benefits may result in 
maximized annular fluid separation, increased cement lift 
to surface, and the presence of a secondary barrier.
PRODUCTION DESIGN (INJECTIVITY AND FLOW 
ASSESSMENTS)
This module simulates fluid and heat transfer during 
completion, production, injection, stimulation, testing, 
and well-service operations. Transient and steady-state 
analysis for single-phase and multiphase flow can be done 
with initial conditions defined by thermal results from the 
Drill Design module. It also offers linked analyses with the 
Tube Design and Casing Design modules. New collapse 
load assessments are incorporated (Bureau of Safety and 
Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), Well Containment 
Screening Tool (WCST)). 
TUBE DESIGN
The Tube Design module analyzes tubing loads and 
movements, buckling behavior, and design integrity 
under complex mechanical, fluid-pressure, and thermal-
loading conditions with standard and automatic load-case 
generation. Tube Design offers linked analyses with the 
Production Design module.
MULTI-STRING DESIGN
The Multi-string Design module predicts pressure and 
volume changes due to annular pressure buildup (APB) 
when the well system heats up as a result of drilling or 
production operations or the injection of hot fluids into 
the well. The Multi-string Design module determines the 
movement that occurs at the wellhead during the life of the 
well. Analyses are linked to Drill Design, Production Design, 
Tube Design, and Casing Design modules.
NETOOL
™ SOFTWARE
NETool™ software is a steady-state numerical simulator that 
provides comprehensive modeling for the most complex 
wells. Designed for completion engineers operating 
CO2 injection wells, this tool is a highly detailed wellbore 
and completion simulator for CO2 storage design. From 
injection well design to execution control, it incorporates 
the functionality required for all phases of injectivity 
planning and operations. It manages outflux injection 
profiles along the wellbore, which gives a clear picture 
of the CO2 injection zones, especially in horizontal wells. 
Its compositional simulation provides accurate phase 
behaviour in changing pressure–temperature conditions 
along the wellbore and built–in component properties 
allow for the creation of high complexity EOS models. 
Figure 1: Digital Well Program® - Offset Well Analysis 
Figure 2: Digital Well Program® - Design Feasibility (Plan)
Figure 3: WellCat® Software 
Figure 4: NETool™ Completions and CO2 Phase Behaviour Analysis


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DESCRIPTION
The DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Solution optimizes 
modelling and interpretation at each critical stage of 
the CO2 life cycle using a flexible approach to accessing 
tools. The solution facilitates specific workflows designed 
between applications to optimize modelling and create 
greater efficiency for timely results and decisions.
Within the umbrella of CO2 Storage Solution, CO2 Storage 
Plume is an integrated suite of high-resolution modelling 
tools and simulators for CO2 storage exploration, 
monitoring, and prediction. The software addresses key 
aspects of CO2 storage workflows: formation storage 
prospecting, capacity estimation, well injectivity, formation 
pressurization, plume trapping, and dissolved CO2 
dispersal. 
•	
Prospect for new storage sites 
•	
Assess capacity and containment for CO2 storage
•	
Match storage monitoring data 
•	
Predict the long-term fate and risks of a storage site in 
the post-operational phase 
CO2 
Migration 
simulator: 
A 
CO2-adapted 
invasion 
percolation simulator for free-phase plume modelling. CO2 
Migration is built on the state-of-the-art Permedia® CO2 
migration simulator, providing extremely high-resolution 
models of gravity-segregated plume distributions in 
heterogeneous storage settings. 
CO2 BOS simulator: A fast multi-threaded Black Oil 
Simulator, developed to specifically handle CO2 storage 
and solubility. Specially adapted for two-phase plume and 
brine modelling, CO2 BOS addresses reservoir engineering 
workflows for CO2 modelling in saline formation settings. 
It is specifically tuned to run CO2 injection out-of-the-box, 
with built-in CO2 injection scheduling, PVT, and solubility 
handling. 
CO2 Flow simulator: CO2 Flow is a high-resolution 
hydrodynamic solver for modelling CO2 storage related 
pressure changes. With a well modelling scheme that 
handles CO2 injection rates and injection interval pressures, 
CO2 Flow offers a high-resolution regional simulation 
for testing the boundary conditions of high-resolution 
heterogeneous meshes for regional pressure models. 
CO2 Dashboard: CO2-specific equation-of-state and PVT 
wizard for initializing simulations. The CO2 Dashboard 
is used to initialize model conditions: gas and brine 
phase density, compressibility, viscosity, solubility, and 
interfacial tension. The wizard has been validated against 
several published works containing both theoretical and 
experimental data. Initial model conditions for these key 
properties can be automatically transferred from the 
Dashboard to the CO2 simulators.
MODEL CALIBRATION 
The iSTAR™ intelligent drilling and logging platform and 
wireline Xaminer® (XSI™, XMR™, STX™, RDT™) services 
provide the necessary detailed rock and fluid properties, 
structure and fault analysis, rock mechanics, pressures, 
and samples to characterize and simulate a CO2 storage 
site fully Integrated rock analysis provides detailed 
heterogeneity and texture mapping to logs and fast CO2 
relative permeabilities and sensitivity to advance simulation 
while waiting for physical core. 
The ability to “see” small quantities of CO2 outside the 
injection reservoir is critical for confirming well integrity and 
that no CO2 has entered diffusion or aquifer zones above 
the injection reservoirs. 
IntelliSat™ pulsed neutron logging service is Halliburton’s 
latest generation Multi-Detector pulsed neutron tool 
that provides accurate and robust Sigma, Hydrogen 
Index and Carbon/Oxygen ratios from the wellbore 
environment. It also measures individual energy yields for 
aluminium, carbon, silicon, oxygen, and 21 other discrete 
elements. This is the only tool that gives definitive change 
in saturation which will impact injection conformance 
monitoring and update to simulations.
A strong differentiator of Halliburton’s IntelliSat™ pulsed 
neutron logging service is the use of a third detector. 
This Long detector is designed to read primarily neutron 
interactions in a partially gas filled environment given 
the low density of gas. This gas saturation measurement, 
SatG™ (Chen, Jacobson, Guo, SPWLA-2015-AAA), derived 
from long inelastic count rates, is even more sensitive 
in the presence of CO2. A methodology derived by 
Halliburton for CO2 injection in depleted gas zones yields 
a SatQ, (Quintero, Guo, Gales SPWLA-2022-0091) which 
represents the CO2 saturation in the near borehole region, 
exclusively.
The tool’s superior and unique resolution of 2% (Sigma, 
C/O) allows for detection of minute changes in CO2 
saturation whether the injection is in depleted gas or water 
zones.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Plume leverages Permedia® CO2 software to couple robust reservoir, CO2 migration, 
and customized black oil simulators with an easy-to-use interface. These are integrated through a single wizard to help 
users set up simulation parameters and runs with easy-to-follow workflows. 
CO2 Storage Plume is flexible and able to consume existing models in a variety of data types. It allows the user to complete 
an end-to-end CO2 workflow for prospecting, regional pressure modelling, plume modelling, and injection modelling. 
STORAGE CHARACTERIZATION AND PLUME SIMULATION
DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Solution is a highly 
flexible cloud-based solution designed to evolve and grow 
with the needs of the industry as CO2 projects are initiated 
and developed. 
It is designed to facilitate data interpretation, modeling, 
and design of a CO2 storage site from the first stages of 
site selection to site characterization, scenario modelling 
for storage resources estimation and containment and CO2 
injection assessments. 
Understanding CO2 displacement in injection intervals is 
important for developing effective injection strategies and 
estimating storage capacity. Detailed storage resource 
information is updated into DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 
Storage Plume software to update and confirm simulation 
models. Key information acquired by Halliburton’s 
iSTAR™ intelligent drilling and logging platform and 
wireline Xaminer® logging services provide the detailed 
characterization and data to model a CO2 storage site.
HALLIBURTON 
Sleipner Plume Visualization
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DESCRIPTION
The safe and successful design and operation of 
CO2 injection and observation wells requires careful 
consideration of several technical challenges. To maintain 
well integrity, it is essential to understand the reservoir and 
factors such as caprock integrity, potential leak paths, and 
legacy, plugged, and abandoned (P&A) wells. 
Analyzing cement condition and bonding confirms 
zonal isolation and/or identifies the possibility of fluid 
migration through channelling or poor cement areas. 
These technologies are acoustic, therefore are affected 
by the fluids, solids, and scaling material in the well. The 
Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool (CAST™) is an 
ultrasonic tool that provides high-resolution images in 
cased holes. The tool’s interchangeable head rotates a full 
360° and contains a high-frequency acoustic transducer 
to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the pipe and 
cement. The CAST™ tool determines the casing thickness 
for pipe inspection and determines the type of material in 
the annular space between the casing and borehole wall. 
Advanced software analysis is available which can provide 
additional information on cement bond and well integrity.
Halliburton’s Radial Cement Bond Log (RCBL™) tool 
captures downhole data to ensure a reliable cement-bond 
evaluation for a full range of thru-tubing logging and casing 
completions, from small diameter tubing to large casings.
The Halliburton Electromagnetic Pipe Xaminer® V (EPX™ 
V) pipe inspection service quantifies metal loss in one 
to five concentric strings of pipe in a wellbore using 
accurate High-Definition Frequency (HDF) technology. This 
capability and 1 11/16” OD enable examining the whole well 
in one trip and assessing pipe condition quickly through 
tubing. This unmatched capability enables customers to 
reduce diagnostic time, obtain comprehensive information 
for monitoring programs, and determine the right solution 
for a nonconformity in their completion.
With the DataSphere® monitoring systems platform, 
Halliburton delivers a broad portfolio of highly accurate, 
Quartz based sensor solutions that give advanced 
pressure and temperature insights. This extensive portfolio 
is AWES certified and includes LinX® behind casing 
wireless monitoring, Opsis® tubing deployed gauges, and 
industry leading DataSphere Array multi-point pressure 
temperature allowing for distributed pressure sensors 
across all injection intervals. The various sensor solutions 
within the DataSphere platform feature field proven, 
robust solutions including single billet mandrels with 
no connection, full redundancy, a range of metallurgy 
and thread connections, and unparalleled deployment 
options allowing for reliable, efficient installation. These 
sensor solutions combine to provide zonal connectivity 
insights, CO2 migration patterns, and reliable life of well 
confirmation of containment.
Advanced solutions that encompass an array of monitoring 
tools, including Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), 
Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS), microdeformation 
monitoring (tiltmeters, GNSS, InSAR), and Microseismic 
monitoring, providing accurate insights.
DAS monitors acoustic signals within the wellbore to 
identify potential leaks and establish their exact locations, 
while DTS tracks temperature changes that signify 
fluid movement and possible leak points. Collectively, 
they provide a thorough understanding of the wellbore 
environment to facilitate early detection and remediation of 
wellbore integrity issues.
The risks of out of zone injections (OOZI), where CO2 
migrates beyond the target storage area, may pose 
potential threats to the environment and storage integrity. 
DAS and DTS help monitor and detect OOZI. DAS senses 
variations in fluid movement and pressure that may 
indicate CO2 migrating out of the target zone, while DTS 
identifies temperature anomalies related to out of zone 
CO2 migration. By utilizing these tools, rapid detection is 
enabled, to help ensure containment and conformity.
Microseismic monitoring plays a critical role in caprock 
integrity 
monitoring 
by 
capturing 
and 
analyzing 
microseismic events to detect fracture propagation and 
fluid migration within the caprock. Combining surface 
microseismic monitoring with DAS microseismic improves 
event detectability and location accuracy, ensuring a 
comprehensive understanding of subsurface dynamics 
and enhancing caprock integrity protection.
Old, inaccessible legacv wells can be monitored with 
surface 
techniques 
and 
far-field 
microdeformation 
techniques. These measurements provide a svstematic 
approach to caprock and well integrity monitoring.
Downhole and surface sensors combine to provide a 
robust and integrated solution, which will deliver valuable 
reservoir insights as well as superior performance and 
enhanced well-monitoring capabilities. With our MMV 
solutions, our customers can have confidence in the 
reliability and accuracy of their implemented monitoring 
systems to enable optimal CCS operations.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Benefits from the holistic cap rock and well integrity monitoring system can be outlined as follows:
•	
Comprehensive azimuthal cement evaluation to insure injection zone isolation and containment with CAST™ 
(Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool)
•	
Radial bond log and baseline tubular inspection for time lapse comparison of erosion and/or corrosion with EPX™ 
(Electromagnetic Pipe Xaminer®, CAST™ or MFC (multi-finger caliper)
•	
Active pressure and temperature monitoring in the wellbore, multi-point P/T across the reservoir, caprock and in 
A-annulus and/or B-annulus with DataSphere® Opsis®, Array and LinX®
•	
Active well integrity monitoring with LinX®, DTS and DAS
CAPROCK AND WELL INTEGRITY MONITORING: SUBSURFACE (IN-WELL) MMV SOLUTIONS
Well integrity plays a vital role in the profitability of a project 
or asset. Regular well inspection provides assurance of 
the system’s integrity and containment, which reduces 
uncertainties and risks associated with CO2 storage 
like erosion from drilling or workovers, corrosion, and 
geomechanics constraints. Unexpected well damage 
or containment issues can jeopardize assets and CO2 
containment.
Caprock and well integrity are critical monitoring objectives 
for MMV (Measurement, Monitoring and Verification) plans. 
Well sensor measurements acquired with DataSphere® 
monitoring systems, as well as Distributed Temperature 
Sensing (DTS) fiber optics and Distributed Acoustic 
Sensing (DAS) provide a holistic monitoring approach 
where both tubular and caprock leaks can be determined 
in real time. A downhole system can be combined with 
seabed monitoring solutions such as tiltmeters and seismic 
to design a system that is scalable alongside the CO2 
injection radius growth.
HALLIBURTON 
•	
Ability to monitor far field cap rock condition with DAS Microseismic
•	
Combining surface pressure measurements with tiltmeter microdeformation monitoring, available both on land and 
subsea, results in robust caprock monitoring
•	
Approach for legacy, plugged, and abandoned wells for well integrity screening with Microdeformation monitoring
•	
Integrate with Clariti® View to provide a seamless solution to access Array sensor data remotely from any device, 
without having to install or maintain the infrastructure necessary. The monitoring platform stores data in a secure cloud 
and provides access via the Clariti View visualization dashboard, where the operator can view live data, download 
historic data and set alert triggers to stay ahead of any remediation needs. This also helps ensure the operator meets 
regulatory agency reporting requirements with up-to-date information.”
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DESCRIPTION
Conformance and containment, pillars of any MMV plan, 
must be ensured to achieve a successful CCS operation. 
Conformance can be achieved by ensuring the injected 
CO2 behavior in the storage complex matches the models, 
while containment is fulfilled by putting in safeguards 
to have the CO2 plume confined in the reservoir and 
preventing any uncontrolled release of fluids through the 
primary or secondary seals. To achieve conformance and 
containment, the CO2 plume needs to be monitored and 
tracked throughout the lifetime of the project, while also 
monitoring caprock integrity.
Given its higher resolution and image quality, VSP (Vertical 
Seismic Profiling) is an effective tool for monitoring 
and tacking the CO2 plume. DAS has emerged as a 
cost-effective alternative to conventional VSP, offering 
comparable imaging quality. Halliburton offers FiberVSP™ 
service, a DAS based VSP solution, that when combined 
with other monitoring tools, provides a comprehensive 
approach to monitor and track the CO2 plume.
Key Features of Halliburton’s FiberVSP™ service:
•	
DAS enables the capture of high-resolution subsurface 
images, which is essential for accurate CO2 plume 
tracking and caprock integrity monitoring. Featuring a 
denser sensor array than traditional geophones, DAS 
collects extensive, top-quality data with exceptional 
spatial and temporal resolution
•	
By requiring a much smaller footprint at the wellsite, 
DAS offers a cost-effective solution for VSP surveys to 
enable more repeatability
•	
To 
address 
diverse 
CCS 
applications 
and 
environments, the fiber optic cable can be permanently 
installed for long-term monitoring or deployed for 
temporary surveys, providing flexibility in MMV plans
In conjunction with FiberVSP™ service, Halliburton offers 
Microdeformation Monitoring as an additional tool for CO2 
plume and caprock integrity monitoring. This technology 
has been in commercial use for over 30 years and is robust 
across a wide range of formation properties. It provides 
valuable model calibration data and is more cost-effective 
than repeat seismic surveys.
Continuous CO2 injection could potentially cause fluid 
migration in formations either by moving through the rock 
matrix or by opening a fracture system. Both processes 
result in rock motion transmitted elastically in all directions, 
which can be detected at the ground surface or seabed 
with precise measurements. These insights are essential to 
ensure the containment and conformity of CCS initiatives.
Three main technologies in Microdeformation Monitoring 
—tiltmeters, GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems), 
and InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar)—
can be combined to optimize monitoring programs. They 
offer reliable caprock breach detection, long-term fluid 
balance tracking, and calibration values for reservoir and 
fracture growth models. Each one contributes to MMV plan 
compliance in CCS projects.
Tiltmeters are extremely sensitive instruments used to 
map hydraulic fracture orientation for treatments as deep 
as 5000 meters and provide rough locations of fluid 
volumetric centers for shallower processes. These sensors 
can be used on surface, downhole, or marinized to be used 
for seabed deformation monitoring.
GNSS, which includes the United States’ GPS constellation, 
has a lower measurement resolution than tiltmeters but 
can be integrated into a tiltmeter array to limit long-term 
measurement uncertainties. The advantages of GNSS 
include three-axis measurements and absolute output 
relative to a global frame of reference. Incorporating a 
few GNSS measurements into a tiltmeter provides both 
short-term sensitivity and confidence in deformation 
measurements over project timescales.
InSAR uses radar measurements, primarily from purpose-
built satellites or airborne systems, to measure motion 
at near GNSS levels of sensitivity over a large area with 
fine pixel resolution. Dense coverage ensures that areas 
requiring higher precision monitoring are not overlooked.
The combination of tiltmeters, GNSS, and InSAR 
technologies offers a comprehensive and adaptable 
solution for monitoring caprock and well integrity in CCS 
projects. By leveraging these techniques, operators can 
help ensure MMV plan compliance and promote the long-
term viability and safety of CCS initiatives.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Comprehensive monitoring: Combining FiberVSP™ with Microdeformation Monitoring techniques offers a robust 
approach for tracking CO2 plumes and ensuring caprock integrity throughout CCS projects
•	
Model calibration: Microdeformation Monitoring provides valuable data for calibrating reservoir and fracture growth 
models to enhance the accuracy of predictions
•	
Early leak detection: FiberVSP™ and Microdeformation Monitoring technologies contribute to swift identification and 
precise localization of leaks, allowing for timely remediation
•	
Improved safety and containment: By effectively tracking fluid movement and detecting potential breaches, FiberVSP™ 
and Microdeformation Monitoring help ensure the CO2 plume remains confined within the reservoir
CAPROCK INTEGRITY & CO2 PLUME MONITORING: SURFACE/SEABED MMV SOLUTIONS 
Conformance and containment are crucial for successful 
CCS operations and require CO2 plume monitoring 
and caprock integrity throughout the project’s lifetime. 
Halliburton’s 
FiberVSP™, 
a 
Distributed 
Acoustic 
Sensing (DAS) based solution, captures high-resolution 
subsurface images and provides a cost-effective, versatile 
approach for CO2 plume tracking. When combined with 
Microdeformation 
Monitoring 
technologies—tiltmeters, 
GNSS, and InSAR—offer reliable caprock breach detection, 
long-term fluid balance tracking, and calibration values 
for reservoir and fracture growth models to ensure 
MMV (Measurement, Monitoring and Verification) plan 
compliance.
HALLIBURTON 
Microdetormation measurement through Tiltmeters
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DESCRIPTION
Since relatively few carbon sequestration projects are 
online to use as analogs, the subsurface assessments 
of these projects rely heavily on reservoir simulation. 
Geoscience and engineering teams collaborate to build 
geocellular models and upscale for dynamic simulation of 
storage reservoirs.
NSAI has built hundreds of models and has efficient, fit-for-
purpose workflows that can tailor a model to the specific 
needs of any client. These models can provide insight into 
key reservoir uncertainties pre-injection or deep insight 
into storage mechanisms once history-matched to actual 
performance data.
NSAI is also an industry leader in gas storage evaluations in 
North America. We have worked over 40 storage projects 
for our clients, assisting in area of review (AoR) updates, 
identifying and resolving wellbore issues, field studies, 
litigation, and more.
This experience has given NSAI a thorough understanding 
of all storage containment issues, with expertise in studies 
to support initial permitting and ongoing regulatory 
obligations. Additionally, NSAI has prepared thousands of 
reports using the definitions of the Petroleum Resources 
Management System (PRMS) of the Society of Petroleum 
Engineers (SPE). The SPE’s classification system for CO2 
storage, the Storage Resources Management System 
(SRMS), closely parallels the PRMS, and commerciality of 
projects is a key aspect.
Beyond storage fees, tax credits, and government 
subsidies, CCS projects evaluated under SRMS can be 
coupled with a revenue- and CO2-generating project for 
commercial determinations. NSAI’s time-tested processes 
for evaluating project technical and economic aspects are 
highly respected in the investor community.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Experience – NSAI has over 60 years of experience in integrated subsurface studies, providing technical and advisory 
services for clients in over 100 countries, both onshore and offshore. NSAI has evaluated dozens of natural gas 
storage projects and more than 10 permanent CO2 sequestration projects.
•	
Reputation – NSAI is known for the high quality of our work, the excellent service we provide to our clients, our strong 
respect for confidentiality, and our independence from the clients and properties for which we prepare evaluations.
•	
Expertise – NSAI has the technical skills needed for all subsurface aspects of CCS projects, including well planning, 
regional geology characterization, local geologic structural mapping, storage reservoir characterization, log and core 
data analysis, fluid PVT analysis, static and dynamic simulation modeling, and injection performance surveillance.
•	
Trusted Analysis and Advice – At NSAI, our goal is to be more than just a consultant; we strive to be a trusted advisor 
to our clients through full project life cycles and beyond.
GEOLOGIC MODELING, RESERVOIR SIMULATION AND CARBON STORAGE CERTIFICATIONS
Whether injecting into depleted hydrocarbon-bearing 
formations or into regionally extensive aquifers, NSAI has 
the expertise to certify the subsurface aspects of your 
carbon capture project. As a leader providing petroleum 
engineering and geology evaluation services to industry for 
over 60 years, NSAI staff can bring to bear an unparalleled 
skill set.
NSAI has geological staff that are experts at seismic 
interpretation and integration of well data to map 
formations, as well as reservoir engineering teams that are 
experts in dynamic modeling of fluid flow and CO2 storage 
processes. NSAI also employs specialized economic 
modeling software and capabilities to accurately quantify 
project value.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@nsai-petro.com
Web: 	
www.netherlandsewell.com
NETHERLAND, SEWELL & ASSOCIATES, INC.
NSAI integrated geologic modeling and reservoir simulation of Sleipner Field CCS Project CO2 plume migration.


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DESCRIPTION
CARBON STORAGE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
In a low-carbon environment, underground CO2 storage 
has the potential to be a cash-flow generating asset. This 
includes both mature, operational CCS projects as well as 
immature, future CCS projects. Like all corporate assets, 
CO2 storage owners should track and estimate the value 
of all CO2 storage assets. Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resources Management solution enables CCS operators 
to analyze the capacity of their CO2 storage assets and 
understand how that capacity is changing over time.
Benefits
•	
Track and analyze the full portfolio of CO2 storage 
assets – Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources 
Management application serves as a single source of 
truth for a full portfolio of CO2 storage assets.
•	
Supports SPE’s CO2 Storage Resources Management 
System (SRMS) - align with the industry standard 
framework for managing and reporting CO2 storage 
resources.
•	
Spend less time gathering data – engineers will have 
more time to analyze storage resources data and 
support decision-making.
•	
Reduce risk of data entry errors – company-specific 
data quality checks to identify errors early in the data 
gathering workflow. 
•	
Scalable for companies of all sizes - from small 
independents to international supermajors, companies 
around the world can take advantage of our solution.
•	
Future proof your CO2 storage business – capture 
and report CO2 storage resource estimates in a 
structured manner in preparation for future regulatory 
requirements.
Description
Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management is 
a cloud-based solution that captures storage estimates 
across a resource owner’s full portfolio of assets from 
mature, operational projects to less mature contingent or 
prospective storage resources. It is a best practice for a 
resource owner to gather estimates for all storage assets 
– to understand their value in the context of all corporate 
assets and prioritize investment accordingly.
The capacity of CO2 storage assets changes year-over-
year for a variety of reasons such as reservoir performance 
or economic conditions. Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resources Management solution reconciles year-over-
year changes allowing a CO2 storage owner to understand 
which factors are driving fluctuations in estimated reservoir 
capacity. The diagram below illustrates the change in CO2 
storage estimates over the course of a year. The starting 
estimate is represented by the bar on the left side. The 
ending estimate is represented by the bar on the right side. 
The items in between reconcile the difference in starting 
and ending estimates due to technical or economic factors:
Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management 
application is an extension of one of Quorum’s world-class 
software applications. Our application, Quorum Reserves, 
is used by oil and gas producers to track, estimate, and 
analyze oil and gas volumes in underground reservoirs. 
The same technology in Quorum Reserves has been used 
for Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management 
software application.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
In-depth analysis to support decision-making
•	
Understand the value of your assets and unlock their hidden value
•	
Greater consistency across asset teams
•	
Spend less time compiling data and ensuring data quality
•	
Transparency and governance to your data and processes
•	
Future-proof your business as the energy transition accelerates
CCUS OFFERINGS BY QUORUM
Quorum Software is a leading provider of energy software 
worldwide, serving more than 1,800 customers across the 
entire energy value chain in over 55 countries. Quorum’s 
solutions power growth and profitability for energy 
businesses by connecting people, workflows, and systems 
with decision-ready data. Twenty years ago, we delivered 
the industry’s first software for gas plant accountants, 
and today our solutions streamline business operations 
with industry-forward data standards and integrations. 
The global energy industry trusts Quorum’s experts and 
applications to successfully navigate the energy transition 
while delivering value today and into the future. 
For more information, visit www.quorumsoftware.com.
Quorum is developing solutions for the energy transition 
in many different areas including a) Carbon Capture, 
Utilization, and Sequestration b) Corporate Planning & 
Strategy c) Emissions Management d) Hydrogen & RNG, 
and e) Utility Scale Renewables. Below we outline a portion 
of our energy transition portfolio specific to CCUS. For a 
complete picture, please see our website:
https://www.quorumsoftware.com/solutions/energy-
transition/
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@quorumsoftware.com
Web: 	
www.quorumsoftware.com
QUORUM SOFTWARE


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PETROVR
Planning and developing Carbon Capture, Utilization and 
Storage projects necessitates the integration of the input 
of many technical and commercial functions. The quality 
of this integration, together with the ability to assess 
effectively and transparently all alternative development 
options, is essential to maximising the value of these 
projects. Furthermore, these projects are fraught with 
uncertainties, from the storage capacity, the costs and 
performance of all the wells and facilities involved as well 
as scheduling of the execution and operational activities. 
Throughout the maturation of these projects, storage 
owners are faced with decisions such as how many CO2 
injection wells are needed, what should the capacity of 
transmission pipelines and/or processing facilities be, and 
how to manage risks associated with the development? 
Each of these decisions will impact the success of the 
project both in terms of financial success and amount of 
CO2 that can be captured and safely stored. Quorum’s 
PetroVR application empowers engineers and planners 
to assess and compare all the development alternatives 
available, factoring in the impact of the risks and 
uncertainties into the decision-making process throughout 
the maturation process of these large and complex CCUS 
projects. 
Benefits
•	
Enhance CCUS project evaluation through integrating 
simulation covering all technical and commercial 
aspects in one single application.
•	
Streamline CCUS project evaluation by integrating 
simulation of all technical and commercial aspects into 
a single, comprehensive application.
•	
Improve the quality of the CCUS project development 
decisions throughout the project maturation process 
with the ability to assess and compare transparently 
and consistently the various development alternatives 
available, understand the trade-offs between these, 
and select the one that fits best your corporate 
strategic objectives. Understand the impact of the 
project risks and uncertainties and factor this into the 
decision-making process.
•	
Simulate the development of your CCUS project under 
uncertainties through Monte Carlo analysis.
•	
Manage production goals and net-zero commitments 
– actualize the challenges of net-zero development 
with easily configurable tooling to enable development 
planning and production optimization.
Description
Quorum’s PetroVR application is a comprehensive full-
cycle, integrated simulation software for exploration and 
development projects including specific functionalities to 
cover the CCUS use-case. 
PetroVR is built on more than 20 years of oil & gas field 
development experience. It permits engineers and 
planners to configure the model of their asset as necessary 
to reflect specific areas of complexity. It has an integrated 
simulation capability where users can specify any object 
and associated activities necessary to model their project 
throughout its life cycle. This includes reservoirs, wells, and 
facilities but also specific CO2 storage: CO2 injection wells 
and CO2 injection facilities. An illustration is provided in the 
figure below.
The application simulates the project execution and 
operation in a time step fashion covering the entire life of 
the project, consistently applying inputs, constraints and 
rules as specified by the user and thereby computing the 
expected production and injection volumes as well as 
the associated costs incurred through time, allowing the 
assessment of the economic viability of the project.
Storage Resources Management Standard (SRMS)
The Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) has developed 
a common framework for resource owners to account 
for CO2 storage resources called the Storage Resources 
Management Standard (SRMS). Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resources Management application aligns with the SRMS 
framework.
The above diagram illustrates the structure of the SRMS 
framework. It has two axes. The vertical axis indicates the 
maturity of a CCS project which is measured by the chance 
of commerciality. The most mature projects are accounted 
for as “capacity”, followed by ‘contingent storage 
resources’ and finally the least mature “prospective 
storage resources.” The horizontal axis indicates the range 
of uncertainty of CO2 storage capacity in a resource. As a 
project matures toward commerciality there is typically a 
narrower range of uncertainty. Resource owners usually 
capture three deterministic estimates of a CO2 storage 
resource: a low estimate, a best estimate, and a high 
estimate.
A standardized framework such as the SRMS empowers 
CCS operators to have a common basis of understanding 
to describe CO2 storage resources in different jurisdictions 
across different companies. Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resource Management application aligns with the 
SRMS framework. Like other resource-based industries, 
Quorum foresees a regulatory environment that requires 
CCS operators to publicly disclose their CO2 storage 
resources using a framework such as the SRMS. Quorum 
recommends that operators future-proof their CO2 storage 
business by adopting a standardized, auditable application 
to capture storage resource estimates. 
Please see our website: https://www.quorumsoftware.com/
solutions/energy-transition/carbon-capture-utilization-and-
sequestration/carbon-storage-resources-management/


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FLOWCAL
The Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) process involves 
collecting (capture) CO2 from industrial processes or from 
the atmosphere, transporting the CO2 via pipelines and 
injecting it into underground geologic formations. During 
this highly technical process, CO2 is handled in both 
gas and liquids (supercritical) phases making accurate 
measurement data management both a challenge and a 
requirement for successful and ongoing profitability of CCS 
projects. 
The responsibility of custody transfer measurement points 
means CO2 must be measured and correctly accounted 
for at the capture point, pipeline inlets, pipeline outlets, 
pipeline linepack/inventory, storage injection points, and 
finally, the storage inventory must also be tracked and 
balanced. A CCS operator must have a strong toolset to 
consolidate, review, correct and distribute an immense 
amount of measurement data across the organization. 
In addition, the CCS operator must perform this with the 
knowledge that the measured CO2 and inventory are 
accurate to minimize legal and financial exposure and 
maximize revenue.
FLOWCAL by Quorum is the tool that enables CCS 
operators manage CO2 measurement data.
Benefits
•	
Support for CO2 measurement in both gas and liquids 
(dense) phase 
•	
Support for a wide range of metering technologies 
such as coriolis, ultrasonic, orifice, linepack/linefill, 
caverns, etc.
•	
Compliance with measurement industry standards and 
regulations 
•	
Physical balancing by volume and mass
•	
Meet internal and external audit requirements.
•	
Financial risk reduction/elimination
Description
FLOWCAL by Quorum Software is one of the most robust 
measurement data management systems available, 
streamlining the measurement process and optimizing 
data integrity. Designed to operate as a data warehouse 
capable of serving the needs of an entire organization, 
FLOWCAL provides a corporate solution for the most 
demanding system requirements. It can be applied to 
CO2 measurement, hydrocarbon measurement (gas and 
liquids), helium and hydrogen measurement.
 
FLOWCAL is used by the largest energy producers and 
midstream operators to ensure every drop of hydrocarbon 
is reviewed and accounted for. New CCS operators are 
starting to rely on FLOWCAL to ensure their stringent 
measurement needs are met in support of their financial 
goals. FLOWCAL has an extensive toolset to avoid costly 
errors by using validation routines that flag erroneous 
data and identify issues in the field, reduce measurement 
uncertainty, identify ‘Lost And Unaccounted For’, physical 
system balance, and minimize risk by ensuring compliance, 
data transparency and a complete secure audit trail.
In addition to simulation capabilities, PetroVR has an 
advanced scenario manager enabling the easy and 
transparent generation of alternative development scenario 
models. This functionality facilitates the comparison of the 
development alternatives identified by the user making the 
“what if” analysis easy, transparent, and greatly enhancing 
the ability to generate insights into the trade-offs between 
decisions.
Many project engineers and planners rely on aggregating 
inputs from various spreadsheets to model their field 
development plan and possible alternatives. While 
spreadsheets are flexible, they are prone to errors. The 
approach is often cumbersome, time-consuming and does 
not offer any standardization across asset teams. PetroVR 
permits companies to replace spreadsheet modelling with 
a powerful business simulation approach that integrates all 
the elements of their project.  
The PetroVR application facilitates probabilistic analysis 
through its easy-to-use Monte Carlo functionality. Users 
can specify the range of uncertainty for every input variable 
that they need to consider in the evaluation of the project 
and generate the full range of expected outcome for any 
selected value measure reflecting all the uncertainties 
specified (see example below). CCUS are large and 
complex projects with many technical uncertainties as 
well as commercial. Factoring these uncertainties in the 
decision-making process is essential. 
Quorum’s PetroVR application has a long-standing track 
record of adding value and reducing risks associated with 
field development. CCUS operators can take advantage of 
this application’s powerful simulation, scenario analysis and 
probabilistic evaluation capabilities to guide and support 
their project development decision-making. 
Please see our website: https://www.quorumsoftware.
com/solutions/planning-economics-reserves/asset-
development-planning/petrovr/
CO2 Transportation and Injection Balance


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In summary, FLOWCAL enables CCS operators to review, 
correct, and account each CO2 molecule whether it is 
in gas or dense phase, in the pipeline or in underground 
storage. FLOWCAL can manage CO2 custody transfer 
data, balance the captured versus the injected CO2, keep 
track of CO2 inventories in the pipe and underground, 
and provide a holistic view of the CO2 moved across the 
CCS operation. System balancing can be managed from 
gas volume balance, liquids volume balance, and mass 
balance perspective providing a bird’s eye view of the 
entire CCS system. Please see our website: https://www.
quorumsoftware.com/solutions/measurement/gas-liquid-
measurement/
Dense phase CO2 volume statement


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FULL VALUE CHAIN 


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DESCRIPTION
Industrial carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a significant 
contributor to global warming and climate change. 
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 
Change (IPCC), one of the key measures for countries 
to accelerate their efforts toward achieving net zero 
emissions in accordance with the Paris Agreement, is 
the adoption and implementation of carbon capture 
and storage (CCS) technologies. A crucial aspect of a 
CCS system is the design and operation of its network 
infrastructure which encompasses gathering and export 
pipelines, storage facilities, compressors, heaters, coolers, 
pumps and injection systems for safe and reliable transport 
and storage of CO2 in subsurface formations.
However, transitioning from the design phase to the 
operational phase of any CCS network project poses 
significant challenges especially as the transportation and 
permanent storage of CO2 is different when compared 
to hydrocarbons specifically around understanding CO2 
corrosion and its thermodynamics. To date, most CO2 
sequestration experiences has been around enhanced oil 
and gas recovery (EOR/EGR). The challenges are made 
more difficult with the implementation of hub & cluster 
type networks. The complexity arises with having multiple 
emitters and sources of CO2 flowing into the network with 
varying pressures, temperatures, and impurity composition. 
Therefore, there is an identified need for a comprehensive 
modelling solution of the entire value chain of a CCS 
network, which would not only assist in the design phase 
as a proof-of-concept tool and provide detailed simulations, 
but also deployed as a predictive and real-time operational 
solution throughout the entire lifecycle of the network. 
Such a digital model would help reduce investment costs, 
operational expenditures and mitigate operational risks.
To address this knowledge gap in the CCS segment, ABB 
has developed an integrated digital solution called ABB 
Balance of Operations which harnesses the capabilities 
of digital twins for different aspects of a CCS network. 
This digital solution specifically focuses on two important 
parts of a CCS network, namely the transportation and 
permanent storage of CO2. 
During operations, on the above-surface element, this 
solution is capable of managing CO2 flow assurance and 
conduct CO2 thermodynamic modeling in real-time, as 
well as respond to the transients and interruptions within 
the network in real-time with regards to loss of emitter(s), 
well shut-ins, as well as pressure, temperature and 
flowrates fluctuation to provide responsive and flexible 
operation of the CCS cluster network. It is also able to 
analyze composition of impurities in individual CO2 streams 
from multiple emitters, calculate the blended emission 
composition from multiple emitters, and compute to predict 
corrosion factors, ensuring safety and reliability of the 
network infrastructure and its operation.
On the subsurface element of the CCS network, this 
solution is able to model the subsurface formation in 3D 
and in real-time in terms of its capacity, containment and 
injectivity. This allows for the availability of real-time data 
and parameters such as injection pressure, temperature 
and flowrates to be input into an optimization system.
A digital optimizer then computes and provides optimized 
setpoints for key operational aspects such as compression, 
heating, cooling and tight injection profiles according to the 
operational philosophy across multiple injection wells with 
varied subsurface pressures. The solution is also capable 
of modeling and forecasting the dispersion of CO2 within 
the subsurface formation throughout the lifecycle of the 
network. This optimization process ensures minimization 
of energy consumption and ensures high availability of the 
network.
ABB Balance of Operations for CCS networks is an 
integrated 
holistic 
digital 
solution 
which 
ensures 
operational flexibility and reliability through the entire 
operational lifecycle of a CCS network. It caters to the 
complexities of a CCS network by providing capabilities 
such as full-chain modeling of the CCS network, analysis 
of CO2 flow streams in terms of impurity composition, 
calculation of blended CO2 emission composition, 
computation and prediction of corrosion factors, modeling 
of subsurface geological formations, and optimization 
of energy consumption through compression, pumping, 
heating, cooling and injection rates. This solution aims to 
ensure high operational availability, infrastructural safety, 
and de-risk CCS network operations whilst optimizing 
operational costs.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
ABB CCS Balance of Operations embodies an end-to-end digital solution with energy optimization capabilities, focused on 
ensuring safe, reliable, and efficient operation of CCS networks with the following core functionalities: 
•	
Leading-edge modelling of CO2 processes and impurities
•	
Subsurface geological lifecycle modelling for CO2 dispersion
•	
Autonomous and optimized operation for real-time transient response
•	
Smart heating, cooling and energy-optimized compressor and pump control
•	
CO2 injection profile management
•	
Real-time CO2 corrosion prediction
•	
Training, simulation, and ‘look-ahead’ or ‘what-if’ scenario analysis for planning
•	
Enablement for autonomous operations
ABB BALANCE OF OPERATIONS FOR CCS NETWORKS
ABB is a prominent provider of electrification, controls/
automation, 
telecommunication, 
and 
digital 
(ECTD) 
solutions to energy industries, including carbon capture 
and sequestration (CCS). As a technology partner to the 
energy industry, ABB has advanced its comprehensive 
sustainability 
portfolio 
by 
integrating 
cutting-edge 
technology known as ABB Balance of Operations for CCS 
networks. Our patented product is tailored specifically to 
enhance the efficiency and management of CCS network 
operations from the emitters through to and including 
the subsurface storage formations, encompassing the 
complete network lifecycle.
CONTACT
Email: 	 daniel.tay@my.abb.com
Web: 	
www.new.abb.com
ABB PROCESS AUTOMATION


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DESCRIPTION
Across the carbon capture value chain, digital solutions 
for capture, transportation and storage can address the 
key challenges to successful commercialization and wide-
scale deployment of CCUS, by helping to reduce costs, 
minimize risks and ensure confidence in long-term solutions. 
Additionally, risk and reliability software evaluates project 
plans and economic feasibility by analyzing the effect of 
factors such as the equipment reliability and capacities, 
operations logic, storage limits, maintenance practices, 
logistics alternatives, weather, and market conditions. This 
dynamic, event-driven modeling technology can provide 
an accurate prediction of future performance to justify 
investment and operation decisions that will minimize the 
risks and will maximize profits across the asset lifecycle.
Digital Solutions from AspenTech can be used across the 
value chain by different stakeholders to: 
•	
Prioritize investment options
•	
Help to make technology more economic to deploy it at 
a wider scale
•	
Accelerate project execution
•	
Improve efficiency in operations
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT OF CAPTURE PROCESSES
Digital technologies, using well-known process simulators 
Aspen Plus® and Aspen HYSYS®, can help to perform 
technical and economic analysis through rigorous modeling 
of carbon capture or conversion of CO2 into valuable 
products, by representing the complex chemistry and 
thermodynamics.
GEOLOGIC CHARACTERIZATION
Characterization of geologic storage candidates with 
efficient subsurface studies to confirm technical and 
economic feasibility, disclose technical details of the 
proposed site and enhance confidence to support permit 
applications. 
PROJECT SCALE-UP AND EXECUTION
AspenTech’s Concurrent Engineering solution leverages 
digital technologies that improve collaboration between 
Licensors, Engineering & Construction companies, and 
owner-operators. Models used on previous technology 
development and R&D stages provide early visibility to 
help improve CAPEX allocation across any future projects 
and eliminate risks. Digital tools provide insights to size and 
select equipment and identify the need for corrosion or other 
types of sensors that could reduce the CAPEX needed. 
Scale-up uncertainties can be further evaluated with Aspen 
Fidelis™ to consider alternative processes and prioritize 
capital options. This dynamic, event-driven modeling 
technology can provide an accurate prediction of future 
performance to justify investment and operation decisions 
that will minimize the risks and will maximize profits across 
the asset lifecycle. 
CAPTURE TECHNO-ECONOMICS
Process modeling can further optimize capture processes 
and improve economics. AspenTech’s integrated economics, 
energy and emission analysis, enables iteration of process 
configurations, to reduce costs and carbon footprint, 
identifying the right tradeoff between capture efficiency and 
energy consumption. 
In December 2022, AspenTech announced a partnership 
with Saudi Aramco to provide a unique, integrated modelling 
and optimization solution that will enable capital intensive 
industries to address the identification of the most promising 
carbon capture and utilization paths by simultaneously 
considering economics, process design and operations 
constraints and CO2 reduction. The goal of this innovation 
is to enable businesses to make evidence-based decisions 
in support of adopting carbon management strategies that 
optimize and accelerate sustainable operations.
CARBON CAPTURE OPERATIONS 
Models from the design stages can be used for high-fidelity 
Operator Training Systems to help staff be prepared once 
the process is up and running. In addition to that, advanced 
process control technologies like Aspen DMC3, can improve 
the stability of the process, and reduce energy use in key 
unit operations.
LONG-TERM MONITORING OF GEOLOGICAL STORAGE 
In the long term, during operation of the carbon 
management system and at the post-closure stage, digital 
technology is crucial to enable reliable, transparent and 
auditable records of the performance of the carbon storage 
asset. Time lapse (4D) seismic monitoring allows the imaging 
of the growth of the CO2 plume in the reservoir and helps 
demonstrate both containment and conformance. Today’s 
AspenTech Subsurface Science & Engineering provides the 
tools to analyze and interpret monitoring measurements 
and to update performance prediction through 3D model 
calibration.
Integrated digitalization strategies for CCS, and related 
sustainability initiatives, will ensure long-term business 
resilience during the demanding and volatile Energy 
Transition. Choosing the right partner to guide your journey 
will be critical to tackle the magnitude of this challenge and 
the transformation required. AspenTech understands the 
value of partnership and the deep and lasting bonds that 
come from continuous engagement, working side-by-side 
with customers to identify new applications as they adapt to 
changing market demands while also ensuring sustainability 
progress.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Drive innovation in the development of new carbon capture technologies
•	
Evaluate risk in CCS systems to make informed investment decisions across the value chain
•	
Reduce capital and operational expenditures in carbon capture processes with rigorous process simulation
•	
Accelerate cost-effective commercialization and scale-up of carbon capture processes with optimized process designs
•	
Screen storage/sequestration candidates & select storage locations by evaluating capacity, containment and site 
ability for injection and monitoring performance
•	
Optimize injection conditions during storage and track CO2 movements in the subsurface to demonstrate regulatory 
conformance
CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS 
Digital technologies are crucial enablers for continuous 
innovation, economic scale of technologies, accelerated 
implementation, and complete confidence in geological 
CO2 storage.
AspenTech is an industrial software company for capital-
intensive industries with a long history of innovation 
that started over 40 years ago with the first process 
flowsheet simulator. AspenTech digital portfolio provides 
a comprehensive, holistic approach to asset optimization 
across design, operations and maintenance. 
For the carbon capture value chain, an end-to-end solution 
includes optimization of capture, transportation and 
storage. AspenTech process simulation software already 
has a strong track record of helping companies improve 
operational efficiency and reduce emissions and is even 
more crucial to CCUS. 
The powerful combination of AspenTech breakthroughs 
in process simulation, subsurface geophysical and 
geological modeling, AI-powered hybrid modeling, process 
optimization software and digital grid management can 
deliver results at scale—both economically and at an 
accelerated pace to meet the requirements of industrial 
carbon mitigation.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gerardo.munoz@aspentech.com 
Web: 	
www.aspentech.com 
ASPEN TECHNOLOGY


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DESCRIPTION
Baker Hughes has been supplying unbonded flexible pipe 
to the offshore oil & gas industry for more than 30 years, 
supporting the development of such projects that face some 
of the harshest conditions in the world. An unbonded flexible 
pipe is made up of a series of polymer and metallic layers 
that are uniquely configured to suit each project’s specific 
requirements.
The traditional oil & gas industry is witnessing a remarkable 
surge in demand for CO2-compatible pipelines, primarily 
fueled by the unique challenges posed by CO2-rich pre-
salt reservoirs in Brazil. In these projects, CO2 stripped from 
the pre-salt fields’ production fluids is reinjected into the 
reservoirs at high pressures.
Baker Hughes has undertaken significant research and 
development over more than five years to support the 
use of its conventional flexible pipe products in CO2-rich 
applications. This research, which includes small-, mid- and 
full-scale tests, has led to a detailed understanding of the 
critical design parameters for transporting CO2. A review by 
an Independent Verifying Authority has led to an approved 
‘safe envelope’ of operating conditions under which no 
failure modes, including stress corrosion cracking, will occur.
Baker Hughes’ proven expertise in CO2-rich applications 
has positioned the company as a leading supplier of flexible 
pipes, with more than 70km of such pipes already installed. 
These CO2-compatible products leverage the same set of 
standard materials and manufacturing techniques employed 
in more traditional applications, ensuring consistent quality 
and performance across the board.
Based on the product’s capability and track record, Baker 
Hughes’ flexible pipes are equally suitable for use in CCS 
applications and there are clear value propositions for 
this product. For example, shallow water CCS dynamic 
applications necessitate a technology that can withstand 
CO2 and a high-fatigue environment. Only an unbonded 
flexible pipe has a proven track record in both.
When used as infield flowlines, flexible pipes can lead to 
a lower total-installed cost than rigid pipes. Furthermore, 
flexibles remove the need for rigid jumpers, which require 
metrology and fabrication before installation. This hugely 
benefits the schedule at the most critical time – shortly 
before start-up.
Baker Hughes remains committed to providing cutting-
edge, reliable solutions for the offshore oil & gas industry, 
while simultaneously addressing the growing need for CO2-
compatible pipelines in CCS applications. By consistently 
delivering high-quality, innovative products, Baker Hughes 
cements its position as a trusted partner, helping to shape a 
sustainable future for the energy sector.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Proven capability for high-pressure CO2 transportation using standard materials and product design
•	
Project schedule is hugely benefited when compared to rigid alternatives
•	
Enabling technology for shallow-water dynamic CO2 risers
OFFSHORE FLEXIBLE PIPES
Subsea CCS projects require pipelines for transportation of CO2 to the reservoir. Key requirements of these pipelines 
include technical capability, cost-effectiveness and risk reduction. Baker Hughes unbonded flexible pipes have a proven 
track record in CO2-rich applications that address these technical requirements. Baker Hughes’ flexible pipe product has 
the potential to offer significant cost and risk benefits to a CCS project compared to alternative options such as rigid pipes.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES


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DESCRIPTION
The Regenerative Froth Contactor (RFC) provided by 
ICS is an innovative gas/liquid absorption co-current 
contactor system equipped with the Corrugated Screen 
Packing (CSP) that offers promising reductions in 
equipment size versus conventional absorbers. The RFC 
absorber represents a cutting-edge technology. It is static 
equipment, having no moving parts, and operates in a 
downward gas- liquid ‘co-flow’ configuration, with pulse 
regime hydrodynamic condition. While conventional 
absorbers work with a thin film of liquid over the packing 
itself, the CSP is made of convoluted screens that 
maximize the solvent pulsing effect while minimizing the 
metal packing material; by inducing the RFC to operate 
under a froth condition in two phase flow, the diffusivity film 
over the traditional packing surface is replaced by millions 
of bubbles and droplets in the volume of the tower. These 
bubbles are created as bands of froth collapse and are 
regenerated. The liquid and gas phases enter the tower co-
currently from the top, flow through the absorber in pulsing 
regime and are disengaged at the bottom of the tower. The 
pulse flow is not imposed by a mechanical stimulation but 
set up as a purely hydrodynamic multi-phase phenomenon 
depending on the phases flow rates and the CSP design. 
The gas passes through multiple zones of froth along the 
absorber and gas components gets absorbed into the 
solvent.
In carbon capture application, the CO2 will be transferred 
from the gas into the liquid phase in the froth present 
throughout the whole volume of the column. The 
RFC absorber/reactor design enables the system to 
accommodate high gas flow rates and liquid/gas ratios 
at acceptable back pressure and without encountering 
flooding in the column. RFC systems can also be used 
in processes with precipitating solvents or high levels of 
entrained solids, leading to 3-phase contactors. There is 
minimal-to-no fouling or additional pressure drop penalty 
with RFC technology, even under high particulate loads 
and high viscosity.
Based on the selected gas/liquid system’s physical 
properties (e.g. viscosity, presence of solid precipitation), 
the geometry of the CSP packing can be selected to 
enforce a coarser/thinner froth. 
Applications of the RFC technology can be used across 
various carbon capture platforms, ranging from natural 
gas treatment, post-combustion capture, and air pollution 
control, e.g., indoor air quality management, direct air 
capture
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Higher mass transfer rate  
•	
Significant absorption tower height reduction 
•	
Significant absorption tower cross-sectional area and footprint reduction
•	
Fouling and salts deposition resistance
•	
Limited impact of high viscosity on mass transfer rate
REGENERATIVE FROTH CONTACTOR
Baker Hughes has acquired a Canadian start-up, Industrial 
Climate Solutions (ICS), to further strengthen engineering 
technology developments through process intensification. 
The technology provided by ICS is the Regenerative Froth 
Contactor (RFC) equipped with Corrugated Screen Packing 
(CSP). The RFC operates in co-current flow under the pulse 
regime generated by the gas and liquid phases that flow 
through the CSP packing, a static equipment.  The RFC 
provides an increase of effective mass transfer surface that 
reduces the required packing volume, within admissible 
pressure drop values for the process. The technology 
is solvent-agnostic and has been validated at lab scale. 
ICS is currently conducting the implementation for post-
combustion carbon capture applications within Baker 
Hughes portfolio.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Demonstrated low specific thermal energy consumption of 2.6 GJ/ton CO2 
•	
Uses ammonia, a commodity chemical that is easily procured and not bound to a specific supplier
•	
Stable reagent. Unlike amine-based solvent systems, it does not suffer from thermal and oxidative degradations
•	
Flexible for process integration. Allows efficient-direct high temperature waste heat utilization or direct electrical 
heating without the degradation of solvent performance
•	
Tolerant towards oxygen in flue gas and towards contaminants such as SOx and NOx
•	
Produces less harmful emissions and potentially useful by-products
•	
Regenerates CO2 at high purity (> 99.5%) at elevated pressure, thus requiring less compression energy for the 
downstream CO2 product
CHILLED AMMONIA PROCESS 
The Chilled Ammonia Process (CAP) was developed to 
address the challenges of removing carbon dioxide from 
low-pressure flue gases, which were generated by fossil-
fuel-based power plants and industrial emissions points, 
such as coal-fired power plants, waste-to-energy power 
plants, biomass power plants, cement plants, refineries, 
and petrochemical complexes.
CAP is a post-combustion carbon-capture process that 
uses a non-proprietary solvent formulation based on 
ammonia. Ammonia is a low-cost, inorganic commodity 
chemical, readily available on the global market from 
multiple sources and not bound to any specific supplier. 
It is also stable, tolerant to flue gas contaminants and 
typically exhibits very low and controllable loss in the CAP 
process.  Moreover, green ammonia (produced from green 
hydrogen) could be used instead of conventional ammonia 
in the CAP process.
Amine-based solvents have a tendency to degrade 
as a result of exposure to hot environments (thermal 
degradation), in the presence of oxygen (oxidative 
degradation) and in acid gas reactions (such as NOx). 
The degradation results in a reduction of performance, 
solvent loss, equipment corrosion and the generation of 
volatile degradation compounds that are emitted into the 
treated flue gas, including nitrosamines, which are known 
carcinogens. Such degradation phenomena are absent 
for CAP, as the process uses an ammonia-based solvent, 
which is inorganic. CAP has the added advantage of being 
able to regenerate CO2 at elevated pressure, resulting in 
reduced energy costs to liquefy or further compress the 
CO2 downstream. 
CAP has been validated at several test facilities with a 
design capacity of up to 100 ktpa CO2, treating flue gases 
generated by oil boilers, coal boilers and industrial off-
gases. A CAP plant designed to capture up to 80 ktpa 
CO2 has been operated at Test Centre Mongstad (TCM) 
in Norway for 2 years, where it demonstrated low specific 
thermal energy consumption of 2.6 GJ/ton CO2 on refinery 
cracker offgas (12.5 -16.0% CO2). The testing at TCM also 
demonstrated CAP’s ability for quick start-up, low ammonia 
emissions, high CO2 product purity and meeting targeted 
CO2 capture rates.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Flue Gas In
DCC
Flue Gas 
Condensate
Flue Gas
Blower
CO2
Absorber
CO2
Regenerator
Reboiler
Steam In
Return
Condensate
REF
REF
DCH
Treated
Flue Gas
Water
Wash
NH3 Stripper
Cooling
Steam
REF
CW
Product CO2
to Compression
Chiller System
REF
CO2 Wash
Flue Gas
Water
Rich Solution
Lean Solution
CO2
NH3/CO2
REF   
   Refrigerant


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
The Chilled Ammonia Process (CAP) uses an ammoniated 
aqueous carbonate solution to absorb CO2 from the flue 
gases at ambient pressure and low temperature. Unlike 
other technologies, the functionality of the ammonium 
solution is not affected by oxygen and easily purged of 
heat stable salts formed by trace acidic components, 
which may pass dedicated flue gas preconditioning steps. 
Moreover, since its gaseous emissions and liquid waste 
streams are non-toxic, no additional treatment facilities are 
required.
A simplified process flow diagram of the CAP technology is 
shown in the accompanying figure and the process can be 
described as follows.
Inlet flue gas first undergoes cooling via a direct contact 
cooler (DCC) that enables the contact of gas with cooling 
and chilled water to lower the flue gas temperature to a 
suitable level (typically below 15 °C), which is needed for 
the CO2 absorption process and water balance. Most of the 
water vapour contained in the flue gas is removed in this 
step, which reduces the volumetric gas flow and increases 
the CO2 concentration. For conventional amine-based 
solvents, a flue gas pre-treatment step is required, which 
is typically integrated with the DCC to reduce NOx, SOx 
and other contaminants in the flue gas to very low levels 
to decrease degradation and formation of heat-stable salts 
when the flue gas interacts with the solvent. However, for 
CAP, this pre-treatment step is typically not required as 
the ammonia-based solvent is able to tolerate these flue 
gas contaminants. Strong acids such as SOx react with 
ammonia and form heat-stable salts, which are withdrawn 
from the system as an aqueous by-product.    
Cooled flue gas from the DCC enters the bottom of the 
absorber column, where it is washed counter-currently 
with lean ammonia-based solvent (orange line). CO2 
is selectively removed from the flue gas in a chemical 
absorption process using the alkaline lean solvent. The 
lean solvent is a solution comprising ammonia, water 
and CO2 where different species (ammonium carbamate, 
ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium carbonate and a 
limited amount of free ammonia in an aqueous solution) 
are in equilibrium. The dissolved ammonia species react 
with CO2 from the flue gas in the absorber by shifting the 
species’ equilibria towards bicarbonate. The CO2-rich 
solvent (green line) leaves at the bottom of the absorber 
and is sent to the regenerator section, where it is heated 
to a temperature high enough for CO2 to be released 
from the solvent. A reboiler located at the bottom of the 
regenerator column provides the heat to the solvent. The 
heating source is typically steam, although hot oil or heat 
from a direct-fired or electric heater can also be used due 
to the absence of thermal degradation. 
Heat is imparted to the solvent to shift the equilibria to 
ammonia-rich species releasing the absorbed CO2, which 
leaves at the top of the regenerator column. Compared 
to the amine-based post-combustion technologies that 
regenerate CO2 at near atmospheric pressure, CAP 
regenerates CO2 at an elevated pressure (14 bar - 25 
bar[a)), which reduces the downstream compression power 
requirements.
Regenerated lean solvent (orange line) is returned to the 
absorber after undergoing cooling through heat exchange 
with the cold rich solvent in the lean-rich heat exchanger, 
which simultaneously heats the rich solvent. This is an 
important heat integration step that significantly reduces 
the reboiler heat requirement.
Treated flue gas exiting the top of the absorber column 
contains residual CO2 and ammonia, which is recovered 
with a water wash step to prevent unacceptable emissions 
of ammonia into the atmosphere. After the water wash 
step, the flue gas is routed to a flue gas heater. A guard 
system is integrated with the flue gas heater, which relies 
on the injection of sulfuric acid to neutralize any residual 
ammonia, converting it into ammonium sulphate. The flue 
gas is reheated with warm water condensed from the DCC, 
which serves to raise the temperature of the final treated 
flue gas to a temperature high enough to be released into 
the stack and to optimize the water balance of the system.


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DESCRIPTION
MSP is a post-combustion technology that is applicable to 
a wide range of flue gases. It uses a blend of ammonium 
and potassium-based salts to absorb CO2 from flue gases 
at ambient pressure and temperature. The stability of the 
inorganic solvent used by MSP’s ammonium solution 
is not affected by oxygen and shows high tolerance to 
acidic trace components present in the incoming flue gas. 
The process is characterized by very low emissions and 
produces little-to-no toxic waste.
A simplified process flow diagram of the MSP technology is 
depicted in the accompanying figure and the process can 
be described as follows.
Inlet flue gas first undergoes cooling to 20 - 30 °C in a direct 
contact cooler (DCC) and subsequently enters Absorber 
1, where it contacts the mixed salt solvent counter-
currently. The mixed salt solvent in Absorber 1, which has 
a higher concentration of ammonium-based species than 
potassium-based species (high ammonia/potassium ratio), 
performs the bulk removal of CO2, absorbing 60-80% of 
the CO2 in the flue gas. The remaining CO2 is absorbed in 
Absorber 2, which operates with the mixed-salt solvent with 
a lower ratio of ammonium-based species to potassium-
based species than that of the solvent feed of Absorber 1. 
Absorber 2 performs the trim removal of CO2 to achieve 
an overall CO2 capture rate of more than 90% and reduces 
the ammonia slip from Absorber 1. A water wash located at 
the top of Absorber 2 further reduces the ammonia content 
in the treated flue gas to ensure that it meets the ammonia 
emission limits. 
Both absorbers operate with liquid recycle using heat 
exchangers to remove the heat of reaction and keep 
the solution at the optimum temperature for efficient 
absorption and minimum ammonia slip. The CO2-rich 
solvent collected from the absorbers is sent to the 
regenerator for regeneration via an integrated rich-lean 
heat exchanger network that is designed to recover 
sensible heat.
Heat is supplied to the regenerator via a reboiler located 
at the bottom of the column. The increase in temperature 
releases CO2 as a gas and regenerates the mixed-salt 
solvent to be returned to Absorber 1 and Absorber 2. 
CO2 is released at an elevated pressure of 10 - 20 bar(a) 
from the regenerator column, which serves to reduce the 
downstream CO2 compression power requirements.
The CO2-lean mixed salt solvent is drawn from the lower-
middle stage of the column and sent back to Absorber 1 
to perform bulk CO2 removal. Near the bottom of the 
regenerator where the temperature is higher, ammonia is 
vaporized, resulting in a lean solvent with low ammonia/
potassium ratio, which is returned to Absorber 2 where it 
performs the trim removal of CO2 and reduces ammonia 
losses.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Reduced reboiler energy consumption of 2.0 – 2.3 GJ/ton CO2 
•	
Uses inexpensive, industrially available chemicals (potassium and ammonium salts)
•	
Stable reagent. Unlike amine-based solvent systems, it does not suffer from thermal and oxidative degradation
•	
Tolerant towards oxygen in flue gas and to contaminants such as SOx and NOx
•	
Regenerates CO2 at elevated pressure, thus requiring less compression energy for the downstream CO2 product
•	
Reduced auxiliary electricity loads
MIXED-SALT PROCESS
Baker Hughes uses the Mixed-Salt Process (MSP) for 
CO2 capture under license from SRI International. SRI 
International received support from the US Department 
of Energy’s Office of Fossil Energy and National Energy 
Technology Laboratory (NETL) for the development of this 
technology.
MSP is a post-combustion carbon-capture process that 
uses a novel solvent formulation, which is based on 
potassium carbonate and ammonium salts. Both chemicals 
are low-cost, inorganic commodity chemicals, and readily 
available on the global market from multiple sources. 
The inorganic solvent used by MSP is tolerant to flue gas 
contaminants (such as SOx, NOx, and O2), unaffected 
by thermal and oxidative degradation, results in lower 
emissions, lower toxicity, and higher CO2 regeneration 
pressure 
compared 
to 
conventional 
amine-based 
solutions. MSP has been demonstrated at the capacity of 
0.25 tpd at the SRI campus in Menlo Park, USA. A 10 tpd 
pilot-scale plant to demonstrate the MSP technology at the 
University of Illinois is currently in the design phase.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Flue Gas In
DCC
Flue Gas
Condensate
Flue Gas
Blower
Absorber
1
CO2
Regenerator
Reboiler
Steam In
Return
Condensate
CW
CW
CW
CO2 Ovhd 
Reflux
Product CO2
to Compression
Absorber
2
CW
Water Wash
Treated
Flue Gas


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DESCRIPTION
Compact Carbon Capture has transformed the process 
equipment used in post-combustion carbon capture by 
introducing rotation and high G-forces to capture CO2. The 
G-forces are created in several cross-flow rotating packed 
beds. CO2-lean solvent is distributed from the inner axis 
and horizontally flung outwards in the direction of the wall 
of the column, while the flue gas moves vertically from the 
bottom to the top. Mass transfer takes place between the 
flue gas and the solvent in a cross-flow type arrangement. 
Due to the rotation of the packed bed within the column 
that induces high centrifugal forces (60-100 G-force), the 
solvent is accelerated when it hits the packing structure, 
forming small droplets. This generates a large vapor-liquid 
contact area compared to traditional static mass transfer 
technology that rely on gravity. The larger contact area 
between gas and liquid results in a faster mass transfer of 
CO2 from the flue gas into the solvent droplets, resulting 
in a much shorter absorber column height compared to 
conventional, static absorber columns.
The high G-forces allow for the application of highly viscous 
solvents that improve the process efficiency. Higher 
solvent concentration results in higher absorption rates. 
When this is combined with the compactness introduced 
by the process intensification, a considerably lower solvent 
volume is needed, and the pump capacity needed for 
solvent transfer is reduced. 
The compact stripper is a combined reboiler and desorber 
unit that can operate at higher pressures and handle highly 
viscous solvents. High-speed rotation of the stripper unit 
introduces turbulence and high G-force to the solvent 
regeneration, which are advantageous for mass and heat 
transfer, resulting in very compact equipment. The rotating 
bed desorber/stripper can be described as a lightweight 
pressurized shell-and-tube heat exchanger where the 
“hot-side” tube bundle rotates to generate the centrifugal 
force required to produce small solvent droplets.  Instead 
of a static regenerator column with attached reboiler in 
a conventional solvent-based system, CCC™ will have a 
single compact rotating bed/flash drum that both heats the 
rich solvent and flashes off CO2 to generate a high purity 
(>99%) CO2 product stream. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Up to 75% reduction in the overall size of the capture plant compared to conventional technologies
•	
Up to 50% reduction in capital expenditure compared to conventional technologies
•	
The possibility to reduce operating expenses significantly by using new, viscous, and efficient solvents
•	
Reduced lead time through standardized and containerized production, design thinking for simplified logistics, and 
decreased demand for civil works
•	
Modular scalability to increase the deployment speed of CO2 capture equipment. For example, it is possible to invest 
in partial capture right away and increase the capture capacity at a later stage.
COMPACT CARBON CAPTURE (CCC)
Baker Hughes acquired Compact Carbon Capture (CCC), 
a pioneering technology development company based 
in Bergen, Norway, that specializes in compact carbon 
capture solutions. CCC employs the rotating packed bed 
technology, a novel process intensification that utilizes 
centrifugal acceleration to intensify mass transfer, thereby 
reducing the equipment size and cost. CCC’s technology 
is solvent-agnostic and in principle, can be applied to any 
solvent developed for post-combustion carbon capture. 
Using its rotating packed bed technology, CCC drastically 
increases the vapor-liquid contact area, overcoming the 
traditional hydraulics limitations. Compared to traditional 
solvent-based systems using static equipment, CCC’s 
enhanced mass transfer results in reduced residence time 
in both the absorber and the regenerator, thereby requiring 
much smaller equipment.
CCC is currently validated at the pilot scale at Equinor’s 
test facilities (PLAB) in Porsgrunn, Norway. Steps for further 
advancement are ongoing, with a demonstration plant at 
the 15 tpd scale currently in the engineering stage.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Reduced compression train parasitic power consumption
•	
Optimized high compression ratio across a wide range of flow rates
•	
Optimum rotor balance for low vibration level
•	
Easily accessible components for maintenance	
•	
Automatic capacity control and safety system to reliably match any operating condition
•	
Reduced lead time through standardized and containerized production, design thinking for simplified logistics, and 
decreased demand for civil works
TRANSPORTATION
Leveraging its extensive domain expertise in compression 
and pumping technologies from decades of experience in 
related areas such as urea and liquefied natural gas, Baker 
Hughes has the comprehensive capabilities to make the 
compression of CO2 safer, easier and more cost-effective 
for CCUS applications. Baker Hughes has focused its 
attention on customizing complete compression trains 
suited for the unique characteristics of CO2 so that these 
can operate more efficiently and minimize the overall 
parasitic power consumption of CCUS processes. 
Baker Hughes offers a range of products, including 
reciprocating, centrifugal and integrally geared CO2 
compressors, as well as centrifugal CO2 pumps. These 
technologies have undergone years of proven in-field 
performance. Baker Hughes has also continued to develop 
and optimize these technologies at our global research 
centres, performing extensive testing in both laboratory 
and in-field environments before launching these products 
for our customers’ use.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
The operating envelope for CO2 delivery to sequestration 
sites is very broad in terms of volumetric flow and delivery 
pressure. It ranges from several thousand m3/h at relatively 
low pressures, up to a few hundred m3/h at extremely high 
pressures (700-800 bar). Baker Hughes offers a range of 
customizable CO2 compression systems, depending on site 
conditions such as delivery pressure, temperature, cooling 
sources and gas composition. General configuration 
options for CO2 compression are shown in the table below.
PRESSURE
CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
< 200 bar
In-line compressor
Integrally geared compressor  
+ pump
> 200 bar
In-line compressor + HP pump
Integrally geared compressor  
with MP pump + HP pump
MP = medium pressure; HP = high pressure
Baker Hughes has optimized the configuration of the 
overall CO2 compressor-pump train for CCUS applications. 
This includes the selection of the intermediate pressure 
between the last compression stage and the pump suction 
with the goal of decreasing the total power consumption 
and cost.
Integrally geared compressors
The main advantage of integrally geared centrifugal 
compressors are that coolers can be installed after each 
stand-alone stage. Baker Hughes’ design features a 
bull gear and from one to four high-speed pinions, with 
one or two impellers mounted on each pinion shaft. 
Stand-alone stages optimize impeller speed and allow 
impellers to operate at higher peripheral speed and level 
of compression. Each stage can be fitted with inlet guide 
vanes to eliminate the need for recirculation for partial 
loads. The net result is a high efficiency operation that 
requires less work than an in-line compressor.
In-line centrifugal compressors
Baker Hughes has supplied more than 200 in-line 
compressor units with discharge pressure within the 
range of 200 bar. The typical train arrangement includes 
a steam turbine or electric motor that drives a low-speed, 
horizontally split compressor, and a high-speed barrel 
compressor through an increasing gearbox, typically 
followed by a pump for CO2 injection. For applications 
where the CO2 stream contains H2S and water, Baker 
Hughes uses primarily stainless steel for improved 
corrosion resistance.
Pumps
Baker Hughes’ development of its high-pressure CO2 
injection pumps rely on the experience of over 1,000 multi-
stage centrifugal pumps for liquefied gas applications. Our 
multistage barrel pump is a good fit for CO2 applications, 
providing better overall efficiency compared with the in-
line rotor configurations, thanks to its opposing back-to-
back impeller configuration.


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Collect multiple measurements with a single cable including distributed fibre optic sensing, pressure/temperature 
gauges for well integrity, compaction monitoring, and seismic data. 
•	
Utilizes CoreBright™ hydrogen resistant fibres to limit the effects of hydrogen darkening
•	
Cable is cladded with robust Inc 825 corrosion-resistant nickel alloy for maximum protection against chemicals, 
abrasion, crimping and crush.
•	
Continuous cable with no orbital welds
•	
Fibre In Metal Tube (FIMT) utilizes continuous (splice-free) fibres throughout
•	
Equipped with excess fibre to ensure that no strain is transferred to the optical fibre core during deployment or 
operation. Excess fibre compensates for thermal expansion, as well as tubing stretch.
SUREVIEW™ WITH COREBRIGHT™ OPTICAL FIBRE
Reliable downhole measurement of well and reservoir 
parameters is imperative to the success of geological 
sequestration 
projects. 
Baker 
Hughes 
is 
uniquely 
positioned 
to 
holistically 
address 
the 
monitoring 
challenges. Baker Hughes leverages a broad portfolio of 
technology and experience across permanent downhole 
gauges, microseismic monitoring, wireline monitoring, and 
fibre optic solutions. Specifically, fibre optic monitoring 
is an effective solution to gather a range of real-time 
data downhole. These systems can provide distributed 
temperature, acoustic & strain measurements, transmit 
point gauge data, and capture seismic measurements for 
use in vertical seismic profiling. The majority of traditional 
downhole fibre optic installations are intended for 10-
20 years of hydrocarbon production life. However, the 
geological sequestration projects can require much longer 
service life. SureVIEW™ with CoreBright™ technology is a 
proprietary fibre optic cable design with industry-leading 
40+ years of reliability and unique resistance to common 
hydrogen darkening failure. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
SureVIEW™ downhole cable by Baker Hughes uses 
CoreBright™ optical fibre, which leads the industry in 
hydrogen darkening resistance, a leading cause of failure 
for fibre optic systems over time. CoreBright™ fibre is 
constructed from pure silica that minimizes hydrogen 
darkening. The cable also includes a layer of hydrogen- 
absorbing gel. This combination provides the industry’s 
best protection against hydrogen darkening.
Fabricating a downhole optical cable with the performance 
and reliability demanded by our industry requires a 
sophisticated understanding of fibre design, fibre coatings, 
cable manufacturing processes, and cable construction. 
Fibres are typically coated, often with carbon, to prevent 
this hydrogen darkening. However, over time, this coating 
can break down or suffer from uneven application during 
manufacturing. A well applied coating will likely break 
down in about 20 years, particularly at higher temperatures 
(above 150 °C). CoreBright™ fibre offers its extended 
lifetime through a simple principle: instead of attempting 
to avoid hydrogen damage by trying to block hydrogen, 
CoreBright™ optical fibre avoids the hydrogen damage by 
preventing the reaction between the SiO2 structure of the 
optical fibre and the hydrogen. In addition, Baker Hughes’ 
fibre optic cables are fitted with hydrogen scavenging gels 
to further reduce darkening risk. 
In this way, Baker Hughes’ solution is unique: the fibre will 
not darken, and reliable readings over the full life of the 
installation are assured. Independent testing has concluded 
that CoreBright™ optical fibre is the only fibre in the industry 
that is suitable for harsh downhole environments over a 
long duration. It is the only known fibre that was designed 
for, and has demonstrated, long-term immunity to first and 
second-order hydrogen darkening effects.
1
SureVIEW™ fibre optic cables, powered by CoreBright™ 
fibre, have been installed in over 300 wells worldwide.  As 
of today, there are no instances of hydrogen darkening 
ever experienced. In addition, during high-temperature 
monitoring work performed by Baker Hughes for electrical 
submersible pumps where it is common practice to test the 
fibre as the pumps are pulled, the CoreBright™ fibre has 
maintained its mechanical and optical reliability in every 
instance. Proof-testing of the fibre showed levels that are 
typical of ‘as-built’ condition and demonstrated negligible 
changes in optical loss profiles.
High reliability and longevity enable the use of fibre optic 
measurement in more applications particularly behind the 
casing where workover is likely impossible. Baker Hughes’ 
SureVIEW™ downhole cable is expected to improve data 
quality and facilitate better decision-making in geological 
sequestration today. 
1  
tedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Provides superior reliability in long-life and/or demanding (high-pressure and high-temperature) applications
•	
Derives finest pressure/temperature measurement resolution attainable
•	
Deploys multiple gauge combinations on a single standardized carrier
•	
Eliminates the need for additional splices, increases reliability, and reduces installation time through unique 
construction configurations with fewer connections
•	
Deploys multiple gauges, flowmeters, and valve positions to provide redundant readings
•	
Serves as platform for future developments
SURESENS™ QPT ELITE PDHG
Well-known pressure and temperature are key to proper 
functioning throughout a CO2 storage system. For most 
applications, the best way to monitor these parameters is 
with permanent downhole gauges (PDHGs). These gauges 
can be used as a standalone means of measurement or 
as calibration for a fibre optic-based or other extensive 
measurement system. Baker Hughes leverages the 
quality and performance of the SureSENS™ line to execute 
integrated monitoring solutions that combine point gauges, 
fibre optics, along with periodic means of measurement 
such as wireline logging data. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
1  
tedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)
The SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge for permanent 
downhole installations measures static and dynamic 
pressures and temperatures while introducing a step 
change in reliability and accuracy. The gauge is qualified 
for operation at pressures less than 35,000 psi (2,414 
bar) and temperatures up to 225 °C (437 °F). The static 
and dynamic pressure information obtained can be used 
to determine the effects of injection and plume growth 
on monitoring wells, monitor injection characteristics, 
and provide input or validation to reservoir models. The 
SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge includes the new ELITE 
electronics package, built upon Baker Hughes’ industry-
leading STAR hybrid electronic package design. The 
ELITE electronics package incorporates an application-
specific integrated circuit (ASIC), providing a new level 
of reliability to the industry. Baker Hughes provides three 
configuration options—single, dual, and triple gauge. The 
single-gauge configuration is an economical option that 
will also permit the smallest possible running diameter 
for a streamlined, slim-hole gauge carrier. A dual-gauge 
configuration provides isolated operational redundancy 
of electronics and transducer at any given installation 
point. Each gauge in a dual package operates individually, 
providing independent measurements for data redundancy 
and integrity verification. The triple gauge option can offer 
redundancy or be ported to record three independent 
pressure measurements. The shorter carrier for a side-by-
side triple-gauge assembly also retains a slim hole running 
outside diameter. 
For applications requiring long active life and high 
data accuracy, even in demanding high-pressure/high-
temperature type environments, the SureSENS™ QPT ELITE 
gauge system provides a flexible and reliable solution. 
Being highly robust, the SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge 
maintains mechanical integrity by deep-penetration and 
high vacuum, electron-beam fusion welds, without the 
need for filler material. Only two fittings, the pressure port 
and the tubing encapsulated conductor (TEC), are required 
to interface the gauge with the carrier. The gauge pressure 
interface connection to the carrier can be externally 
tested in the direction in which it will experience pressure, 
eliminating the need for an internal pressure test tool. 
The TEC’s primary seal is a dual metal-to-metal pressure-
testable interface. The mechanical package is completely 
integrated into the gauge assembly, which eliminates the 
requirement for external Y-block components.
Gauge Carrier configured with QPT ELITE permanent downhole gauge


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Maximize storage capacity within safety limits
•	
Compliance with regulations
•	
Monitor structure integrity (cap-rock & faults)
•	
Distinguish induced versus natural seismicity
•	
Avoid water breakthrough
MICROSEISMIC MONITORING SERVICES
Monitoring seismicity is essential to guarantee the integrity 
of geological sequestration reservoirs and caverns. In 
terms of physical integrity, seismicity in the cap rock is an 
indicator of the risk of catastrophic failure. At the reservoir 
scale, seismicity at faults can identify the reactivation 
by fluid injection or that they provide a pathway to the 
surface for the stored fluids. With more public attention 
towards induced seismicity and environmental impact 
of human activity, reputational integrity is becoming as 
important as physical integrity. It is therefore becoming 
essential to detect growing activity trends before critical 
situation happens to support operators’ injection program. 
Baker Hughes provides the whole range of customized 
microseismic services and instrumentation to provide 
lifetime monitoring of CCS assets.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
1  
tedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)
The range of the monitoring solution can be described in 
3 distinct stages that can be performed as a whole or as 
independent services.
Network design
In this phase, consideration is given to the project’s 
constrains (regulatory, geological, operational and logistical) 
and advanced modelling is used to determine the most 
cost-effective network that will meet the project’s objectives. 
This network can consist of a specific technology (surface or 
downhole solutions with analogic geophone or fibre optics) 
to be deployed, but can also have a combination of them to 
benefit from their different capabilities. 
Installation and maintenance
Baker Hughes ensures supply of all the required 
instrumentation: surface sensors, shallow buried sensors 
(100 m), borehole sensors, surface electronics, fibre optics, 
digitizers, and fully equipped seismic cabinets. Where not 
internally developed, Baker Hughes works with trusted 
suppliers with long-term relationships to develop reliable 
hardware (Mean Time Between Failures of more than five 
years) with advanced capabilities. 
Baker Hughes installs and maintains all the instrumentation, 
including borehole sensors. The requirement for preventive 
maintenance is extremely low (one visit a year at most). This 
allows us to operate sites all over the world. Most of the sites 
are totally autonomous, relying on solar panels for power 
and 4G networks for communications.
Monitoring - Processing
A dedicated team of experts processes the data and 
reports on the seismicity through a dedicated web portal. 
The portal allows the operator to visualize the seismicity in 
two-dimensions (2D) or 3D along with the well trajectories 
and formation interfaces and offers statistical analysis 
capabilities. It also plays the monitoring network’s state of 
health and expected sensitivity in real time. Pressure and/or 
flow rate curves can be displayed along with seismic rates to 
easily relate any seismic activity to its probable cause.
Automation of the process can be utilised to enhance 
the processing solution by adding 24/7 services such as 
traffic light systems that will alert the operator when critical 
seismicity is reached, and the prediction of the level of 
seismic risk for the upcoming hours using machine learning.


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Core longer even in fractured or other jam-prone formations by neutralizing up to two jamming events
•	
Full-closure catcher completely seas inner tube to prevent loss even when the core is unconsolidated
•	
The HT30™ Max core barrel system delivers larger, longer samples than other systems
•	
Unobstructed ‘slick’ entry eliminates risk of jam at core’s centre
CORTIVA™ CORING SYSTEM
Seal integrity is key to the success of any geological 
sequestration project. Along with the logging and 
measurement technology, taking physical cores is one 
of the best ways to characterize these structures. Core 
samples retrieved with traditional coring systems can often 
break and become jammed or lost in a hole. Jams and 
poor core quality can lead to re-runs that incur significant 
additional cost. The CORTIVA™ coring system improves 
efficiency and de-risks core recovery through the use of a 
fully-closed and jam-mitigating core barrel. By combining 
these key features, CORTIVA™ shortens the time and costs 
required to cut and retrieve a core sample by ensuring the 
whole core section is retrieved safely in a single trip. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Core jamming during coring operations and/or loss of friable 
core material during trip-outs leads to additional coring runs, 
resulting in increased rig time and cost. Jams that occur 
inside the inner tube of a core barrel can often be mitigated 
by certain jam-mitigation techniques, allowing coring to 
continue. However, jams that occur in the core catcher, 
provoked by the mechanical interaction of the core with the 
catcher mechanism, would not be mitigated by such anti-
jamming technologies. These typically occur in formations 
that are a mixture of fractured (jamming-prone) and friable 
rock. This type of complex, coring application demands 
technologies beyond what is currently available in the 
market. Competitors have either standalone jam mitigation 
systems for jam-prone formations, or full-closure catcher 
systems for unconsolidated/friable rock.
Baker 
Hughes 
combines 
the 
benefits 
of 
various 
technologies to improve the efficiency of coring operations 
in complex formations. With its CORTIVA™ full-closure system 
with jam mitigation technology, Baker Hughes combines 
the JamBuster™ jam mitigation coring system and the 
HydroLift™ full-closure catcher system−industry standards 
for jam mitigation and recovery of friable rock to improve 
the efficiency and recovery of high-quality core in complex 
fractured and friable formations.
The Baker Hughes patented JamBuster™ system neutralizes 
jams inside the inner tube through concentric inner core 
barrel sleeves that automatically telescope if a core 
becomes jammed in the core barrel, allowing coring to 
continue without interruption. The HydroLift™ system 
efficiently recovers high-quality, intact core samples 
collected in soft, or unconsolidated formations. The system’s 
slick, unobstructed entry eliminates the risk of jamming at 
the core catcher for the incoming core, while the full closure 
mechanism secures the core, thus preventing loss of friable/
loose formation during trip-out. 
The CORTIVA™ full-closure system with jam mitigation 
technology is also integrated with HT30™ Max core barrel 
system to deliver an unmatched core size. It also reduces 
core acquisition costs by acquiring longer, high-quality core 
samples per run, even in harsh environments.


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Delivers high performance across a wide temperature range 
•	
Compatible in a range of environments including corrosion-inhibited fluids and reservoir fluids 
•	
Resistant to sour conditions
•	
Single compound simplifies material recommendations and testing for well planning across all seals including packing 
elements, O-rings, and bonded seals
•	
Extends life of seal, further improving reliability
•	
Meets ISO 23936-2 and API 11D1 standard
APTUM™ DOWNHOLE SEALS
In geological sequestration, completion integrity for any 
well penetrating the target storage interval is key to 
maintaining storage integrity over the life of the project. 
Chemical corrosion inhibitors and reservoir’s environmental 
factors can be damaging to elastomer seals over time. 
The most common sealing elastomers in the industry 
today often force a choice between effectiveness at low 
temperatures or chemical compatibility with corrosion 
inhibitors. Aptum™ seal systems, along with industry-
leading packers such as the Premier™ NXT removable 
production packer, perform at lower, more appropriate 
temperatures for CCUS and yet maintain excellent 
chemical compatibility and mechanical properties. With 
Aptum™ seals in the completion, operators can better 
protect their metal tubulars and equipment without fear of 
elastomer degradation.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
In typical well completions, the injection or monitoring 
tubing string is isolated from the well casing by a production 
packer. This packer creates a mechanical anchor and 
a seal between the tubing and casing. The four main 
elastomers currently used in these packer element systems 
to seal between the tubing and the casing are Nitrile (NBR), 
hydrogenated Nitrile (HNBR), Aflas (FEPM), and Viton (FKM). 
These elastomers provide an excellent range of capabilities 
for most applications. However, in each case, there are trade-
offs, which can introduce risks and costs to an operation. 
For instance, NBR has balanced mechanical properties 
and performs well even at lower temperatures. However, 
its chemical resistance, particularly to corrosion inhibitors, 
is quite low. Aflas, on the other hand, is excellent for use in 
many inhibited brines, but has significant limitations in lower 
temperatures. Baker Hughes set out to develop a balanced 
element system that could be used confidently in a broader 
range of applications – carbon storage being a prime 
example. 
Aptum™ seals are compatible with a range of industry 
standard corrosion inhibitors while still maintaining sealing 
capabilities in low downhole temperatures.
Carbon 
storage 
applications 
can 
create 
corrosive 
environments when CO2 becomes mixed with water and 
other fluids in the wellbore. Completion equipment can 
often be exposed to hydrocarbons, formation water, CO2 
and a host of other corrosive fluids. A common and effective 
way of combating this corrosion is to treat the completion 
fluids with corrosion inhibitors. These corrosion inhibitors 
protect the metallic components of the completion including 
the casing, tubing, and packer body. However, they can also 
degrade the elastomer. As mentioned earlier, elastomers 
with excellent compatibility with inhibited fluids often have 
temperature limitations. 
Many target formations for sequestration are shallow and 
have lower temperatures, making them difficult applications 
for elastomers such as Aflas. Add the potential for significant 
cooling during various phases of CO2-injection operations, 
and a new solution is needed. Aptum™ provides excellent 
performance at 4 °C (40 °F) yet maintains long-term 
compatibility with bromide- and chloride-inhibited brines. 
When used as a part of the Premier™ removable production 
packer, Aptum™ seals enable a secure seal between the 
tubing and the casing, create a reliable mechanical anchor 
for the tubing string throughout extreme temperature and 
pressure changes, and is easily removed from the well for 
workover or plug and abandonment activities.
MATERIALS
TEMPERATURE 
40 °F (4 °C)
TEMPERATURE 
350 °F (177 °C)
INHIBITED 
BRINE >200 °F 
(93.3 °C)
BROMIDE 
RESISTANCE
OIL-BASED 
MUD 
RESISTANCE
H2S 
RESISTANCE 
>10%
BALANCED 
MECHANICAL 
PROPERTIES
PRODUCED 
RESERVOIR 
FLUIDS
Aptum Seal
Nitrile (NBR)
Hydrogenated Nitrile (HNBR)
Viton (FKM)
Aflas (FEPM)
Due to excessive swelling, limit exposure to oil-based mud (OBM) during run-in
Due to excessive swelling, O-rings and packing elements require back-up mechanisms to reduce extrusion


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Provides a robust rock-to-rock barrier
•	
Reduces cost and time associated with section milling
•	
Decreased health, safety & environment (HSE) risk for personnel on site
•	
Reduces requirements for rig capability, swarf handling, and other specialized equipment
•	
Eliminates the need for swarf cleaning, transport, and disposal
HEAVY METAL™ SWARF-FREE SECTION MILLING
Many of the world’s most promising geological targets for 
large scale CO2 storage exist in and above late-life and 
depleted hydrocarbon plays. Late-life fields often have 
many existing wells that penetrate the target storage 
geology and can pose seal integrity risks. Baker Hughes 
offers advanced plug and abandonment solutions to 
ensure that the integrity of aging infrastructure is not 
compromised for the life of the sequestration project. 
During plug and abandonment operations, it is sometimes 
required to remove a section of the casing and adjacent 
cement sheath to expose the formation. This process is 
called section milling. Section milling operations provide 
an effective downhole seal during plug and abandonment 
by setting a cement plug directly across the geologic seal 
- removing metal tubulars and potentially failed cement. 
However, section milling operations can be challenging, 
which makes its large scale use less appealing. 
Additionally, 
conventional 
section 
milling 
requires 
specialized equipment to handle the cuttings or ‘swarf’ that 
are brought to surface during milling operations. HEAVY 
METAL™ swarf-free section milling system increases the 
efficiency while decreasing the cost and carbon footprint of 
section milling operations. By improving the performance 
and economics of section milling operations, wells can be 
plugged more effectively and with less long-term risk of 
seal integrity issues. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Section milling is a conventional method for casing removal 
during plug and abandonment (P&A) operations where 
annular well integrity is compromised or questioned. The 
removal of casing by milling a window provides full access 
to the virgin formation, enabling placement of a rock-to-
rock barrier. Swarf is an unavoidable by-product of section 
milling, generating thousands of pounds of these sharp 
metal cuttings that have to be removed from the well. 
Retrieving and handling the swarf is a time-consuming and 
costly process that poses additional health, safety, and 
environmental (HSE) risks, and oftentimes operators will 
opt for less reliable options, such as perf-and-wash, just to 
avoid swarf. 
Baker Hughes offers the HEAVY METAL™ swarf-free section 
milling service to provide a reliable solution without the 
negative side effects of swarf. It eliminates swarf to surface 
through a unique upwards milling process, depositing 
swarf deep in the rathole, while still enabling a secure 
rock-to-rock barrier. This unique service reduces time 
and costs in half, eliminating the need for swarf removal 
and the risks that swarf presents to people, equipment, 
and the environment. The bottomhole assembly (BHA) 
consists of multiple tools providing different functions to 
enable upwards section milling using normal right hand 
drill pipe connections without any rotation at surface. A 
torque isolator allows uninterrupted axial movement and 
continuously isolates reactive torque of the left-hand mud 
motor, while milling upwards. The mud motor requires 
circulation from surface and provides downhole left-hand-
rotation and torque to the section mill and auger. 
The 
system’s 
section 
mill 
features 
upward-facing 
knives that utilize METAL MUNCHER™ advanced milling 
technology (AMT) carbide cutting structures and allow 
upward milling and reaming in one run—even in long 
laterals. The section mill cuts through the casing at the 
bottom of the window, mills upwards to the desired 
distance, and then reliably retracts its knives at the top of 
the window. 
The auger continuously transports any swarf created from 
the window to the bottom of the rathole, leaving it all in the 
well, while providing a window free of swarf. Because the 
swarf does not have to be circulated to surface, there is no 
need to change over to a high viscosity milling fluid, saving 
additional cost and logistics.
A Baker Hughes dedicated project management team 
can oversee the entire P&A project—from planning phase 
through final abandonment— all with a strong focus 
on safety and efficiency. With a single point of contact, 
customers achieve a simplified, streamlined process that 
helps reduce time and minimize risk.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Unique combination of products and services across the full CCUS value chain including the expanding applications 
for Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC™). 
•	
Over 15 years’ experience and participation in 8 large-scale CCUS projects and 2 current 30 Tonnes Per Day (tpd) 
CCC™ projects. 
•	
Full product range includes fans, heaters, compressors, CO2 capture and processing hardware, storage tanks, 
transportation tanks and remote monitoring systems for both gas and liquid. 
•	
Chart’s CCC™ Systems are providing results without the use of chemicals or contaminants, providing significant cost 
and energy savings.
•	
Significant knowledge of the processes and challenges of energy intensive hard to abate industries such as Power, Oil 
& Gas, Petrochemical, Steel and Cement.
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION AND STORAGE
CHART INDUSTRIES, INC.
Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is a 
necessity, not an option, and could contribute up to 20% of 
global emissions reductions required (International Energy 
Agency). One hundred times the current levels of carbon 
capture will be needed by 2050 to keep global warming 
below 1.5°C.
Chart Industries, Inc. is a global leader in the design, 
engineering and manufacturing of process technology 
and equipment. With more than 80 years’ experience 
in industrial gases and diverse knowledge in cryogenic 
processes, Chart delivers the effective solutions to tackle 
carbon emission challenges.
In March 2023, Chart completed the acquisition of 
Howden, a leading global provider of mission critical air 
and gas handling products and services for over 165 
years. The combination of Chart and Howden expands 
the offering of products and services to provide a unique 
range of efficient, sustainable and innovative technologies 
to support customers in all stages of the CCUS value chain. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 Mark.Courtney@howden.com
Web: 	
www.chartindustries.com 
	
www.howden.com/en-gb
DESCRIPTION
EFFICIENT AND INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS ACROSS THE 
FULL CCUS VALUE CHAIN
CO2 Capture and Separation
CO2 is captured either at source (Post Combustion/Post 
Process Capture) or from the air (Direct Air Capture). 
Post Combustion Capture
Post Combustion Capture is the process of capturing 
CO2 emissions at source before they are released into 
the atmosphere, which is particularly relevant for large-
scale industrial facilities which rely on fossil fuels. This 
includes facilities such as power plants, cement production 
facilities and chemical plants where limited alternative 
clean fuel sources are available. Capture at source 
allows these industries to continue to operate without 
releasing significant levels of CO2. Howden supports post-
combustion capture with booster fans, gas-gas heaters 
and oxidation blowers. 
Many other industrial processes, like fermentation or 
chemical reactions, also generate large quantities of CO2 
that is also best captured at relatively high concentration at 
source.  
Howden is a world leader in Mechanical Vapour 
Recompression (MVR) technologies, which is a key 
element for reduced energy in the separation of CO2 from 
the solvent that captured the CO2. Roots Blowers and 
Howden Turbo Compressors or blowers form the basis of 
the MVR systems. 
Direct Air Capture (DAC)
Direct Air Capture is the process of capturing CO2 directly 
from the ambient air using fans to draw in the air and then 
trap the CO2. Both Chart and Howden provide the low-
pressure axial fans that would be mounted on top of a DAC 
tower to draw air through a recirculating fluid or through 
a solid sorbent which traps the CO2 from the ambient air. 
DAC is an emerging technology and as the technology 
develops further, will benefit from higher pressure 
centrifugal fans, a core capability of Howden.
Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC)
In addition to traditional carbon capture methods, Chart 
offers Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ systems, which as the 
names implies, uses the thermodynamics of pressure 
and low temperatures to separate the CO2 from plant or 
process exhaust. The CO2 is captured, separated, purified 
and pressurized in a single process, and delivered as a 
high-purity liquid ready for transport, storage or re-use. 
More information about the full CCC process can be found 
later in this article. 
CO2 purification and dehydration
After it is captured, the CO2 is then purified, treated and 
prepared for permanent storage (sequestration) or direct 
usage. Depending on the required capacity, flexibility, 
reliability and efficiency, the most suitable Howden 
compression technologies can be selected from screw, 
centrifugal, piston or diaphragm compressors to compress 
and condense the CO2 ready for transport, storage or use. 
In some cases there is an opportunity for substantial 
operational and energy cost savings by using multi 
machine systems where Howden can select individual 
compressors based on optimization of full and part-load 
performance, CAPEX and OPEX.
Transport, Storage and Use 
After the CO2 has been separated and processed, it is then 
transported from where it was captured either to a storage 
site for permanent storage or for direct use.  
Transport 
There are multiple ways the CO2 can be transported 
including transporting it in a pressurized tank by car, railway 
or ships, or through a pipeline. Depending on the specific 
requirements, Howden can supply a screw, reciprocating 
or centrifugal compressor to transport the gas, and boost it 
for injection & Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) purposes.
Storage of CO2 in Gas or Liquid 
CO2 can be stored as a liquid or a gas depending on the 
downstream use. For decades Chart has provided leading 
cryogenic CO2 storage solutions for the industrial gas 
market from transportable liquid cylinders such as the 
Dura-Cyl® and Carbo-Max® equipment for pilot and small-
scale systems to industrial bulk tanks, CO2 ISO units or 
CO2 tank trucks. Chart’s solutions have been in service for 
decades and are available globally to support customers in 
CO2. 
Howden Turbo fans to produce bioethanol from CO2 at Arcelor 
Mittal


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Sequestration of CO2 Gases
CO2 sequestration is the process of permanently storing 
the captured CO2. Often permanent sequestration 
is referenced to mean storage deep underground in 
geological formations such as saline formations, oil and 
natural gas reservoirs, coal seams, basalt formations and 
organic-rich shales. Howden compressors can boost 
pressure to over 200 bar for injection of the CO2 into these 
porous rock formations to permanently trap it away from 
the atmosphere. As this is a growing field of study, there are 
methods of permanent sequestration of CO2 (or converted 
derivatives) to extend to agriculture soil amendments and 
water and matter entrainment, binding the CO2 molecule in 
a way that prevents future release. 
Direct Use or Re-use of CO2 (Utilization)
The captured CO2 gas can be used in a wide range of 
industries such as production of materials, urea/fertiliser 
production, food and beverage, healthcare, water 
treatment, refrigeration, indoor agriculture and biofuel 
production. Chart provides the CO2 tank and mobile 
storage solutions to enable CO2 reuse or distribution. 
Howden has been optimizing its compressors to handle 
CO2 for many decades. In the many diverse industries that 
can utilise captured CO2, such as the Food and Beverage 
industry, Howden already supplies tailor made screw, 
diaphragm, piston and centrifugal compressors to plants 
around the world. 
Chart - Carbon Capture System Solutions 
Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC) 
Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ is a post-combustion 
technology that reduces carbon emissions from fossil 
fueled power stations, cement, steel, and other industrial 
facilities using cryogenics to separate the CO2 in a highly 
efficient process delivering high-purity, liquid CO2 (LCO2) 
ready for transportation, storage and use. 
Chart acquired Sustainable Energy Solutions (SES) in 2020 
to scale and commercialize the CCC process with the 
potential to reduce carbon emissions from all types of post-
combustion emissions sources by 95% to 99% and remove 
other pollutants, such as sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, 
and mercury, at half the cost and energy of alternative 
carbon capture technologies. Current projects are proving 
the large-scale reliability, efficiency, and scalability of the 
CCC process to achieve cost-effective carbon capture for 
power and industrial markets.
The CCC technology uses phase change to separate 
CO2 and other pollutants from exhaust gases. Cooling the 
exhaust gas results in the CO2 gas transforming into a solid 
without passing through the liquid phase (desublimation); 
the CO2 is then separated from the remaining gas, 
pressurized, and melted resulting in liquid CO2 ready for 
transportation and use. 
The CCC process is minimally invasive and highly efficient, 
effectively utilizing heat integration to achieve up to a 
50% reduction in parasitic energy demand depending 
on project-specific conditions compared to an amine 
absorption process. 
While traditional carbon capture methods seek to lower 
the Carbon Intensity (CI) scores of many applications, the 
unique liquefaction process of CCC cleans the carbon 
meaning it can be resold or reused as Liquid CO2. An 
example of this is the oil and gas industry, where the 
CO2 can be used for enhanced oil recovery. SES has 
also demonstrated use of the CO2 for a variety of cases 
including curing concrete and converting the CO2 to useful 
products.
Chart’s CCC process results in high purity LCO2, which 
can be used in a range of applications including chemical 
manufacturing, synthetic fuel production, concrete curing, 
food and beverage and enhancing plant growth at 
commercial nurseries. Chart engineers and manufactures 
the low-pressure cryogenic storage tanks, transportation 
equipment, loading and unloading skids, and end user 
re-use equipment for multiple applications of CO2.   From 
storage tanks of 1000m3 size to ISO units, to MicroBulk 
solutions, Chart can deliver the effective solutions for re-
use on site or re-use in a range of applications.
Small-scale 
Carbon 
Capture 
with 
Earthly 
Labs 
Technology
Earthly Labs technology is uniquely designed to capture 
carbon dioxide waste from lower volume, higher 
concentration sources such as breweries, wineries and 
biogas and purifying CO2 for beverage quality reuse. 
Earthly Labs offers a full solution including CO2 capture 
hardware, software, installation, and remote monitoring 
services. The CO2 is captured, purified, monitored and 
reused. The technology is proven, compact and cost 
effective, capturing millions of carbon dioxide molecules 
annually helping customers save thousands in CO2 and 
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
An example of where the Earthly Labs technology is making 
a significant impact is craft breweries. The CO2 is captured 
from fermentation tanks and pushed through a foam trap 
into the compact CO2 capture unit, where all purification, 
compression and liquefaction is carried out. The resulting 
Liquid CO2 from the process is then transferred into a 
Chart storage tank and the brewer uses the liquid CO2 
to carbonate their beer and purge tanks. In addition to 
reducing their carbon emissions every week, the breweries 
are reducing supply chain risk in an increasing volatile CO2 
market, reducing their use of industrial CO2, reducing costs 
and advancing their sustainability goals.
Small-scale Carbon Capture with Earthy Labs Technology
Chart Industries product offerings for Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC™)


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SUMMARY
CO2
H2
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE
CHEVRON NEW ENERGIES
In a growing world faced with complex energy challenges, 
innovative solutions are required to deliver a lower carbon 
future.  At Chevron New Energies, we understand the 
importance of addressing climate change and accelerating 
lower carbon solutions.  Chevron’s strength has always 
been solving big, complex energy challenges. 
Our 
Company’s 
energy 
transition 
approach 
is 
straightforward: we are lowering the carbon intensity of 
our operations and growing lower carbon businesses 
by leveraging our capabilities, assets, and customer 
relationships.  We are scaling and commercializing new 
businesses to meet customers’ lower carbon ambitions 
through a portfolio of energy solutions that include carbon 
capture, utilization, and storage; hydrogen; carbon offsets; 
emerging technologies; and renewable fuels and products. 
We aim to help reduce emissions of the essential industries, 
such as refining, petrochemicals, steel, and cement that 
enable modern society for a better tomorrow.
CONTACT
Email: 	 newenergies@chevron.com
Web: 	
www.chevron.com/operations/new-energies
BENEFITS
•	
Chevron New Energies is well-placed to be a CCUS leader building upon our capabilities, assets, and customer 
relationships.
•	
We bring decades of operational experience and a proven track record of carbon capture projects.
•	
We are one of few companies with the ability to execute across the CCUS value chain and scale this critical technology.
•	
Our direct experience in understanding and driving portfolio-wide emissions reductions enables us to collaborate with 
customers to help solve their lower carbon needs.
•	
We are a full-service provider with a balanced approach to develop decarbonization solutions with customers in our 
key geographies of North America and Asia Pacific.
•	
Chevron has committed $10B total capital toward lower carbon energy by 2028 to progress our ambitions.
DESCRIPTION
SCALING CCUS
Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is a critical 
enabler for achieving global net zero goals.  Chevron 
New Energies is advancing CCUS and next generation 
technologies by scaling viable lower carbon solutions 
across the value chain to help our company and industrial 
customers reach their lower carbon ambitions.  We are 
targeting 25 million tonnes of CO2 per year in equity 
storage by the end of this decade, with a focus on 
developing regional hubs that leverage our existing and 
new partnerships with customers, governments, and 
industry.
Chevron is actively evaluating multiple locations globally 
to implement CCUS solutions. We see a future in the 
development of CO₂ hubs where emissions from multiple 
sources are combined for permanent sequestration in 
underground storage reservoirs. As hub concepts and 
projects are developed, neighboring industrial plants and 
third-party emitters can be enrolled as potential partners 
and customers.  
We are investing in and piloting emerging technologies 
across the CCUS value chain to reduce costs, develop new 
ways to capture, use, and sequester CO2, with the goal of 
scaling these solutions.
We’re also taking action to reduce the carbon intensity 
of our own operations. Using the marginal abatement 
cost curve (MACC) process, we have direct experience 
in understanding and driving portfolio-wide emissions 
reductions. We can leverage this experience to collaborate 
with customers to help address their lower carbon needs.
Chevron has committed $10B in total capital towards 
lower carbon energy by 2028 to help progress our energy 
transition ambitions.    
PROJECT AND PARTNERSHIP HIGHLIGHTS
Chevron brings decades of operational experience through 
our large-scale deployment of CO2 injection in the United 
States over the last 40 years. We have safely operated a 
CO₂ pipeline in Colorado for 35 years. This experience is 
coupled with our capabilities in drilling, geology, injection, 
pipeline operations, monitoring and managing pressure in 
wells, and our ability to successfully bring together diverse 
stakeholders across the value chain.
In Australia, the Chevron-operated Gorgon liquefied 
natural gas (LNG) facility incorporates one of the world’s 
largest integrated carbon capture and storage (CCS) 
systems. Naturally occurring CO₂ found in the offshore gas 
reservoirs that supply the Gorgon LNG facility is injected 
into a large sandstone formation two kilometers beneath 
Barrow Island. More than 7.8MM tonnes of GHG emissions 
have been captured and stored since the system started 
up in mid-2019; we expect to mitigate more than 100MM 
tonnes of CO₂ over the life of the project.  
Carbon Capture demonstration with Svante and National Energy Technology Laboratory (project #DE-FE0031944)


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Chevron recently became the operator of Bayou Bend 
CCS, a carbon capture and storage project located along 
the Texas Gulf Coast. We announced an expansion of its 
CO2 storage footprint through the acquisition of nearly 
100,000 acres onshore in Chambers and Jefferson 
Counties, Texas. With a gross storage capacity of more 
than one billion metric tons, Bayou Bend CCS is positioned 
to be one of the largest carbon storage projects in the 
United States, and a leading transportation and storage 
solution for industrial emitters located in the Houston Ship 
Channel and Beaumont / Port Arthur region, one of the 
largest industrial corridors in the country.
Chevron aims to reduce the carbon intensity in San 
Joaquin Valley, CA. The proposed carbon capture and 
storage project at our Eastridge facility entails installing 
CO2 post-combustion capture equipment, compressing 
the CO2, and then injecting the CO2 into the subsurface for 
permanent storage.
Chevron New Energies is a part of three joint ventures 
that have been granted an interest in three offshore 
greenhouse gas storage assessment permits in Australia. 
Additionally, Chevron announced a memorandum of 
understanding with Air Liquide, Keppel Infrastructure and 
PetroChina to advance the development of large-scale 
CCUS solutions in Singapore.
We are investing in CCUS technologies (e.g., Carbon 
Clean Solutions, Svante, Blue Planet, Ocean GeoLoop) 
to bring early insights through pilot programs – often 
utilizing Chevron’s existing assets -- and to accelerate 
commercialization of promising technologies.
We are advancing a project awarded from the U.S. 
Department of Energy (#DE-FE0031944) to pilot technology 
that captures CO2 from post-combustion gas at our Kern 
River Carbon Capture site in San Joaquin Valley, California. 
In collaboration with Svante and the National Energy 
Technology Laboratory, we launched a 6-month pilot of 
Svante technology at scale in November 2022 with the 
goal to reduce CO2 capture costs and help commercialize 
this technology. 
ACCELERATING LOWER CARBON SOLUTIONS
Our capabilities, assets, and customer relationships will 
serve as a platform for rapid growth in the years to come. 
We bring a unique set of capabilities to each of these areas. 
Our existing assets span the value chain and are in areas 
where we can facilitate demand based on cost-competitive 
supply combined with appropriate policy support. We have 
strong relationships with key customers and partners, 
which will be critical in developing economic projects that 
can scale quickly across a complex value chain.
Innovation, partnerships, and policy will be key drivers 
of change. We begin with a portfolio of existing assets 
and decades of experience as a strong foundation for 
future growth. We’ve successfully managed complex 
joint ventures all over the world. We have deep technical 
expertise and a long history of advancing and adopting 
external 
innovation. 
We 
have 
strong 
commercial 
capabilities and experience managing rapidly changing 
businesses. 
Managing 
diverse 
stakeholder 
and 
government interests is something we do every day. 
Chevron’s credibility and reputation make us the partner 
of choice, bringing access to new opportunities.  Chevron 
New Energies is taking action to help build the lower 
carbon energy system of tomorrow.
Employees at Chevron’s Gorgon Project in Australia


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
CCUS PROJECT PIPELINE IN ENI
Eni has decades of experience in the storage of natural 
gas in depleted fields and is applying its experience 
and expertise to repurpose existing infrastructure into 
permanent carbon dioxide storage hubs to decarbonize 
both its own industrial activities and those of 3rd parties. 
In Norway, Eni is partner of Sleipner, the first CCUS project 
in Europe, successfully in operation since 1996. In the 
United Kingdom, Eni is the T&S Operator of the Hynet 
North West consortium, which has been selected by the 
government as one of the two priority CCS projects that will 
contribute to the Country decarbonization strategy. Hynet 
is on track to be ready to start operation in 2025 with the 
capability to inject 4.5 Mtpa (potential up to 10 Mtpa after 
2030) in depleted gas fields offshore Liverpool Bay.
In Italy, Eni is developing the CCS Ravenna Hub project in a 
joint venture with Snam. Located off the coast of Ravenna 
and based on the large capacity of depleted gas fields in 
the Adriatic Sea, this will be the first CO2 storage project in 
Italy and potentially the largest one in the Mediterranean 
Area. Phase 1 of the project, already authorized by Italian 
authorities, will start operations in 2024 with 25 ktpa 
capacity. The industrial phase, with an injection capacity 
of 4Mtpa and a potential expansion to over 10Mtpa after 
2030 is scheduled to start in 2026.
Outside Europe, Eni is evaluating other CCS opportunities 
in Libya, Egypt, Algeria, and Australia. Globally all these 
projects will store a gross volume of carbon dioxide of 
around 30 Mtpa in 2030.  
CAPTURE
Carbon Capture is the most significant element in terms of 
costs along the CCUS chain: 60-70% of the total cost.
Hence, while there are several well proven technologies 
that have been applied for decades, improved processes 
as well as innovative solutions are being developed at 
global level with the purpose of cost optimization.
To be able to address the widest possible range of industrial 
emissions, Eni is developing proprietary separation 
technology as well as monitoring and incorporating in its 
technology portfolio the different capture technologies that 
are commercially available or under development around 
the world.
Several activities have been carried out to de-risk the 
application of novel technologies, both through ad hoc 
experimentation in our labs and through collaborations and 
experimental campaigns in specialized R&D centers.
R&D areas of interest in capture technology are, among 
others:
•	
Absorption (e.g., amine, carbonate-based solvents)
•	
Adsorption (solid materials)
•	
Membranes separation
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Full in-house competence along the CCUS value chain
•	
Strategic distribution of depleted reservoirs in the North Sea and Mediterranean areas near industrial emitters
•	
Cost-effective storage solutions through repurposing of existing infrastructures
•	
Demonstrated competency to manage complex projects from our long successful track record in the O&G industry
•	
Strong R&D capabilities to unlock value from capture & utilization technology portfolios
•	
Proprietary technology and tools for modeling and monitoring
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS
Eni is building a leadership position as a provider of 
decarbonization services, based on a portfolio of cross-
business technology solutions and a balanced mix of low 
carbon products in order to effectively address scope 
1+2+3 emissions. Eni’s strategy aims to deliver a secure and 
sustainable energy system, while keeping a sharp focus on 
a just energy transition and value creation for stakeholders. 
Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is one 
of the main pillars of this strategy. Specifically, we are 
addressing industry needs, in particular for the Hard-to-
Abate sectors. As a global energy company with decades 
of experience and leader in technological development, 
Eni already has an extensive heritage in operations, 
subsurface characterization, modeling, and monitoring. 
This know-how has been transferred to CCUS leveraging 
on existing upstream assets, including depleted reservoirs 
and offshore infrastructures strategically distributed in 
the North Sea and Mediterranean regions. This allows for 
the delivery of projects both in a timely and cost effective 
manner.
An additional element of this strategy is the strong R&D and 
technical capabilities to support emitters in the selection of 
the most effective capture solutions. They are identified 
among a wide technology portfolio that relies on strategic 
collaborations with leading technology providers as well as 
on our own proprietary technologies.
CONTACT
Email: 	 roberto.ferrario@eni.com
Web: 	
www.eni.com
ENI
PROJECT PIPELINE
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
NEW INITIATIVES
IN OPERATION
UK 
- Hynet
Norway- Sleipner
Italy
Ravenna
Libya 
- BES
Egypt
Australia
Algeria


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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STORAGE
Eni’s remarkable experience in exploration and field 
development has been transferred, in recent years, to CO2 
storage projects. 
Eni’s centralized G&G (Geological and Geophysical) 
technical services can provide advanced technologies 
and methodologies, which are strictly linked to high-level 
competencies and commitment towards innovation. The 
very same approach is applied to CO2 storage projects. 
The re-purposing of competences from O&G exploration 
to CCS is based on a solid knowledge of how integrated 
specialistic studies should be carried out. 
This starts from seismic processing, imaging and inversion, 
activities where Eni can take advantage of one of the most 
powerful HPC machines in the industry. Eni G&G workflow 
includes rock physics modeling, sedimentological studies, 
structural and fault seal analysis, basin-scale migration, 
using commercial and proprietary software as e-SimbaTM. 
All the specialistic studies are carried out internally, 
maximizing the communication between the different 
technical teams and project management. The adopted 
multidisciplinary approach to characterize the storage 
complex through the subsurface modeling benefits from 
continuously updating the technologies.  
Eni’s consolidated experience in reservoir modeling has 
also been transferred to storage projects. To support this 
kind of analysis, Eni is increasingly using Echelon, the 
proprietary simulator developed to exploit all internal HPC 
capabilities. In the framework of CO2 injection modeling, 
further functions are under implementation in order to 
accurately consider all the processes that take place when 
CO2 is injected in the porous medium. 
The modeling of CO2 storage in depleted fields requires 
additional input data for the geochemical-mineralogical 
characterization of rocks and fluids. Eni has developed 
a multidisciplinary workflow that integrates laboratory 
tests (i.e., ageing experiments at reservoir conditions) and 
numerical procedures (i.e., thermodynamic parameter 
estimation) to identify, model, and quantify the main 
reactive processes induced by exogenous CO2. The 
approach can also be used for investigating the sealing 
efficiency of cap rock by integrating geochemical analyses 
with fluid breakthrough pressure tests and geomechanical 
tests.
Eni has developed subsurface characterization and 
modeling workflows that integrate laboratory analysis with 
static, dynamic and geomechanical modeling. 
Starting from a 3D fluid-dynamic model, validated through 
historical data, specialistic studies are implemented to 
guide the definition of the optimal injection profile. The 
complete interdisciplinary simulation workflow includes:
•	
geomechanical studies to assess thermal effect due to 
the injection of a cold fluid within a warm formation
•	
geomechanical studies for fault stability caprock 
integrity evaluations
•	
geochemical studies to assess the effect on 
petrophysical properties and injectivity during the 
injection period
•	
flow assurance analysis to assess the bottom hole 
temperature and the well head conditions, to properly 
design the full CO2 supply equipment (well-heads, 
flowlines, compressors).
UTILIZATION
Eni is developing a proprietary technology for CO2 
utilization through mineralization. The basic principle is a 
spontaneous process in nature. Silicate minerals containing 
magnesium, calcium, and/or iron react with CO2 to form 
very stable, inert, and non-toxic carbonate phases, in which 
CO2 is permanently fixed. 
Eni has optimized the reaction conditions, reaching 
the complete conversion of the mineral in a short 
time. Therefore, the process could be suitable for an 
industrial application and the product could be used as 
a Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) in the 
formulation of cement.
Moreover, Eni is looking into e-fuels production as a 
complementary way of CO2 utilization: green H2 and CO2 
are combined to produce different kind synthetic carbon 
neutral fuels. In particular, Eni is currently developing a 
proprietary technology for SNG (synthetic natural gas) 
production: a pilot unit is about to be built and operated in 
an Italian industrial site in the frame of NextGenEU funding 
program.
MONITORING
In all CO2 storage projects, whether they are in depleted 
fields or in saline formations, monitoring activities play a 
fundamental role, both to guarantee the effectiveness of 
CO2 containment in the selected site and to comply with 
National and International directives. Regarding monitoring 
activities, Eni has twenty years of expertise in the sector, 
related both to the use of proprietary technologies and 
or testing innovative technologies through the direct 
cooperation with innovative service suppliers.
In this direction, the Eni’s Monitoring strategy is based also 
in the development of proprietary instruments, as follow:
•	
MMV multidisciplinary workflow;
•	
E-VPMS™: Vibroacoustic Pipeline Monitoring System 
(patented technology, developed in house R&D 
project);
•	
Clean Sea: patented offshore hybrid AUV/ROV system, 
for simultaneous environmental and asset integrity 
inspections;
•	
Well Monitoring: several internal R&D projects are in 
place, aimed to monitor well integrity, well performance 
and plume migration.
The monitoring plan is a fundamental document, which 
reports the actions to be followed throughout all project 
phases, including the preliminary phase, the injection 
period and the post-injection period.
The MMV refer to the Risk Assessment and also contain 
references regarding the closure and post-closure plans.
Typically, Eni’s monitoring approach has been developed 
with the aim to ensure:
1.	
The ability to compare on field measurements with 
data provided by static and dynamic models;
2.	 Identify any significant on field evidence;
3.	 Detect any CO2 migrations and/or losses;
4.	 Detect any significant negative effects on the 
surrounding environment, and in particular on drinking 
water, human population and users of the surrounding 
biosphere;
5.	 Evaluate the effectiveness of any corrective measures 
taken.
The monitoring plan is designed according to the following 
principles:
•	
Compliance with existing legislation: the monitoring 
plan must comply with regulatory requirements.
•	
Risk-based: 
Monitoring 
activities 
are 
identified 
through a systematic risk assessment. The scope 
and frequency of monitoring activities depend on the 
outcome of the risk analysis.
•	
Site-specific: Monitoring technologies are selected 
for each monitoring task based on the result of site-
specific feasibility assessments and then custom-
designed to ensure optimal monitoring performance 
under specific storage site conditions.
•	
Adaptive: Storage site performance and monitoring 
systems are continuously evaluated and updated.


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DESCRIPTION
1. OVERVIEW OF THE TOMAKOMAI PROJECT
The Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project is an offshore 
CCS project in Japan. The CO2 source is offgas from an 
HPU (Hydrogen Production Unit) of an oil refinery located 
in the coastal area of the Tomakomai Port. CO2 captured by 
an activated amine process is compressed and injected by 
two highly deviated injection wells drilled from an onshore 
site targeting two offshore reservoirs (Fig. 1).
2. KEY RESULTS OF TOMAKOMAI PROJECT
2.1 CO2 CAPTURE
The CO2 capture process used in the Tomakomai project 
is a commercially proven amine scrubbing process (OASE® 
by BASF), and the capture facility is comprised of a two-
stage CO2 absorption tower, a CO2 stripping tower and a 
Low-Pressure Flash Tower (LPFT), as shown in Fig.2. The 
maximum CO2 capture rate is 25.3 tonnes per hour.
The two-stage absorption system shown in Fig. 3 results 
in a significant reduction of the amine reboiler heat 
consumption in the CO2 stripping tower as only a small 
amount of semi-lean amine needs to be sent to the CO2 
stripping tower. The reboiler heat consumption was 
measured as approximately 0.9 GJ/t CO2 or less, which 
is a significantly lower energy consumption than that of a 
conventional one-stage absorption system. The purity of 
the captured CO2 was greater than 99% (dry basis) at the 
top of the LPFT.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
JCCS can share the following knowledge and experience acquired from the Tomakomai Project.
•	
Capture and compression technologies (excluding inherent knowhow belonging to the process licensor)
•	
Injection and monitoring technologies
•	
Public outreach experiences
STORAGE
Japan CCS Co., Ltd. (JCCS) was founded in May 2008 when 
a group of major companies with expertise in CCS-related 
fields, including electric power, petroleum, oil development, 
and plant engineering, joined forces to answer the Japanese 
government’s call for development of CCS technology.
JCCS has been conducting the Tomakomai CCS 
Demonstration 
Project, 
Japan’s 
first 
full-chain 
CCS 
demonstration project in Tomakomai City, Hokkaido 
Prefecture, Japan since JFY2012 (JFY: Japanese fiscal 
year from April to March). The project was commissioned 
to JCCS by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry 
(METI) between JFY2012 and 2017, and from JFY2018 
by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development 
Organization (NEDO) with subsidies from METI.
The main objectives and tasks of the project are as follows:
•	
Demonstrate a full-chain CCS system from capture to 
storage
•	
Demonstrate that the CCS system is safe and reliable
•	
Remove concerns about earthquakes by the data 
collected by establishing:
•	
No influence by natural earthquakes on CO2 stored
•	
No perceptible earth tremors induced by CO2 
injection
•	
Disclose project information and data and enhance 
understanding of CCS by local residents
•	
Acquire operational technology as well as strive 
towards practical implementation.
The target of 300,000 tonnes of CO2 injection was 
achieved in November 2019. Post-injection monitoring is 
currently being conducted. No micro-seismicity or natural 
earthquakes attributable to CO2 injection were detected 
in the vicinity of the injection area. The time-lapse monitor 
seismic surveys indicated clear anomalies reflecting the 
evolution of the CO2 plume. The project is being conducted 
with the understanding and support of the local community. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@japanccs.com
Web: 	
www.japanccs.com
JAPAN CCS CO., LTD.
Fig. 3 Geological cross section
Fig. 1 Bird’s-eye View of capture and injection facilities of the Tomakomai Project
Fig. 2 Two stage absorption process


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2.2 CO2 INJECTION AND MONITORING
A geological cross section is shown in Fig.4 with profiles 
of the deviated injection wells. The Tomakomai project 
targets two independent reservoirs of different depths 
and different lithofacies; the Lower Quaternary Moebetsu 
formation at about 1,000 to 1,200 m in depth and 3 km off 
the coastline, and the volcanic and volcaniclastic layers of 
the Miocene Takinoue formation at about 2,400 to 3,000 
m in depth and 4 km offshore.
Onshore monitoring facilities were comprised of a seismic 
station and three observation wells with pressure and 
temperature sensors and seismic sensors. Offshore 
facilities were comprised of an OBC (ocean bottom cable) 
with 72 seismic sensors and four OBSs (ocean bottom 
seismometers).
The facilities were deployed as shown in Fig.5 and started 
operation on February 1, 2015, thirteen months before the 
start of CO2 injection. CO2 injection into the Moebetsu 
formation began on April 6, 2016 and was terminated with 
the cumulative amount at 300,012 tonnes on November 
22, 2019. CO2 injections into the Takinoue Formation were 
conducted from February 6 to February 23, 2018, and from 
July 31 to September 1, 2018. The injectivity of the Takinoue 
formation was much lower than expected, and therefore 
the cumulative injection of CO2 was 98 tonnes. 
To date, no seismicity attributable to CO2 injection has 
been detected in the vicinity of the reservoirs (Fig.6). 
Seismic surveys at cumulative CO2 injection of approx. 
65,000, 207,000 and 300,000 tonnes into the Moebetsu 
Formation detected anomalies, indicating evolution of the 
CO2 plume (Fig.7). Seasonal marine environmental surveys 
have detected no indications of seepage of the injected 
CO2.
As a result of an optimization study of the monitoring 
system and the marine environmental survey, some 
monitoring facilities and works have been discontinued 
after JFY 2021.
3. PUBLIC OUTREACH ACTIVITIES
As the project is being conducted close to the center of 
Tomakomai, a large industrial city including active fishing 
with a population of approximately 170,000, securing 
the trust of the local community through sustained 
communication, in particular with the local government 
and fishery cooperatives has been an important step in 
achieving the smooth delivery of the project. A key factor 
was the strong support of the city mayor and the local 
government, which formed the Tomakomai CCS Promotion 
Association in April 2010 (re-organized in October 2021 to 
Tomakomai CCUS/Zero Carbon Promotion Association), 
chaired by the mayor of Tomakomai and comprised 
of all the major local industries including the fishery 
cooperatives.
JCCS also places emphasis on removing concerns 
regarding earthquakes and securing trust in the safety of 
Japan’s CCS technology through various public outreach 
activities such as forums for local residents, panel 
exhibitions, exhibits at environmental conferences, site 
tours, lectures, and experiment classes for schoolchildren. 
We have also maintained an information disclosure system 
in the city hall of Tomakomai.
Fig. 5 Results of micro-seismicity of monitoring
Fig. 6 Results of 3D seismic survey
Fig. 4 Layout of monitoring system of the project


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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including adsorbent-based capture, new solvents, and 
novel configurations for solvent-based technologies.
In addition to our carbon capture technology, we design 
and supply gas dehydration and conditioning systems. 
Our diverse gas dehydration portfolio includes triethylene 
glycol (TEG) units, BASF Sorbead® adsorbents and 
molecular sieves adsorbents. We are uniquely positioned 
to select the most optimum CO2 dehydration technology 
considering the dry CO2 specification, and overall 
CAPEX and OPEX of these systems. This expertise has 
allowed us to successfully execute more than 100 gas 
dehydration projects globally which has enabled us to 
achieve high-energy recovery and low-glycol loss in our 
glycol-based dehydration packages and modules, which 
are compact, lightweight, and small in footprint. We are 
developing the next generation of digitalized desiccant-
based dehydration systems, enabling remote monitoring 
of operations which will enhance the desiccant lifetime, 
reduce energy requirements and OPEX of the system. 
Our CO2 dehydration systems reduce the water dewpoint, 
preventing hydrate formation, condensation, and corrosion 
in the downstream processes. Other CO2 conditioning 
packages include removing contaminants like oxygen, 
H2S and Mercury and then compression for end use. We 
are also currently developing off-the-shelf engineered 
standardized modular dehydration packages.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
NOV is a one-stop-shop, offering capabilities to support throughout the entire value chain. These benefits include:
•	
Established execution and global supply chain models, featuring local, low-cost fabrication and decreased delivery 
times
•	
Experience in standardized system and equipment packages to drive efficiency
•	
Precision with large-scale projects, resulting in lower engineering design and project management 
•	
Research and development activity to keep customers involved with the latest CCUS technology advancements
•	
Vast well construction capabilities for geological storage to streamline vendor operations
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS
The transition to cleaner, carbon-neutral energy, coupled 
with the growth in decarbonization methods, is one of the 
most significant technological shifts to happen in modern 
history. Throughout our 150 years of experience at NOV, 
we have pioneered innovations that have enabled our 
customers to safely produce abundant energy while 
minimizing the environmental impact of their operations. 
The energy industry depends on our deep expertise and 
technology to assist in advancing the energy transition 
toward a more sustainable future.
We have joined the movement and our goal is simple: 
rejuvenate to improve upon what we already offer, 
repurpose technology and equipment traditionally used 
in oil and gas operations, and reposition the skills and 
knowledge from oil and gas toward the energy transition.
Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is one 
initiative where our gas processing technologists and 
process system experts have been able to utilize their 
core competencies to design a carbon capture system 
for post-combustion flue gas. Within upstream oil and gas, 
our Wellstream Processing group is recognized as the 
global leader in delivering gas processing technologies 
and process systems. This expertise is cultivated from 
our 35-year history of executing more than 350 complex 
gas treatment and conditioning projects in close to 50 
countries worldwide. 
 Our post-combustion carbon capture technology is 
fully commercial, scalable, and adaptable to any flue gas 
application. This solvent-based post-combustion capture 
design utilizes a proprietary solvent that removes more 
than 90% of carbon dioxide. The scalability of our solution 
supports a wide range of applications and industries. 
We are actively engaged in performing and supporting 
carbon capture pre-FEED/FEED studies in a variety of 
flue gas applications including hydrogen, steel, power 
generation, oil & gas, paper and pulp, ethanol, waste-to-
energy, and ammonia. We are reducing the cost of capture 
by deploying NOV’s expertise in standardizing equipment 
packages and developing CO2 point source specific 
product lines.  
We are also involved in strategic partnerships to develop 
new carbon capture technologies that are focused on 
reducing the cost and improving the overall economics of 
implementing carbon capture. To address the challenges 
of implementing capture on smaller emitters below 
100,000 tons per year, we are exploring new technologies 
CONTACT
Email: 	 PF-CCUSMarketing@nov.com
Web: 	
www.nov.com
NOV
DESCRIPTION
Industry-leading solutions for CO2 projects of any size are 
also available for transport, offshore offloading, injection, 
and storage. Our growing suite of automation, control, 
and monitoring solutions also support safe and reliable 
operations. A sampling of our solutions across CCUS 
includes:
TRANSPORTATION
•	
For more than 80 years, Tuboscope has provided 
products and services that improve asset performance 
and maximize useful life. Our TK™-Corrosion control 
products and pipeline connection systems have 
successfully been used in CO2 and carbon capture 
applications, efficiently transporting waste, preventing 
severe deterioration of line pipe and downhole tubing 
due to the corrosive nature of carbon containing 
wastewater. 
•	
The 
proprietary 
suite 
of 
Tube-Kote™ 
coatings 
addresses all operating environments, providing 
superior corrosion protection, deposit mitigation and 
improved hydraulics. When used with our pipeline 
connection systems, the result is a continuous coated 
surface throughout the connection area and improved 
pipeline integrity and efficiency. 
•	
Our TK-Liner, GRE lined carbon steel pipe, delivers 
excellent corrosion protection in highly corrosive 
environments, as well as thermal insulation for 
downhole tubulars and flowlines.
•	
For more than 50 years, composite pipe has been used 
in CO2 injection lines, high- and low-pressure pipelines, 
ductwork, WAG systems, and other challenging 
carbon capture and transportation applications. Our 
products are ideal for these critical applications due 
to their ability to handle concentrations of up to 100% 
CO2. Composite solutions bring excellent corrosion 
resistance without the additional cost of cathodic 
protections or coatings traditional metallic materials 
require. 
•	
Our energy efficient horizontal pumping systems 
are an ideal option to boost CO2 pressure for 
pipeline entry. Tying into our variable frequency 
drive (VFD), users control the speed of the pump to 
adjust discharge pressure and flow rate, as needed. 
Additionally, automation, control, and monitoring 
solutions drive productivity and improve safety and 
reliability. 


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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OFFSHORE OFFLOADING, INJECTION, AND STORAGE
•	
We assist customers with offshore CO2 transfer, from 
terminal or storage vessel to shuttle vessel, shuttle 
vessel to storage facilities/well, or from shuttle vessel 
to storage and injection vessel. Transfer and mooring 
systems are important to secure vessels and ensure 
safe and reliable CO2 injection offshore. 
•	
Our Single Anchor Loading (SAL) and Submerged 
Swivel and Yoke (SSY) systems are used in shallow 
waters, while our Submerged Turret Loading (STL) 
system is used in deep water locations. The SAL 
system is designed for shuttling operations where 
continuous injections are not required, also known as 
batch wise injection. Alternately, the STL is suited for 
both shuttling and permanent mooring/continuous 
operation in deeper waters (50 m – 2500 m). The 
SSY is the preferable solution for permanent moored/
continuous operation systems in shallow waters (15 
m – 60 m). Technology choice and individual system 
complexity levels are also subject to specific seabed, 
soil, and weather conditions for the given terminal or 
storage aquifer/reservoir location.
•	
Our portfolio of dynamic high-pressure unbonded 
flexible pipes is compatible with CO2. Already used 
in deep waters for CO2 enhanced oil recovery 
injection (EOR), our offshore flexible pipes are equally 
applicable for injection into permanent storage.
•	
We also develop solutions for safe and efficient 
vessel integration of our technologies for CO2 transfer 
interfaces, which include the Bow Loading System 
(BLS) and the Stern Discharge System (SDS). These 
high performing, field proven technologies have been 
used in the oil and gas industry for decades and are 
easily converted to CO2 transfer in all three pressure 
and temperature levels considered for CO2 handling. 
•	
Our full suite of drilling technologies offers many 
solutions for drilling into saline aquifers or depleted 
oil and gas reservoirs for permanent CO2 storage. We 
offer a complete suite of tubulars and bottom hole 
assembly (BHA) tools, as well as drilling optimization 
services.
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
We are home to multiple research and technology 
centers. Two of our facilities are specifically linked to 
NOV’s low carbon initiatives, the Springett Technology 
Center located just outside of Houston in Navasota, Texas, 
and the Flotta facility in Orkney, Scotland located in the 
heart of the Orkney Net Zero Ecosystem. We can rapidly 
produce prototypes and test technology for customers 
with expanding capabilities to support more low carbon 
initiatives. Additionally, our lab services for low carbon 
supports 
environmental 
impact 
research, 
surveys, 
atmospheric monitoring, and permits. 
As solutions to support decarbonization continue to evolve, 
NOV will remain at the forefront solving challenges and 
partnering with customers across the entire CCUS value 
chain. Please let us know if we can assist with your next 
project by emailing corporatemarketing@nov.com.
CCUS VALUE CHAIN INFOGRAPHIC
NOV technology supports the entire CCUS value chain. 
1 Emission source 
2 Carbon capture system
3 Onshore CO2 injection well
4 Terminal for offshore CO2 transportation
5 Transportation vessel
6 Vessel for offshore offloading and CO2 injection
7 Re-purposed offshore platform for CO2 injection 
8 Offshore injection well for CO2
CARBON CAPTURE SYSTEM
Our built-for-purpose carbon capture system is a solvent 
based, post-combustion capture design that removes more 
than 90% of carbon dioxide.
SUBMERGED TURRET LOADING
An optimal solution for deep water locations, our 
Submerged Turret Loading (STL) system is designed for 
shuttling and permanent mooring or continuous operation. 
Our STL ensures safe and secure injection offshore.
Submerged Turret Loading
Carbon Capture System
CCUS Value Chain Infographic


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
Reservoir simulation is a key technology used in different 
phases of a CO2 storage project. Early in the screening 
phase, models are built to estimate capacity, test critical 
operational parameters and eventually select a potential 
site over another. New simulation campaigns are typically 
run during appraisal and to create a project development 
plan. Finally, reservoir simulators are also used to estimate 
contingency and uncertainty for project costs and in 
determining plume migration conformance for storage site 
closure. 
The OpenGoSim (OGS) software package provides 
simulation capabilities to predict the long-term effects of 
storing CO2 in saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon 
fields. Engineers and researchers can run large-scale 
simulations to model the CO2 migration and temperature 
change in detail. The simulator offers a number of accurate 
and easy-to-use built-in options to characterise CO2 and 
its mixture with residual hydrocarbons, while modelling 
CO2 dissolution in brine and temperature effects. It utilises 
mathematical models designed specifically for CCS 
applications, to improve efficiency and usability when 
compared to traditional reservoir simulators developed 
for hydrocarbon recovery and often readapted to model 
CO2 storage. The software is highly scalable and can use 
a large number of computer processors to reduce the 
time needed to simulate large areas of the order of 100 
x 100 km, for hundreds or thousands of years, as is often 
required by CCS studies.
The OGS project started in 2015 building on PFLOTRAN, 
an open-source software developed by the cooperation of 
several US national labs (Los Alamos, Sandia, Oak Ridge, 
Berkley, Pacific Northwest). PFLOTRAN was developed to 
enhance the understanding of a number of environmental 
problems, 
especially 
those 
that 
require 
long-term 
simulations and significant computational resources, such 
as nuclear waste management.
Thanks to support from Equinor, the UK government, 
and private investors, OGS has developed a reservoir 
engineering capability tailored to CO2 storage, which 
now fits into the industry workflow, and has been used in 
several CCS projects across Europe with ongoing uptake 
in other regions. The core simulator remains open-source, 
facilitating cooperations with academia to accelerate 
R&D, while OGS has developed a front-end and an 
application to leverage cloud computing resources and 
to increase the simulator portability and usability. Beyond 
industry adoption, the software is being used by several 
universities worldwide and government institutes (e.g. 
British Geological Survey) in support of research activities, 
and lately has been selected by Imperial College and 
Cambridge University to commercialise some CCS-specific 
upscale techniques and reduced-physics models within 
the StrataTrapper project.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Advanced modelling of CO2 including thermal effects
•	
Well-established parallel-computing technology to speed up simulations
•	
Cloud technology to run models from your laptop
•	
No upfront license fees
•	
Affordable support packages
OPENGOSIM CO2 STORAGE SOFTWARE SUITE
OpenGoSim (OGS) has developed PFLOTRAN-OGS, a 
reservoir simulation package centred on CO2 geological 
storage. The simulator can model CO2 storage in both 
saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon fields. 
The documentation of the software capabilities and the 
user manual is available through the OpenGoSim website.
PFLOTRAN-OGS is open-source software that can be 
downloaded for free, and users can install and use it on 
their own without any support. 
As the company that is developing and maintaining 
PFLOTRAN-OGS, OpenGoSim offers: (1) commercial 
support for an annual subscription fee, (2) a windows 
installer with pre- and post-processing capabilities and (3) a 
solution for cloud deployment.
CONTACT
Email: 	 Rita@opengosim.com
Web: 	
www.opengosim.com
OPENGOSIM
PFLOTRAN-OGS
A reservoir simulator dedicated 
to CO2 storage.
Hamilton (UK): CO2 injection into a depleted gas field
Smeaheia (Norway): CO2 injection into a saline aquifer


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DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL SOLVENTS
We are developing novel amine solvents with energy 
utilization from low-grade waste heat. We succeeded in the 
development of amine solvents that could reduce the CO2 
capture energy by 40% compared with conventional amine 
solvents. Some novel amine solvents are in industrial use 
and have been adopted in two domestic commercial 
plants. 
Membrane 
MEMBRANE 
We are developing organic membranes, such as 
molecular-gate membranes, and inorganic membranes, 
such as zeolite, silica, and palladium membranes. For 
organic membranes, we are working on a molecular-gate 
membrane module, which can separate and capture CO2 
from a mixed gas, including H2 and CO2, generated from 
the production process obtaining H2 from hydrocarbons. 
For inorganic membranes, we are working on separation 
between water and alcohol, CO2 and CH4, and MCH 
(Methylcyclohexane) and H2.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Useful CO2 capture data using various amine compounds that have been accumulated over 20 years
•	
Liquid and solid absorption materials to effectively capture CO2 using low-temperature steam
•	
Organic and inorganic membrane technology that can separate CO2, alcohol, H2O, H2 
•	
Materials for direct air capture (DAC) technology
•	
Membrane reactor technology for CO2 utilization
INNOVATIVE CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES WITH CHEMICAL ABSORPTION, 
ADSORPTION, AND MEMBRANES
The Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the 
Earth (RITE) is dedicated to developing innovative CO2 
capture technologies and to providing world-leading R&D 
and innovation results with a special focus on chemical 
absorption, adsorption, and the membrane separation 
process. Our research topics cover the development of 
new materials and innovative manufacturing processes 
and high-efficiency CO2 capture systems. As for chemical 
absorption, the solvent developed in our project has been 
put to practical use in a commercial CO2 capture process 
owned by a private Japanese company. For adsorption, 
pilot-scale tests of solid sorbents with good CO2 desorption 
performance at low temperatures with adsorption 
systems are being conducted in collaboration with private 
companies using flue gas from coal-fired power plants. 
Recently, we started to develop new absorbents for low-
concentration CO2 capture at natural gas-fired power 
plants with private companies. Furthermore, the direct 
air capture (DAC) process which captures CO2 from the 
atmosphere is proceeded as a national project by RITE 
in collaboration with a private company to develop an 
innovative solid sorbent and effective capture system. With 
the target of separating CO2 from a highly pressurized gas 
stream using a low-cost, energy-saving process, we have 
been developing membranes and membrane elements. 
They are potentially applied in the integrated coal 
gasification combined cycle (IGCC) and blue-hydrogen 
production.
Efforts are also being made toward the standardization 
of CO2 capture. As the only organization in Japan that 
is a member of the International Test Center Network 
(abbreviated as ITCN, a global association of facilities 
around the world that promotes the research and 
development of CO2 capture technology), RITE regularly 
exchanges information with overseas ITCN members. 
In addition, we are conducting the project “Establish 
a common base for evaluating the standards of CO2 
separation materials,” which started in 2022, and we have 
initiated the establishment of Japan’s first real-gas test 
center at RITE.
These studies are based on results obtained from projects, 
JPNP13012, JPNP16002, JPNP18016 and JPNP21014 
commissioned by the New Energy and Industrial 
Technology Development Organization (NEDO).
CONTACT
Email: 	 kagaku@rite.or.jp
Web: 	
www.rite.or.jp
RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF INNOVATIVE 
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE EARTH
Industrial use second plant


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SOLID SORBENT
We are developing novel solid sorbents (porous sorbents 
modified with amines that are used in chemical solvents). 
Optimum amines and porous supports are chosen 
depending on the CO2 concentration. We are working on 
effective CO2 separation from coal-fired power plants (CO2 
concentration: around 13%), natural gas power plants (CO2 
concentration: around 4%), and the air (CO2 concentration: 
around 0.04%).
ESTABLISHMENT OF A COMMON EVALUATION 
STANDARD FOR CO2 CAPTURE MATERIALS
We promote efforts to establish common evaluation 
standards for CO2 capture technologies. We are 
developing standard evaluation methods for various CO2 
separation materials, while keeping pace with international 
trends in this field. In addition, we will found a real gas 
test center at RITE and support the development of CO2 
separation materials by domestic companies, research 
institutes, and others.
SCOPE
We will further actively participate in the development of 
technology for CO2 separation and recovery, including 
chemical absorption, solid sorbents, and membrane 
separation. 
The 
chemical 
absorption 
process 
will 
be enhanced by the development of practical high-
performance chemical solvents. For solid-sorbent-based 
technology, a pilot-scale test capturing 40t-CO2 per 
day from flue gas at a coal-fired power plant has been 
scheduled for second half of FY 2023–2024, while a new 
project aims to develop innovative solid sorbents for CO2 
capture from natural gas power plants will be started. 
Regarding the DAC technology, we will accelerate its 
development toward a small-scale on-site demonstration at 
Expo 2025 Osaka, Kansai. As for membrane separation, in 
FY 2023, we will complete the fabrication of a prototype 
for a commercial-size membrane module and develop 
a plan for a field test, aiming to move forward into the 
development phase. About the Real Gas Test Center, its 
detailed design will be conducted in FY 2023. We will 
survey potential users to determine the key configurations 
desired and to make the center user-friendly for domestic 
researchers working on CO2 separation materials. It will be 
open by the end of FY 2024. 
In the future, RITE will be fully committed to the above-
mentioned 
research 
topics. 
For 
carbon 
capture 
technologies in a stage very close to practical applications, 
we will conduct scale-up studies and tests under real-gas 
conditions with the aim of establishing the technology at 
an early stage. In sustainable development scenarios for 
decarbonization, negative emissions technologies, such 
as DACCS (direct air capture with carbon storage), are 
expected to make significant contributions. Therefore, 
it is necessary to handle these low-concentration CO2 
emission sources. As the CO2 concentration decreases, 
the amount of gas to be treated increases, and the 
oxygen concentration also increases. The development 
of materials at low cost with superior stability and a 
corresponding system is highly important. We will 
accelerate the development of these technologies so that 
we can implement low-cost, energy-saving CO2 capture 
technologies into our societies as soon as possible. 
Efforts will also be devoted to effectively use the captured 
CO2. We will develop the technology of CO2 fixation 
into carbonates using steel slag and waste concrete 
and explore technology for recycling CO2 into fuel and 
chemical feedstocks.


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DESCRIPTION
ADVANCED TRAFFIC LIGHT SYSTEM (ATLS)
There are concerns about earthquakes induced by the 
formation pressure increase from CO2 injections. This has 
led CO2 injection sites to undertake various monitoring 
activities such as seismic monitoring. To leverage the data 
acquired from these monitoring systems, the CO2 storage 
research group has been developing a management 
system for CO2 injections called the advanced traffic light 
system (ATLS). For hot dry rock geothermal power or 
enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), a traffic light system 
(TLS) has been developed to label a level of safety using 
traffic light colors, i.e., green, yellow, and red, judging by the 
observed data of microseismicity. The proposed ATLS is a 
system equipped with advanced functions to utilize data 
from all monitoring systems such as seismic observations 
at a CO2 injection site and the injection status there.
The ATLS is designed to identify any irregularities as early 
as possible and send the feedback to the CO2 injection 
operation. The system would enable the operator to 
control the CO2 injection rates in accordance with the 
information provided by the ATLS and to undertake the 
necessary countermeasures.
The figure below illustrates a schematic view of the 
workflow of the ATLS. After obtaining the ground 
motion data, the extraction of the seismic events and 
the identification of their locations are automatically 
carried out. In parallel, the latest hypocenter catalog is 
obtained from the Japan Methodological Agency (JMA) 
which is used to exclude the natural earthquakes from 
the catalog generated in the ATLS. Using the continuous 
observation data for two years or more in Tomakomai, 
it was demonstrated that the ATLS has the capability to 
automatically analyze the ground motion data and to locate 
each of the detected microseismic events at the injection 
point.
The frequency and locations of the micro- and natural 
earthquakes in the monitoring area and the colors of traffic 
light determined by the ATLS are displayed.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Procedures and detection technology to monitor offshore CO2 leakage in case of emergency
•	
Operational control system to detect abnormal signs during CO2 injection and prevent induced seismicity
•	
Optical fiber sensing technology to monitor CO2 and reservoir conditions to ensure safe CO2 geological storage
•	
CO2 microbubble injection technology that drastically creates efficient CO2 injection
PRACTICAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR CARBON DIOXIDE GEOLOGICAL STORAGE 
Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth 
(RITE) has been engaged in the research and development 
of carbon dioxide (CO2) geological storage for a quarter 
of a century. We have conducted Japan’s first CO2 
geological storage project in the 2000s and set the stage 
for the feasibility of CCS through fundamental research 
on monitoring technology, analysis, and prediction of CO2 
behavior in geological formations based on observational 
data and analysis of rock properties. In the first half of 
the 2010s, the fundamental technologies for CCS were 
developed, and in the latter half of the 2010s, technological 
development was promoted with the aim of establishing 
technologies that can be utilized in commercial-scale 
projects.
For the implementation of CCS in society, it is important to 
establish not only technology but also social acceptance 
and improvement of the economy. Social acceptance 
of CCS is related to the possibility of induced seismicity 
and the environmental concerns. RITE provides various 
safety management technologies to reduce the risk of 
CO2 geological storage, increase social acceptability, and 
improve the economy.
CONTACT
Email: 	 co2srg@rite.or.jp
Web: 	
www.rite.or.jp
RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF INNOVATIVE 
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE EARTH
An example of the output from ATLS
Flow diagram of ATLS


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MICROBUBBLE CO2 INJECTION TECHNOLOGY
Microbubble CO2 injection is a technology to generate 
microbubble CO2 by supplying CO2 into a special filter 
and to inject the bubbles into a pore space in formation. 
Using the microbubble technology, we have collaborated 
to improve CO2 storage efficiency with Tokyo Gas.
The features of this technology have the potential to 
maximize the pore space utilization in geological CO2 
storage, use low-permeability formations that have not 
been considered storage formations, and enhance the oil 
recovery rates.
We, in collaboration with JAPEX, conducted a field test to 
examine the level of storage efficiency at their Sarukawa 
oil field in Akita. The selected formation was a 900 m deep 
sand formation, which bears oil. The oil is trapped in the 
formation with little natural flow. We did a Haff and Puff test, 
injecting CO2 and water at a ratio of 9:1 and then pumping 
the formation fluid out.
The results are summarized in the table below. This shows 
that the microbubble CO2 injection technique has the 
potential to improve the efficiency of the CO2 injection, 
CO2 storage, and oil recovery in comparison with the 
conventional methods.
storage complexes, to the sea. Reservoirs are generally 
at the depth of around 1 kilometer or deeper under the 
seabed. According to a simulation conducted previously, 
the amount of time that CO2 migrates from a reservoir to 
the seabed right above would be more than 5 years. As 
the pathway of the CO2 migration would depend on the 
characteristics of the formations between the reservoir 
and the seabed, the CO2 would not necessarily leak into 
the sea in the area right above the reservoir. Taking this 
into consideration, we propose the following strategy for 
monitoring. Initially, we should direct the focus on the deep 
formations including the reservoir to detect signs of CO2 
migration from the reservoir. Then, if detected, we move 
to the in-depth investigation, targeting the overburden, to 
narrow the potential area for CO2 to leak out. Finally, we 
prove a narrowed area to detect the signals of the leaked 
CO2 in the water column.
The leaked CO2 must be in the gaseous phase under the 
temperature and pressure conditions at the seabed of 
the shallow sea to ensure that CO2 should not go out as 
bubbles from the seabed if it gets leaked. Monitoring to 
confirm that there are no bubbles from the seabed can be, 
therefore, an option for leakage monitoring.
Sonar is used extensively to detect bubbles in the sea and 
bubbles of gases such as methane. We have developed a 
methodology to use the side-scan sonar (SSS) technology, 
which is applicable in wide-area scanning to detect CO2 
bubbles. SSS is a tool to produce images of objects in the 
water column and topographic features of the seabed by 
emitting sonic pulses from both sides of the SSS to the 
vertical section perpendicular to the direction of its travel 
and receiving its reflection.  We conducted an experiment 
to test whether the SSS can detect CO2 bubbles released 
on the seabed under various conditions. Our findings 
demonstrate that the SSS is capable of detecting the 
bubbles released at a rate of higher than 2–4 tons per 
annum and that the distance between the neighboring 
observation lines in the monitoring should be shorter than 
the altitude of the SSS, i.e., the distance between SSS and 
the seabed beneath it.
INTO THE SEA
As CO2 storage sites are deliberately selected to store 
CO2 stably and safely, it is considered that CO2 leakage 
from geological reservoirs is remotely possible. However, 
monitoring CO2 behavior is essential as there are public 
concerns regarding CO2 leakage. In addition, when storing 
CO2 in the sub-seabed geological formations in Japan, it 
is mandated to assess the marine environmental impacts 
based on the supposition of the CO2 leakage and to 
monitor and verify that there are no signs of CO2 leakage 
or migration from the reservoir. To identify the signs of 
CO2 leakage, the scope of monitoring should cover an 
extensive range from deep geological formations, including 
System concept of DFOS
An example of formation strain measurement 
Results of the field test
Side-scan sonar used in the experiment 
CO2
CONVENTIONAL
MICROBUBBLE
Injection
5.6t
(0.6t/day x 10 days)
20.0t
(2.0t/day x 10 days)
Collected
2.1t
3.9t
Stored
3.5t
16.1t
Rate of Stored
62%
80%
OPTICAL FIBER SENSING TECHNOLOGY
In geological CO2 storage, it is essential to monitor not only 
the location of CO2 plume but also the area of the pressure 
propagation. There are number of technologies suitable 
for such monitoring, for example, distributed fiber optical 
sensing (DFOS).
The DFOS system is capable of acquiring spatially 
continuous data and has been applied in various 
fields. The DFOS can act as a multi-sensor system to 
capture temperatures, pressures, strains, and vibrations 
simultaneously by installing multiple fibers together. The 
system is potentially considerably cheaper than a case 
where several sensors are installed.
•	
Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS)
•	
Monitoring the CO2 plume in the reservoir by 
using an optic fiber cable as a seismic sensor
•	
Distributed strain sensing (DSS)
•	
Monitoring 
the 
geological 
stability 
of 
the 
reservoirs and cap-rocks by measuring the strain 
in the formations due to the pressure changes 
associated with the CO2 injection
•	
Distributed temperature sensing (DTS)
•	
Capturing the signs of a CO2 leakage by 
monitoring the temperature changes around the 
injection wells and CO2 pipelines 
We have developed the DFOS system over several years 
and now demonstrate it in the fields in Japan and overseas, 
as shown in the figure below.
We have designed a noble optical fiber cable that contains 
multiple fibers filled with a resin substance in a stainless 
steel tube to overcome the installation challenges in the 
deep wells. The sensitivity of the hard steel cable was 
validated with the water injection test at the domestic site.
At the CCS site in North Dakota, USA, we demonstrated 
an integrated monitoring system using DAS, DSS, and DTS 
with the developed optical fiber cable. We monitor the 
integrity of the CO2 pipeline and the injection/observation 
wells continuously to detect any potential damage to the 
apparatus. Furthermore, we monitor the injected CO2 
continuously using the DAS-vertical seismic profiling (VSP) 
system with permanent seismic sources. 
At the pilot test sites in Australia, we are promoting 
demonstration tests of the DFOS system for fault 
monitoring. We monitor the CO2 migration along/across the 
shallow faults and examine the fault stability at the deep 
faults.


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DESCRIPTION
MOSS ECO-X™
Moss Maritime | ECO Drilling Floaters (mossww.com)
The Moss CS-series of semisubmersible catamaran 
platforms is one of the world’s most field-proven and 
successful platform designs for harsh environments, and 
the state-of-the-art ECO-X™ platform represents a quantum 
leap in the direction of more sustainable drilling operations.
The ECO-X™ is built with a focus on energy efficiency, 
reduced emissions, and improved safety, making it an ideal 
platform for drilling carbon storage wells in environmentally 
sensitive areas. The design features a state-of-the-art 
hybrid power system, which combines diesel-electric 
and battery power to reduce fuel consumption and CO2 
emissions. Additionally, the platform is equipped with a 
high-performance drilling system and advanced safety and 
automation systems to ensure efficient and safe drilling 
operations.
The Moss CS has already been successfully utilized for 
well-drilling operations around the globe, demonstrating 
its effectiveness and reliability. Its advanced design and 
capabilities make it an ideal platform for carbon storage 
projects worldwide, helping to mitigate climate change by 
safely and efficiently storing CO2 in geological formations.
DRILLING FLEET
Saipem owns and operates a world-class offshore drilling 
fleet capable of conducting drilling operations in the most 
challenging conditions. The fleet includes several high-
tech and advanced drilling units, including the Moss CS 
semisubmersible catamaran platforms.  
Saipem’s offshore drilling fleet has the latest drilling 
technology, ensuring clients receive safe, efficient 
and reliable drilling services. The fleet is operated by 
experienced and highly skilled crews trained to handle the 
most complex drilling operations.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Field-proven drilling capability in the harshest and deepest environments
•	
Environmentally sustainable drilling operations with the Moss CS ECO-X™ semi-sub catamaran platform
•	
End-to-end capabilities in CO2 storage projects
•	
Successful track record in both onshore and offshore
MOSS ECO-X™
Saipem is a global leader in the engineering, drilling 
and construction of large projects for the energy and 
infrastructure sectors and provides a full range of net 
zero-oriented services for its clients operating in both the 
energy transition and the offshore and onshore oil & gas 
sectors. Saipem is highly specialized in carbon capture, 
transport, storage and utilization and has a proven track 
record in successful CO2 projects. Saipem’s subsidiary 
Moss Maritime has developed high-tech drilling units such 
as the Moss CS semisubmersible catamaran platforms 
perfectly designed for drilling operations of CO2 injection 
wells. The company’s experience includes successful 
onshore and offshore projects worldwide.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info.offshore.drilling@saipem.com
Web: 	
www.saipem.com
SAIPEM
Saipem Scarabeo 8, a last generation semisubmersible drilling rig
Moss ECO-X™


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DESCRIPTION
CO2 SOLUTIONS BY SAIPEM TECHNOLOGY
CO2 Solutions by Saipem is a cutting-edge technology that 
uses enzymatic carbon capture to capture carbon dioxide 
emissions from industrial processes. The post-combustion 
capture process involves three columns, each with a 
specific role in capturing and separating CO2.
•	
Quench Tower: cools the flue gas, condenses much 
of the water vapour and manages particulates and 
contaminants.
•	
Absorber: captures the CO2 in the solvent at near 
atmospheric pressure.
•	
Desorber: releases the CO2 at high purity and 
regenerates the solvent at low temperature.
Enzymes play a vital role as a catalyst in the CO2 capture 
process. The enzyme used in the process is known as 
carbonic anhydrase, which accelerates the reaction 
between CO2 and water to produce bicarbonate ions. The 
carbonate solvent used in the process is simply water, 
potassium carbonate, and the enzyme. This solvent has 
unique properties that make it ideal for post-combustion 
CO2 capture. One of its most important characteristics is 
its stability under oxidative conditions and in the presence 
of flue gas contaminants, eliminating the production of 
degradation byproducts. Additionally, the non-volatile 
solvent is non-toxic, making it safer to handle and dispose 
of than traditional amine-based solvents.
The St-Félicien first-of-a-kind carbon capture plant in 
Quebec, Canada, tested the CO2 Solutions by Saipem 
technology. It captured over 90% of CO2 emissions 
and confirmed the solvent’s remarkable stability and 
low-temperature 
performance. 
The 
plant 
operated 
effectively under varying process conditions and flue gas 
compositions, thus proving the potential of the technology 
to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
Saipem’s CO2 Solutions technology has potential 
applications in various industries, including power 
generation, cement production, steelmaking and other 
hard-to-abate industries. By integrating with existing 
industrial processes, the technology can capture CO2 
emissions and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Heat 
integration with the host site can eliminate thermal energy 
costs and provide additional economic benefits. While 
further development and improvements are possible, such 
as increasing the scale of the process, the non-toxic and 
non-reactive nature of the enzyme and carbonate system 
used in the process makes significant technological 
improvements challenging. The robustness and resilience 
of the enzyme ensure the process’s stability and efficiency 
over long periods.
BLUENZYME PRODUCTS
Bluenzyme is a revolutionary product line developed by 
Saipem that leverages the enzymatic carbon capture 
technology of CO2 Solutions by Saipem. 
Saipem’s modular design and fabrication expertise makes 
Bluenzyme products a cost-effective and ready-made 
solution for industrial clients. 
The benefits of modular design and fabrication include:
•	
Reduced construction time and costs: modules 
are built off-site in a controlled environment, with 
standardized fabrication processes and stringent 
quality controls, reducing in-situ construction time and 
costs.
•	
Reduced environmental impact: modular construction 
generates less waste and is more energy-efficient than 
traditional stick-built methods.
•	
Flexibility: modular units can be easily integrated within 
existing facilities with a Plug & Play concept.
•	
Improved safety: modular construction reduces the 
need for on-site work and improves safety conditions 
for workers.
Combining the benefits of CO2 Solutions by Saipem 
technology 
with 
modular 
design 
and 
fabrication, 
Bluenzyme modular products offer a sustainable, cost-
effective, and ready-made solution for reducing carbon 
emissions and improving operational efficiency. The 
technology’s unique features, including enzymatic carbon 
capture and a stable, non-toxic and non-volatile carbonate 
solvent, make it a powerful and environmentally friendly 
alternative to traditional carbon capture methods. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Non-toxic, non-volatile and stable carbonate solvent reducing environmental impact
•	
Solvent regeneration with low-grade residual heat at 80°C significantly reducing or eliminating thermal heat costs and 
providing higher efficiency
•	
Low-complexity process with fewer pieces of equipment, leading to lower CAPEX and OPEX costs and easy operation
•	
Elimination of operational and environmental risks associated with traditional amine-based solvents
•	
More tolerant to SOx and NOx than traditional technologies.
CO2 SOLUTIONS BY SAIPEM
Are you seeking how to reduce your carbon footprint 
with low environmental impact and financial cost? CO2 
Solutions by Saipem technology into Bluenzyme modular 
products is the answer. These solutions use advanced 
enzymatic carbon capture technologies that catch CO2 
emissions from industrial processes, making them more 
efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly than 
traditional methods. With a stable, non-toxic carbonate 
solvent and enzymes as a catalyst, CO2 Solutions by 
Saipem technology eliminates many risks associated 
with traditional carbon capture. Moreover, with Saipem’s 
modular design and fabrication expertise, Bluenzyme 
ready-made products are cost-effective and sustainable. 
Enable your energy transition today with CO2 Solutions by 
Saipem technology and Bluenzyme modular products.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@CO2solutions.com
Web: 	
www.saipem.com/en/solutions/renewables/carbon-capture
SAIPEM
BLUENZYME PRODUCTS:
•	
Modular design for various industrial applications, including oil and gas, petrochemicals, power production and hard-
to-abate sectors
•	
Utilization of CO2 Solutions by Saipemw technology for efficient and sustainable carbon capture
•	
Reduced construction time and costs through modular fabrication
•	
Improved quality control and safety with standardized processes


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Figure 2 – Bluenzyme products: Modular approach for quick execution
Figure 4 – Seamless Installation: The Bluenzyme modular unit – swift to deploy, exceptionally efficient, and environmentally 
sustainable.
Figure 3 – Streamlined Efficiency: Bluenzyme 200, fully operational 18 months after order, features a 35m X 40m footprint inclusive of 
storage and E&I modules
Figure 1 – Industrially-proven CO2 Solutions by SAIPEM technology


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
CO2 reporting and accounting. Flow metering will become necessary for fiscal purposes, custody transfer and 
compliance with future regulatory measurements. SICK provides solid experience from thousands of custody transfer 
applications with natural gas. This experience can be transferred for each step of the CCUS value chain to ensure 
accurate flow measurement and precise reporting. 
•	
Process efficiency. Carbon capture processes require a high degree of efficiency to improve their economic and 
environmental attractiveness. The measurement of CO2 content and the remaining components after the capture 
process is essential for control and optimization purposes. SICK has more than 10 years of experience with pilot 
installations.
•	
Quality control. Regardless of the destination of the captured CO2 (storage or utilization), it is important to control the 
quality of the gas and possible impurities that can have a negative influence on the later steps of the CCUS network 
and ensure protection of the environment.
•	
SICK LifeTime Services. SICK LifeTime Services is a comprehensive set of high-quality services provided to support 
the entire life cycle of products and applications from plant walk-through to upgrades. LifeTime Services range from 
product-independent consulting to traditional product services.
GAS ANALYSIS AND FLOW METERING FOR CCUS
CONTACT
Email: 	 Aurelie.Moll@sick.de
Web: 	
www.sick.com
SICK
From factory automation to logistics automation and 
process automation – SICK drives industries with sensors. 
As a technology and market leader, SICK provides sensors 
and application solutions that create the perfect basis for 
controlling processes securely and efficiently, protecting 
individuals from accidents, and preventing damage to the 
environment.
Founded in 1946 by Dr.-Ing. h. c. Erwin Sick, the company 
with headquarters in Waldkirch, Germany ranks among 
the technological market leaders. With more than 50 
subsidiaries and equity investments as well as numerous 
agencies, SICK maintains a presence all around the 
globe. In the 2022 fiscal year, SICK had more than 11,900 
employees worldwide and a group revenue of around EUR 
2.2 billion.
Sensor Intelligence. For all requirements.
When movement becomes collaboration, when industrial 
systems have to be flexible, and when clean solutions are 
the key, then customer can certainly benefit from SICK’s 
many years of experience. As an innovation leader and 
pioneer in the development of groundbreaking sensor 
technology, we offer solutions that are already up to the 
challenges of the future today. With intelligent sensor 
technology that collects data and evaluates it in real 
time, adapts to its environment and communicates in the 
network.
Process Automation
SICK’s Process Automation division offers sensors 
and tailored system solutions as well as services for 
analysis and process measurement technology. When 
measuring emissions, they monitor the legally prescribed 
gas components, accurately record dust and particle 
emissions and measure volume throughput. The ultrasonic 
technology by SICK is one of the leaders in the precise 
flow measurement of natural gas in the pipeline distribution 
network as well as for process gases and steam. SICK’s 
measurement technology solutions make a valuable 
contribution to resource-saving plant control in the primary 
industries.
Sensor solutions for CCUS
SICK already has solutions to support the complete CCUS 
value chain, when it comes to continuous gas analysis or 
CO2 flow metering. 
SICK creates innovations for a sustainable future!
We create completely new solutions in co-creation with our partners. Taking years of experiences from emission 
monitoring and gas flow measurement to overcome the challenges of precise and continuous monitoring and 
control of CO2 value streams.


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Reliable turnkey solution for CO2 metering
The FLOWSKID flow metering system is a full gas flow 
metering system. It is provided by SICK as a turnkey 
solution for transfer applications. The system is flexible 
in design and provides highly accurate measurement 
data. With FLOWSIC600 or FLOWSIC600-XT gas flow 
meters as the heart of the metering skid, system reliability 
can be assured. The metering skid can be customized 
with 
instrumentation 
including 
gas 
analysers, 
gas 
chromatographs, and supervisory computers – system 
solutions made by SICK! It is manufactured according to 
ISO standards and is of the highest quality in line with the 
latest DIN, ANSI, and ASME standards. This means the 
system will fulfil local regulations and requirements. 
Space and protection for measurement and analysis 
technology
Container solutions are primarily used to protect the 
installed 
analyser 
systems 
from 
extreme 
ambient 
conditions such as heat, cold, dust, wind, earthquakes 
and corrosive or explosive atmospheres. They also offer 
advantages for transport as well as on-site installation and 
maintenance. At the factory, everything is coordinated 
and pre-installed in the container in a clear manner. Each 
container can be equipped to fit individual customer 
requirements. The installation of transformers and UPS, 
extinguishing, climate and gas warning systems is possible, 
as is the implementation of sample point switching or 
complex redundancy and signal concepts.
DESCRIPTION
Continuous gas analysers for quality measurement and 
reporting
Carbon capture processes produce a highly concentrated 
gas with more than 90% CO2 by volume. On the other hand, 
there are the low carbon emissions to the environment, 
which have to be reported for taxation purposes. The gas 
mixtures contain other components that can be considered 
impurities, and which can be corrosive, and either have an 
influence on downstream process steps or are harmful to 
the environment.
To control and optimize the efficiency of processes and 
emissions along the CCUS value chain, SICK continuous 
gas analysers accurately measure the concentrations in 
CO2 and other components in the gas mixture. Together 
with SICK’s precise gas flow measurement, a true mass 
flow output is also available. Such measurements are 
essential prior to transportation, storage or utilization of 
CO2. 
Depending on the application, SICK can offer different 
measuring technologies, including: 
•	
In-situ gas analysers accurately measuring CO2 
directly in the gas flow without gas sampling. The 
reliability, precision and short response time offer key 
advantages for efficient process control.
•	
Extractive analysers from SICK ensure continuous 
monitoring of multiple components simultaneously 
such as CO2, H2O, HCl, SO2, CO, NOx, NH3 and 
O2 with high accuracy to control and optimize the 
CCUS processes.  The most suitable analyser can be 
selected depending on the application, the measuring 
conditions, and the requested measuring parameters.
Gas flow measurement for transfer and process 
applications
Carbon dioxide can be captured from different emission 
sources and then collected and transported via pipelines 
or ships for further handling steps such as storage or 
utilization. Gas flow measurements are necessary at each 
transfer point to control the quantity of captured CO2 or the 
volume stored or transferred. 
Accurate gas metering allows for precise accounting to 
companies or calculation of CO2 taxes and credits based 
on regulations. With our experience in custody transfer 
applications for natural gas which can be easily transferred 
to CO2 and our highly reliable ultrasonic gas flow meters, 
SICK provides the precise data required to operate the 
CCUS value chain. The FLOWSIC600/-XT gas flow meters 
deliver optimal measurement performance and provide 
the highest rated gas metering accuracy. Thanks to 
PowerIn Technology™, the FLOWSIC600-XT also ensures 
that measurements continue to be taken and data is 
stored even in the event of a power failure. The rugged 
design provides both the fault-free and maintenance free 
systems. Due to the direct path layout, the signals are not 
reflected inside the device and are thus not affected by 
contamination. This results in long-term system stability 
and accuracy.


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SUMMARY
NAME OF TECHNOLOGY SERVICE PROVIDER
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@slb.com
Web: 	
www.ccus.slb.com
SLB
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a critical component 
of advancing decarbonization and achieving the Paris 
Agreement’s climate change goals. As a technology 
leader in CCS and in the development of decarbonization 
and alternative energy solutions, SLB is actively 
progressing CCS technologies and business models to 
enable widespread adoption of CCS. 
What SLB brings to achieve these goals is more than 
90 years of experience in characterizing and modelling 
underground rock formations and in designing and 
constructing wells. SLB’s acquisition of Cameron in 2016 
added a rich legacy in gas processing and pressure control 
equipment. For decades, we have been deploying digital 
tools and sophisticated sensors to improve operations, 
minimize risk, and monitor assets, including the use of 
automation, artificial intelligence, and comprehensive data 
management.
We applied this know-how to become an early technology 
leader in carbon capture for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 
applications. Thirty-five years ago, we helped build the 
world’s first commercial CO2 plant at the SACROC Field in 
West Texas. 
For over two decades, SLB has participated in more than 
120 CCS projects around the globe, in different geological 
contexts and for various industry sectors. This hands-on 
experience, combined with our technology leadership, 
gives us unique insights into the varied complexities 
posed by CO2 sequestration. In order to overcome these 
challenges, we have united the diverse disciplines of 
geoscience and engineering to develop innovative, 
integrated end-to-end processes that enable us to deliver 
sequestration projects anywhere in the world. 
SLB has explored creating strategic partnerships with 
emitters to assess, develop, and operate projects spanning 
the entire CCS value chain, from capture to storage. 
The scope of collaboration goes beyond subsurface 
requirements and includes project economics, technology 
selection, business models, and permitting for a CCS 
project. By partnering with leaders in a range of strategic 
sectors, we are demonstrating viable and scalable CCS 
solutions across a wide range of industries. For example, 
we are exploring with Lafarge Holcim the feasibility of 
capturing carbon emissions from cement plants. 
In addition to our deep expertise, technological leadership, 
and experience in creating viable CCS solutions, SLB is 
uniquely positioned to help scale up the manufacturing 
of CCS technologies. We are leveraging our more than 
80 technology centres and extensive manufacturing 
capabilities around the world to industrialize and deploy 
CCS technologies globally. 
SLB is developing, adapting, and applying innovative 
technologies in scalable business models to provide 
our customers and partners with economically viable 
solutions across the CCS value chain. In this “State of the 
Art: CCS Technologies 2023” report, we highlight some of 
the advanced technologies in our portfolio that significantly 
support the CCS industry today, organized into three 
sections:
•	
Capture, Gas Processing, and Transport
•	
Storage Selection, Design, and Construction
•	
Storage Monitoring, Verification, and Reporting.
CAPTURE, GAS PROCESSING, AND TRANSPORT
Highlighted Technologies and Services in our Portfolio
Capture and gas processing technologies
•	
Symmetry process software platform, available in our 
DELFI cognitive E&P environment
•	
CYNARA acid gas removal membrane system
•	
Amine gas treating systems
•	
SULFATREAT H2S removal adsorbent
•	
Process Live data-enriched performance service
Transport technologies
•	
OLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator, available in 
our DELFI environment 
•	
Horizontal pumping systems for pressure boosting 
during transport
•	
Low-emission valves
Our Symmetry process software platform enables the 
design and simulation of CO2 capture process workflows 
in one environment that integrates pipelines, capture and 
compression facilities, and safety models while ensuring 
consistent thermodynamics and fluid characterization 
across the full system. The use of the Symmetry platform 
in several CCS projects in Canada was key in rightsizing 
the process design and accurately modelling the phase 
envelope and control system integration. For each 
project, the Symmetry platform identified operational 
improvements 
and 
minimized 
health, 
safety, 
and 
environment (HSE) risks.
The choice of capture technology depends on the purity of 
the CO2 stream and whether capture is pre-, post-, or oxy-
combustion. Comprehensive evaluation of these options in 
the Symmetry platform can achieve the optimum system in 
terms of both technical and economic feasibility.
Once CO2 is captured, a variety of treatment technologies 
may be needed. SLB offers both membrane systems and 
amine gas treatment systems in a range of designs and 
sizes to meet specific project requirements. The CYNARA 
acid gas removal membrane system works to separate 
CO2 and H2S from natural gas via preferential permeation 
of the smaller acid gas molecules. The separated CO2 can 
be transported and sequestered at a selected storage site.
Monitoring valves and gas membrane systems with 
Process Live data-enriched performance service provides 
real-time status reports of performance and automates 
event detection. These insights mitigate the risk of 
downtime and reduce inventory costs. Using Process Live 
service, we currently are providing uptime assurance and 
treatment optimization of 4.92 Mtpa CO2.
The OLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator models 
and simulates the transportation of CO2 from capture to 
injection. This enables a comprehensive understanding of 
optimal operating conditions to ensure that CO2 remains in 
phase.
When transporting CO2 between facilities, horizontal 
pumping systems provide the necessary pressure boost 
to maintain it in a fluid state. SLB has more than 15 years 
of experience with a wide variety of CO2 transport 
operations. We understand how the selection of 
appropriate seals, valves, production chemicals, and 
maintenance schedules plays a critical role in equipment 
longevity and operational safety.
To date, SLB has installed thousands of industrial valves 
in various CO2 and gas processing applications. In 
addition to enabling remote operation, these low-emission 
valves incorporate custom seals that reinforce their 
operational integrity. Some of the valves in this portfolio are 
manufactured to minimize leaks across the life of the valve.
To reduce maintenance downtime, our production 
chemistry technologies address specific problems of 
corrosion and hydrate formation.
STORAGE SELECTION, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION
SLB has developed a wide range of risk assessment 
methods for screening geological formations and for 
identifying the most suitable site by conducting site 
characterization assessments. This in-depth assessment 
and evaluation of key criteria (such as storage capacity, 
injectivity, and containment) enables our customers to 
minimize cost while ensuring secure long-term CO2 
storage. 


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Integral to our involvement in CCS projects is our more 
than 35 years of petrotechnical software development 
experience paired with deep domain knowledge. End-
to-end digital technologies harness this experience and 
expertise to drive workflows that screen, rank, design, 
model, simulate, and analyse every phase of the CCS 
project’s life cycle.
By conducting the workflows within the DELFI cognitive 
exploration and production (E&P) environment, we leverage 
artificial intelligence and machine learning. For example, 
the interpretation workflows used to build a model of a 
storage site benefits from a 10× to 20× acceleration in 
workflow time by employing machine learning. Reservoir 
simulations benefit from high performance computing 
capabilities that reduce simulation time so that the 
engineers can focus on analysing results and exploring 
the full uncertainty space. The DELFI environment was 
recently selected by the Northern Lights joint venture 
between Equinor, Shell, and TotalEnergies to streamline 
subsurface workflows and longer-term modelling and 
surveillance of CO2 sequestration.
Once the storage site has been selected and the project 
commissioned, we leverage our decades of expertise 
in well construction to optimize construction operations, 
including the selection and installation of monitoring 
methods. 
Well integrity has been identified as the biggest risk 
contributing to leakage of CO2 from underground carbon 
storage sites. EverCRETE CO2-resistant cement system 
enables more efficient and secure underground storage 
compared with ordinary Portland cement. Whereas 
ordinary Portland cement is not resistant to CO2 fluids and 
can degrade in a few weeks or less, the reaction between 
CO2 fluids and the EverCRETE system results in a stable 
structure after two weeks, and mechanical and chemical 
properties are no longer affected.
SLB designs and manufactures specialized wellheads, 
seals, and gate valves for achieving permanent 
underground sequestration of CO2. Our corrosion-
resistant equipment is constructed with a customized 
coating to withstand aggressive environments under any 
temperature conditions. The metal and elastomer seals 
used in these wellhead systems are proved to endure 
demanding 
pressures, 
temperatures, 
and 
corrosive 
environments.
STORAGE MONITORING, VERIFICATION, AND 
REPORTING
Securing CO2 storage and containment over long periods 
of time requires properly monitoring the CO2 plume and 
integrity of the wells. A cost-effective combination of 
sensors and monitoring protocols can deliver optimum 
performance control and risk management in compliance 
with regulatory requirements.
Monitoring strategy design must address
•	
what is to be monitored 
•	
what are the property variations
•	
how will those variations occur
For a monitoring strategy to meet its objectives in terms 
of assurance, verification, and cost optimization, a holistic 
solution design and modelling workflow is required. 
Critical to the success of the monitoring strategy design 
is the incorporation of dynamic geomechanical modelling, 
such as using our ECLIPSE, INTERSECT, and VISAGE 
simulators, for predicting subsurface behaviour and 
identifying the key parameters and their uncertainties. 
This informs the design and planning of appropriate 
geophysical measurements. A successful monitoring 
strategy is able to history match the dynamic modelling 
against field observation to identify anomalies and 
update the subsurface model, monitoring strategy, and 
risk model accordingly in real time.
Updating models requires timely measurements, for which 
a primary objective is to minimize data acquisition time and 
effort without adversely affecting interpretation quality. 
Our versatile and highly sensitive distributed fibre-optic 
sensing technology plays a significant role in achieving 
this balance by providing continuous data in both time 
and space. Optiq fiber-optic solutions bring multidomain 
distributed sensing capabilities to CCS projects for 
significant 
efficiency 
improvements 
in 
time-lapse 
reservoir monitoring through permanent fibre installation 
or temporarily deployed fibre wireline cables.
In a 2016 project with the US Department of Energy and 
Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM), we installed 
modular intelligent completion equipment and Optiq 
solutions to enable real-time monitoring and control of the 
subsurface storage. Together, we captured from ADM’s 
ethanol facility more than 2.5 Mt CO2 over a period of three 
years.  
Highlighted Technologies and Services in our Portfolio
Site selection and design digital tools, available in our 
DELFI cognitive E&P environment 
•	
OLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator 
•	
Petrel E&P software platform
•	
ECLIPSE industry reference reservoir simulator
•	
INTERSECT high-resolution reservoir simulator
•	
VISAGE finite-element geomechanics simulator
•	
Symmetry process software platform, available in our 
DELFI environment
Formation evaluation technologies 
•	
Litho Scanner high-definition spectroscopy and 
laboratory 
services 
for 
X-ray 
diffraction, 
X-ray 
fluorescence, 
and 
Fourier 
transform 
infrared 
spectroscopy
•	
MR Scanner expert magnetic resonance and CMR-
MagniPHI high-definition NMR service; triple-combo 
measurements for porosity, permeability, and capillary 
pressure; and laboratory services for routine and 
special core analysis, tight rock analysis, and mercury-
injection capillary pressure measurement
•	
FMI-HD high-definition formation microimager, Quanta 
Geo photorealistic reservoir geology service, and 
laboratory services for whole core description, core 
fracture description, and goniometry
•	
Sonic Scanner acoustic scanning platform, MDT 
modular formation dynamics tester minifrac, XL-
Rock large-volume rotary sidewall coring service, 
and laboratory services for unconfined compressive 
strength, triaxial stress testing, and pore volume 
compressibility
•	
MDT modular formation dynamics tester, Ora intelligent 
wireline formation testing platform, and laboratory 
services for water analysis
•	
PressureXpress 
reservoir 
pressure-while-logging 
service
•	
CoreFlow digital rock and fluid analytics services
•	
High-resolution well testing services
Well construction technologies
•	
DrillPlan coherent well construction planning solution
•	
EverCRETE CO2-resistant cement system
•	
Wellhead equipment: compact wellheads, monoblock 
Christmas trees, coated FLS extreme-service API 6A 
slab-style gate valves, elastomer seals, metal-to-metal 
seals, MRD recessed-bore metal-to-metal seals
Well integrity technologies
•	
Wellbarrier well integrity life cycle solution
•	
Isolation Scanner cement evaluation service
•	
PS Platform production services platform multifinger 
imaging tool (PMIT)
•	
Slim cement mapping tool (SCMT)
•	
UCI ultrasonic casing imager, USI ultrasonic imager, 
and PowerEcho and PowerFlex annular barrier 
evaluation services
•	
EM Pipe Scanner electromagnetic casing inspection 
tool
Monitoring, verification and reporting technologies
•	
Optiq SLB fiber-optic solutions
•	
Pulsar multifunction pulsed neutron service and CHFR 
cased hole formation resistivity tool
•	
Optiq StreamLINE polymer-locked fiber-optic wireline 
conveyance
•	
Permanent gauges and pressure falloff (PFO) testing
•	
Isolation Scanner cement evaluation service and UCI 
ultrasonic casing imager
SLB as a Partner
Your company does not have to embark on its CCUS 
journey alone. SLB is a global technology company with 
the reach and resources to support your company’s CCUS 
initiatives. Whether you require assistance evaluating 
the feasibility of your assets for carbon storage, services 
for CCUS well design, engineering and construction,or 
discrete CCUS technologies for your CCUS well 
construction, monitoring, measurement, or verification 
requirements,SLB has the technologies and services your 
CCUS project requires.
CHFR, CMR-MagniPHI, CoreFlow, CYNARA, DELFI, DrillPlan, 
ECLIPSE, EM Pipe Scanner, EverCRETE, FLS, FMI-HD, INTERSECT, 
Isolation Scanner, Litho Scanner, MDT, MRD, MR Scanner, OLGA, 
Optiq, Optiq Seismic, Optiq StreamLINE, Ora, Petrel, PowerEcho, 
PowerFlex, PressureXpress, Process Live, PS Platform, Pulsar, 
Quanta Geo, Sonic Scanner, Symmetry, SULFATREAT, UCI, USI, 
VISAGE, Wellbarrier, WellWatcher PS3, and XL-Rock are marks of 
SLB or a SLB company. 
Illustration of the Northern Lights CCS project (Courtesy of 
Equinor)
ADM Overhead View


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
244
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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CASE STUDIES.......................................................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES	������...............................................................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES	���..............................................................................................................................................................viii
FOREWORD	������������................................................................................................................................................................ix
ABOUT THE STUDY................................................................................................................................................................x
ABOUT THE NETWORK OF AFRICAN SCIENCE ACADEMIES.
.........................................................................xiii
ABOUT THE INTERACADEMY PARTNERSHIP.
.........................................................................................................xiii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.
.....................................................................................................................................................xiv
COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................................xxiii
GLOSSARY OF TERMS.....................................................................................................................................................xxiv
CHAPTER ONE:
DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
	
1.1	
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................1
	
1.2	
Current Status of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa.
..............................................................................6
	
1.3	
Strategies for Decarbonising Road Transport..................................................................................................8
	
1.4	
The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience Approach to Decarbonisation of Transport.
......................9
	
1.5	
Benefits of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa.
......................................................................................12
	
	
1.5.1	
Environmental Benefits.
....................................................................................................................12
	
	
1.5.2	
Economic Benefits.
............................................................................................................................12
	
	
1.5.3	
Social Benefits....................................................................................................................................13
	
1.6	
Challenges in the Transition to Decarbonised Transportation.
..................................................................14
	
	
1.6.1	
Systemic Barriers.
...............................................................................................................................14
	
	
1.6.2	
Electricity Supply and Infrastructure.
..............................................................................................14
	
	
1.6.3	
High Cost and Accessibility of Electric Vehicles..........................................................................15
	
	
1.6.4	
Insufficient Policy Frameworks and Incentives.............................................................................15
	
	
1.6.5	
Workforce and Industry....................................................................................................................15
	
	
1.6.6	
Underinvestment in Public and Active Transport........................................................................15
	
	
1.6.7	
Poor Coordination and Non-inclusivity.........................................................................................16
CHAPTER TWO:
ACCELERATING DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN AFRICA
	
2.1	
Policies and Regulations....................................................................................................................................17
	
2.2	
Policy Instruments...............................................................................................................................................20
	
	
2.2.1	
Market-Based Instruments...............................................................................................................20
	
	
2.2.2	
Regulatory Instruments.
....................................................................................................................20
	
	
2.2.3	
Direct Provision.
..................................................................................................................................21


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vi
	
	
2.2.4	
Information Provision........................................................................................................................21
	
2.3	
Business Models and Solutions.
.......................................................................................................................22
	
	
2.3.1	
Local Assembly and Manufacturing.
..............................................................................................22
	
	
2.3.2	
Auto Parts Manufacturing.
................................................................................................................25
	
	
2.3.3	
Battery Swapping Stations...............................................................................................................26
	
	
2.3.4	
Localised Battery Storage.
................................................................................................................27
	
	
2.3.5	
Pay-As-You-Go Charging.
.................................................................................................................28
	
	
2.3.6	
Solar Charging Stations....................................................................................................................28
	
	
2.3.7	
Vehicle-to-Grid...................................................................................................................................29
	
	
2.3.8	
Battery Recycling.
...............................................................................................................................30
	
	
2.3.9	
Conversion of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles to Electric.
.............................................31
	
2.4	
Data-Driven Decision Making.
..........................................................................................................................34
	
2.5	
Findings and Recommendations.
....................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER THREE:
SAFEGUARDING VULNERABLE ELECTRICITY GRIDS: ACCESSIBILITY, GENERATION,
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
	
3.1	
Current State and Challenges of Electricity in Africa.
...................................................................................38
	
3.2	
State of the Electrical Grid and Potential Burden from Electric Vehicles.
.................................................39
	
3.3	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity Distribution System..........................................41
	
3.4	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity Transmission System........................................41
	
3.5	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity Generation................................................................42
	
3.6	
Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity Accessibility.
..............................................................42
	
3.7	
Findings and Recommendations.
....................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER FOUR:
DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION
IN AFRICA
	
4.1	
Defining Sustainable Transportation...............................................................................................................44
	
4.2	
Decarbonisation of Transport and Sustainable Development Goals in Africa.......................................45
	
4.3	
Sustainable Urban Transport Development..................................................................................................47
	
4.4	
Smart Cities and Intelligent Transport Systems.............................................................................................47
	
4.5	
Compact Land Use and Transit-Oriented Development............................................................................49
	
4.6	
Mass Rapid Transit.
..............................................................................................................................................49
	
4.7	
Integrated Urban Planning and Policy Making.
.............................................................................................57
	
4.8	
Rural-Urban Connectivity.
..................................................................................................................................58
	
4.9	
Finding and Recommendation........................................................................................................................61
CHAPTER FIVE:
POLICY OPTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
	
5.1	
Disrupting Dominant Regimes in the Transport Sector.
..............................................................................62
	
5.2	
Promotion of Electric Vehicles..........................................................................................................................64
	
5.3	
Cost-Benefit analysis of Electric Vehicles Compared to Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles.........64
	
5.4	
Minimising Tax Revenue Losses.......................................................................................................................68
	
5.5	
Transport Sector Governance, Institutional Framework and Policy Ownership.....................................69


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
	
5.6	
Investments in Public Transport.
.......................................................................................................................70
	
5.7	
Investments in Renewable Energy.
..................................................................................................................71
	
5.8	
Promote Non-Motorised Transport.................................................................................................................72
	
5.9	
Technology, and Innovations for Sustainable Mobility................................................................................75
	
5.10	 Transition Principles............................................................................................................................................77
	
5.11	 Sustainable Electric Vehicle Supply and Value Chains................................................................................79
	
5.12	 Environmental and Social Impacts of Electric Vehicles...............................................................................80
	
5.13	 Financing Decarbonisation of Road Transport in Africa.
.............................................................................81
	
	
5.13.1	 Concessional Climate Finance.
.......................................................................................................81
	
	
5.13.2	 Grants and Subsidies........................................................................................................................83
	
	
5.13.3	 Carbon Markets.
.................................................................................................................................83
	
5.14	 Findings and Recommendations.
....................................................................................................................84
CHAPTER SIX:
CONCLUSION	
���������..............................................................................................................................................................86
REFERENCES	����������..............................................................................................................................................................88
Appendices
Appendix A:
	
National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicles in select African countries by 2030........................101
Appendix B:
	
Guest Practitioners at Working Group workshop in Nairobi, Kenya and list of presentations.......................102
LIST OF CASE STUDIES
Case Study 1: BasiGo —pioneering electric public transportation in Nairobi, Kenya..............................................23
Case Study 2: Electrifying paratransit vehicles in Stellenbosch, South Africa...........................................................32
Case Study 3: Implementing net zero transport in Kigali, Rwanda.............................................................................50
Case Study 4: Light rail train in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
.................................................................................................52
Case Study 5: Electric mass rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal.
.........................................................................................55
Case Study 6: Enhancing the walking environment in Kisumu, Kenya.
......................................................................60
Case Study 7: Roam, electrifying motorcycles in Africa.
................................................................................................76
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Transport-sector emissions reduction targets of select African countries:.
....................................................7
Table 2: The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience framework and its application to sustainable transport
	
in Africa	������������������...............................................................................................................................................................10
Table 3: Simulation of electric vehicle energy consumption.........................................................................................36
Table 4: Projected electric vehicle power system impacts in African countries.
........................................................40
Table 5: Contribution of decarbonised transport towards select sustainable development goals......................46
Table 6: Comparing cost elements for electric and internal combustion engine vehicles in Thailand................65
Table 7: National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicle adoption in select African countries by 2030.
.....66
Table 8: Comparing cost elements for electric vs fossil fueled motorbike.................................................................67
LIST OF Boxes 
BOX 1: Questions that framed the study on decarbonisation in Africa.
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1: Global transport emissions by region (1990–2020)..........................................................................................2
Figure 2: Transport sector emissions in select African countries.....................................................................................3
Figure 3: Mode of transport in selected African cities (2013)..........................................................................................3
Figure 4: Popular paratransit vehicles in Africa and their names.....................................................................................4
Figure 5: Motorcycles in the streets of Kigali, Rwanda......................................................................................................5
Figure 6: Transport sector GHG emissions mitigation and adaptation actions............................................................6
Figure 7: Mitigation actions by enable-avoid-shift-improve approach.......................................................................11
Figure 8: BasiGo bus in Nairobi, Kenya.............................................................................................................................23
Figure 9: Local manufacturing of electric buses in Nairobi, Kenya..............................................................................24
Figure 10: Two- and three-wheelers in Mombasa, Kenya.
.............................................................................................24
Figure 11: Key components of an electric vehicle..........................................................................................................25
Figure 12: Ampersand’s electric vehicle battery swapping station in Kigali, Rwanda.............................................26
Figure 13: Trailer-based battery swapping model for long-distance transport........................................................27
Figure 14: Example of a battery bank used to charge electric vehicles in Berlin.
.....................................................27
Figure 15: Electric vehicle roaming.
...................................................................................................................................28
Figure 16: Solar powered charging station for electric vehicles in Kigali, Rwanda..................................................29
Figure 17: Electric vehicle with solar charging components........................................................................................29
Figure 18: Illustration of the vehicle to grid concept......................................................................................................30
Figure 19: The electric retrofitted minibus taxi (original model from 2009)..............................................................32
Figure 20: Vehicle with combustion-related components removed.
..........................................................................33
Figure 21: Comparison of per-vehicle power profiles from passenger-based tracking.........................................34
Figure 22: Comparing energy efficiency models in paratransit vehicles...................................................................35
Figure 23: Access to electricity in Africa as a share of population in 2020.
................................................................39
Figure 24: Linking transport to sustainable development goals.
.................................................................................45
Figure 25: Integrated intelligent transport system in smart cities................................................................................48
Figure 26: Car free day exercise in Kigali, Rwanda.........................................................................................................50
Figure 27: Impact of limiting vehicular traffic on air pollution in Kigali, Rwanda......................................................50
Figure 28: Light rail system in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia....................................................................................................52
Figure 29: Dar rapid transit system, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.......................................................................................53
Figure 30: Electric-powered bus rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal.................................................................................55
Figure 31: Dedicated bus rapid transit lane in Dakar, Senegal....................................................................................56
Figure 32: Motorcycles navigating diverse rural terrain in Africa.
................................................................................59
Figure 33: Artist’s impression of a pedestrian friendly transportation terminus in Kisumu, Kenya.......................60
Figure 34: Example of a microcar.
......................................................................................................................................61
Figure 35: The multi-level perspective framework for complex sustainability transitions.
......................................63
Figure 36: Modes of transport used in Nairobi, Kenya..................................................................................................72
Figure 37: Pedestrian footpath in Nairobi, Kenya.
...........................................................................................................73
Figure 38: Non-motorised policies in African countries................................................................................................74
Figure 39: A motorcycle rider charging his own battery at a Roam hub....................................................................76
Figure 40: Cost of implementing Nationally Determined Contributions in Africa (2020–2030), USD billions.......82


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Globally, transportation contributes about a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions. 
While major carbon-emitting economies receive much attention, Africa offers a unique 
opportunity to explore reduction strategies. Despite low motorisation rates, the continent 
could emerge as a leader in decarbonising transport. Shifting away from fossil fuels 
offers economic, environmental, health, and infrastructural advantages. Africa’s abundant 
renewable energy and youthful workforce make electrifying transport promising. Though 
some governments have taken steps to reduce fossil fuel use, coordinated efforts are 
needed to secure the continent’s energy future. This entails policies and transport plans that 
promote sustainable mobility, including by promoting affordable electric vehicles, reliable 
electricity, and supportive infrastructure in urban and rural areas. This report aligns with the 
African Union’s Agenda 2063, which envisions an energy system powered predominantly 
by renewable sources, bolstered by a robust local manufacturing sector. It also supports 
Sustainable Development Goal 7 of the United Nations’ Agenda 2030, which seeks to 
guarantee universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy.
This report focuses on the role of road transportation in reducing GHG emissions in Africa. It 
examines the broad spectrum of challenges and opportunities, covering policy, institutional 
capacity, strategic and technological considerations, financial and social factors, and legal 
and regulatory frameworks. Most importantly, the report provides a perspective on how 
policymakers and key stakeholders can effectively navigate and manage the complex 
transition towards a net zero-carbon transport system in Africa. The genesis of this report 
was a collaborative effort involving the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) 
and the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP). It builds upon previous work by the European 
Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC), published in 2019 and a 2021 workshop co-
organised by NASAC and IAP
.  The study aimed to leverage current research to harmonise 
transport decarbonisation policies across Africa, identify knowledge gaps, and suggest 
practical policy measures at local, national, and regional levels. Through rigorous analysis 
of the continent’s potential, real, and exigent demand for transport, the report postulates 
findings and recommendations that acknowledge the diverse and complex landscape 
of the continent. It underscores the necessity for customised strategies in decarbonising 
transport, which may vary significantly by country, based on national circumstances.
We extend our deepest gratitude to all contributors, especially the dedicated working group 
members whose innovative approaches helped achieve the report’s goals. We also thank 
the peer reviewers for their invaluable feedback, which ensured the recommendations 
were merit-based and scientifically sound. Special thanks to the staff of the NASAC and 
IAP secretariats, whose dedication made this report possible, and to the ClimateWorks 
Foundation and the African Climate Foundation for their financial support. Thank you very 
much!
	
Prof. Mahouton Norbert	
Dr. Margaret Hamburg	
Prof. Masresha Fetene
	
Hounkonnou	
Co-President, IAP	
Co-President, IAP
	
President, NASAC
FOREWORD


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This study aims to assess the challenges and opportunities for the decarbonisation 
of transport in Africa by addressing cross-cutting issues of policies, institutional and 
technical capacity, strategies, technologies, financing, and social considerations as well 
as legal and regulatory frameworks. It was carried out collaboratively by the Network of 
African Scientific Academies (NASAC) and the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) with the 
sponsorship of the Climate Works Foundation and the African Climate Foundation. The 
study emerged out of a November 2021 workshop organised jointly by IAP and NASAC 
and builds on other studies focused on issues related to decarbonisation of transport in 
Africa.
The questions that frame this report are shown in Box 1. Except for question (7), which 
relates to transportation during the COVID-19 pandemic and had become irrelevant by 
the time of the writing of this report, these framing questions are addressed in Chapters 
2 to 5 of this report.
BOX  1: Questions that framed the study on decarbonisation of transport in Africa
1. How can governments in Africa harness the economic, environmental, and social 
benefits of decarbonisation of transport?
2.
What would it take to accelerate electric vehicle adoption consistent with 
national climate goals? Will other forms of low carbon fuels and fuel efficiency 
play a significant role?
3. How can planning and urban design help drive transformation of the transport 
sector?
4. What are the best solutions for rural areas, and for maintaining rural-urban 
connectivity in an environmentally sustainable manner?
5. What lessons can be learnt and adopted/scaled-up from regional and global 
best practices?
6. How can non-motorised transport be further utilised?
7. Which transport reforms could COVID-19 help accelerate?
8. How can informal bus networks and local rideshare apps be incentivised to use 
electric vehicles? How can digitisation help support this transformation?
9. How can legal and regulatory mechanisms promote investment in low-carbon 
transport?
10. How can opportunities for local vehicle manufacturing support a long-term 
vision for sustainable transportation?
The study builds on the success of a similar project by IAP’s European Academy Network 
 
(EASAC, 2019) and is therefore the second of IAP’s regional reports on the topic. Funding 
permitting, regional reports would be produced in a similar manner for the Americas and 
ABOUT THE STUDY 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Asia by IAP’s constituent regional networks for those regions, namely, the InterAmerican 
Network of Academies of Science (IANAS) and Association of Academies and Societies 
of Science in Asia (AASSA). If funds are available, the project will culminate in an over-
arching global report and a final workshop to review the similarities and differences 
among the four regions.
Working Group Members and Project Secretariat Profiles
1.	 Prof. Kouzou Abdallah, (Working Group Chair) is full professor at Djelfa University, 
Algeria, head of the research team on Power Electronics and Power Quality, 
collaborator researcher and member of the Smart Grid Center at Texas A&M in Doha, 
Qatar (SGC-Q).
2.	 Prof. Thinus Booysen is professor and the Chair of the Internet of Things at the Faculty 
of Engineering at Stellenbosch University, South Africa. He is the Director of the MTN 
Mobile Intelligence Lab and a partner in the Stellenbosch Smart Mobility Lab.
3.	 Dr. Samuel Bwalya is a green economy consultant for the government of Zambia and 
the immediate past Managing Director of the Development Bank of Zambia (DBZ). 
Bwalya is a past UNDP Country Director and Resident Representative for Nigeria and 
Ethiopia.
4.	 Prof. Chux Daniels is associate professor at the Graduate School of Technology 
Management (GSTM), University of Pretoria (South Africa) and a Research Fellow 
in Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) Policy at Science Policy Research Unit 
(SPRU), University of Sussex Business School (UK). 
5.	 Dr. Mafini Dosso (PhD, PMP®) is an economist of innovation and industry, former project 
leader at the European Commission Joint Research Centre (Spain), senior expert in 
inclusive territorial development, intellectual property and sustainable innovation 
policies, co-founder & head of research at Organisation Internationale de l’Innovation 
pour des Territoires et Industries Durables (OIITID) in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. 
6.	 Mr. Daniel Essel is the deputy director with the policy, planning, monitoring and 
evaluation Directorate of the Ministry of Transport, Ghana. 
7.	 Prof. Akii Ibhadode is distinguished professor of Manufacturing Engineering and a 
former Shell professor of Lightweight Automobile Engine Development (2016–2020). 
He is the former vice-chancellor of the Federal University of Petroleum Resources, 
Effurun, Nigeria, from 2015–2020.
8.	 Ms. Irene Iradukunda is a sustainable Development & Climate Change scientist who 
works at UNDP
. She previously contributed to the development of climate impact 
calculation tools of different transportation modes at Vuba Corp. She is former 
Business Development Manager at Yego Innovision, a Rwandan startup in the public 
transportation industry. 
9.	 Ms Irene Karani is currently a Ph.D researcher in climate change. She was formerly the 
Africa Climate Director at the Children’s Investment Fund Foundation and the NIRAS 
Africa Regional Director. She has contributed to climate policy and programme 
implementation at regional and national levels.  
10.	Dr. Ahmed Osama is the director of the Centre of Mobility Research in Egypt. He 
received his PhD in transportation engineering from the University of British Columbia, 
where he had been a research assistant at the Bureau of Intelligent Transportation 
Systems and Freight Security. 


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Rigorous peer-review is a hallmark of both NASAC and IAP studies. We are grateful to the 
following reviewers for their constructive comments: 
• 
Prof. Abubakar Sani Sambo, former Director-General, Energy Commission of Nigeria.
• 
Mr. Chris Kost, Africa Director, Institute for Transportation and Development Policy.
• 
Prof. Kefa Otiso, Department of Geography, Bowling Green State University, USA.
• 
Prof. Wim van Saarloos, President, European Academies Science Advisory Council 
(EASAC) (2023–2025). 
• 
Prof. Winnie V. Mitullah, Institute of Development Studies, University of Nairobi, 
Kenya.
• 
Prof. Zarina Patel, Associate Professor of Human Geography, Department of 
Environmental and Geographical Science, University of Cape Town, who coordinated 
the review process.
Project Secretariat
Dr. Evans Avedi
Study Co-Director
Network of African Science Academies
Kenya
Mr. Moses Ogutu
Study Co-Director, 
InterAcademy Partnership
United States
Dr. Jackie Kado
Executive Director 
Network of African Science Academies
Kenya
Dr. Ourania Kosti
Executive Director 
InterAcademy Partnership
United States
Mr. Jack Omondi
Project Officer 
Network of African Science Academies
Kenya
Ms. Sophia Nordt
Research Associate
InterAcademy Partnership
United States


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ABOUT THE NETWORK OF
AFRICAN SCIENCE ACADEMIES
The Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) is a network of 30 merit-based 
national academies in Africa. NASAC’s main objective is to unite science academies and 
facilitate discussions on the scientific aspects of challenges of common concern, make 
joint statements, and provide science-informed advice to policy and decision-makers 
in Africa. Additionally, NASAC creates awareness of the value of science academies to 
socio-economic development and works with scientists to establish science academies in 
countries where none exist. NASAC’s networking capacity serves as an effective resource 
for communicating appropriate thematic information and coordinating efforts among 
different sectors and stakeholders in academia, policy, and society. Specifically, through its 
membership, NASAC continues to provide advice to regional bodies and organisations 
on science-related issues of importance to Africa’s development. It has also enhanced the 
capacity of academies in Africa to improve their roles as independent science advisors 
to governments and to strengthen their national, regional, and international functions. 
NASAC is the affiliate network for the InterAcademy Partnership in Africa. The secretariat 
of NASAC is based in Nairobi, Kenya. More information is available at www.nasaconline.
org. 
ABOUT THE
INTERACADEMY PARTNERSHIP
The InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) is a global network of 150 academies of science, 
engineering, and medicine. With its four regional networks—in Africa (NASAC), 
the Americas (the InterAmerican Network of Academies of Sciences, IANAS), 
Asia/Oceania (the Association of Academies and Societies of Sciences in Asia, 
AASSA) and Europe (the European Academies Science Advisory Council, EASAC), 
IAP provides a platform for mobilising regional and national expertise on wide-
ranging issues of global importance, and for facilitating cooperation with other 
key stakeholders and potential partners. IAP’s secretariat offices are hosted by The 
World Academy of Sciences in Trieste, Italy, and the National Academy of Sciences 
in Washington, DC, USA. More information is available at www.interacademies.org. 


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The transportation sector is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, 
accounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also a critical 
enabler of Africa’s economic transformation and is featured prominently in Africa’s 
Agenda 2063. As climate change concerns continue to grow it is critical to decarbonise 
transportation in Africa, where future carbon emissions are expected to grow rapidly. 
This study, undertaken collaboratively by the InterAcademy Partnership and the Network 
of African Science Academies, assesses the challenges and opportunities for the 
decarbonisation of transport in Africa. It also reviews policies, institutional and technical 
capacities, strategies, technologies, financing, and social factors, as well as requisite legal 
and regulatory frameworks that need to be implemented to achieve decarbonisation of 
transport. The report reaffirms the dual response of decarbonisation to the escalating 
threats of climate change and the development of sustainable transportation in Africa.
Currently, Africa contributes 4% of global transport emissions, however, emissions are 
projected to increase rapidly over the next two decades spurred by rapid urbanisation, 
economic growth, and rising motorisation rates in Africa. Therefore, the continent 
needs to adopt and proactively implement decarbonisation strategies to generate 
significant environmental, economic, and social benefits. Environmentally, the shift from 
fossil fuel-dependent vehicles to cleaner alternatives, such as electric vehicles (EVs) 
powered by renewable energy sources like hydropower, solar, or wind, will significantly 
reduce air pollution, diminish reliance on imported fossil fuels, and enhance Africa’s 
energy independence. A transition to decarbonised transportation will contribute to 
the preservation of Africa’s rich biodiversity and natural landscapes, that are currently 
under threat because of rising pollution and their unsustainable utilisation. Economically, 
decarbonised and sustainable transport solutions can spur economic development, 
alleviate poverty, and improve transport accessibility, while reducing carbon emissions 
to safeguard the environment. Socially, sustainable transportation improves access to 
transport for all communities, promotes public health, and creates new job opportunities. 
It also presents an essential strategy for countries to meet their Nationally Determined 
Contributions (NDC) targets.
With improvements in the availability and access to clean energy sources (electricity), 
widespread adoption of electric mobility presents a viable alternative to traditional fossil-
fuel-based transport and has the greatest potential to reduce carbon emissions. In this 
vein, Africa’s developing transport infrastructure and rich renewable energy resources 
offer the opportunity to adopt cutting-edge, low-emission technologies such as EVs 
without the significant overhaul required in more entrenched transport systems. In terms 
of economic growth and opportunities, Africa could become an exemplar in developing 
efficient new mass transportation systems with low carbon emission.
This report highlights the critical role of enhancing public transportation systems through 
the development of mass rapid transit (MRT) systems, including bus rapid transit (BRT) and 
light rail trains (LRT), recognised as a bedrock of sustainable urban mobility. Furthermore, 


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it underscores the need to promote non-motorised transportation methods, such as 
cycling and walking, as indispensable elements of a sustainable, inclusive, and efficient 
transport system in Africa.
Decarbonising road transport inherently disrupts the established and often entrenched 
regimes within the transport sector. These include the fossil fuel industry, transport sector 
operators, and institutions and institutional frameworks that govern transport systems 
in Africa. Therefore, a collaborative approach among governments, industry, public, 
and civil society actors is essential to achieving a holistic, inclusive, and transformative 
transition. Research and innovation, alongside enabling policies and regulations, are vital 
inputs in the transition to low-carbon transport systems.
The goal of a decarbonised transport sector in Africa requires comprehensive policy and 
regulatory reforms, increased investment in green technologies and innovations, and 
incentives. It also requires a change in mindset, culture, and a shift in consumer behaviour 
to foster sustainable transport practices as well as institutional, infrastructural, and cultural 
barriers head-on. The report provides strategic insights and innovative solutions for 
overcoming these challenges and for fostering partnerships for sustainable transport.
In addition to a focus on passenger vehicles and urban transportation — owing to their 
immediate potential for impactful decarbonisation — the report recognises the broader 
spectrum of transportation modes, including heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), rail transport, 
and the disparities between urban and rural transportation infrastructure. HDVs are 
instrumental for Africa’s logistics and freight systems, and present their own unique 
challenges and opportunities for decarbonisation. While rail transport currently faces 
significant barriers such as underinvestment, inadequate infrastructure, and regulatory 
hurdles, it holds immense potential when it comes to development of sustainable 
transport. Improving existing rail transport systems can significantly reduce road 
congestion, lower emissions, and foster regional connectivity.
Given the long-term nature of systemic changes required for transitions such as 
decarbonisation, and mindful of the varied contexts across African countries, this 
report intentionally avoids specifying implementation timelines. Each country’s journey 
towards sustainable transport will be unique, influenced by its specific socio-economic, 
geographical, and political landscapes. The absence of rigid timelines provides a flexible 
approach that allows for tailored national strategies and approaches to decarbonisation, 
based on the insights and recommendations of the report. 
FINDINGS
1.	 Decarbonisation of transport is already taking place across Africa. There are 
numerous ongoing projects aimed at decarbonising transport in different cities and 
in the sub-regions of Africa. These projects, such as the growing adoption of electric 
mobility solutions, bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, and light rail transport (LRT). 
There is also an emphasis on non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling 
demonstrate local successes in decarbonisation, with significant economic, social, 
and environmental benefits. 


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 2.	 The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) approach is an appropriate 
strategy for the decarbonisation of transport across Africa. The EASIR approach’s 
holistic nature, combining enabling policies, mechanisms to reduce travel demand, 
the promotion of sustainable transportation modes, improvements in vehicle and fuel 
efficiency, and enhancing the resilience of transportation systems directly addresses 
the multi-dimensional challenges of transport decarbonisation on the continent. The 
EASIR framework aligns with Africa’s specific needs and global sustainability goals, 
underscoring its suitability. This finding is supported by analysis of successful case 
studies within the continent where elements of the EASIR approach have already 
been implemented, demonstrating tangible benefits in reducing carbon emissions 
and enhancing sustainable mobility. Case studies described in this report include the 
adoption of enabling policies such as EV incentives in Morocco and Kenya, the shift 
towards sustainable modes such as Rwanda’s investments in cycling infrastructure, 
and South Africa’s push for biofuel usage to improve fuel efficiency. 
3.	 Policy and regulatory instruments can facilitate the decarbonisation of transport. 
African governments are employing a diverse range of policy instruments to accelerate 
the decarbonisation of transport at continental and local levels. These are categorised 
into four main types: (1) market-based instruments (such as taxes, subsidies, fees, 
quotas, import duties, and penalties) (2) regulatory instruments (licenses, limits, 
prohibitions, laws); (3) direct provisions (governments directly providing goods or 
services to its citizens); and (4) information provisions (dissemination of relevant, 
accurate, and timely information to the public). Market-based tools, like subsidies for 
electric vehicle purchases in Morocco and carbon taxes in South Africa, incentivise 
cleaner transport options. Regulatory measures, including emissions standards 
and vehicle import restrictions, have been implemented in Egypt and Kenya to 
curb pollution and encourage the adoption of cleaner vehicles. Direct provisions 
are evident in Ethiopia’s investment in the Addis Ababa light rail system, directly 
enhancing public transport infrastructure. Information provisions play a crucial role 
in raising awareness and changing public behaviour towards sustainable transport 
options, as seen in Nigeria’s campaigns promoting electric motorcycles. These varied 
policy tools, backed by strategic planning and investments, are critical to boosting 
the effectiveness of decarbonisation efforts across the continent.
4.	 Decarbonisation of transport has the potential to drive industrial growth and 
create green job opportunities across Africa. There is growing local assembly and 
manufacturing of EVs in Africa, as well as initiatives to convert gasoline-powered 
vehicles, including Africa’s paratransit vehicles, to electric propulsion in African 
countries including Kenya, South Africa, and Nigeria. The conversion of ICE vehicles 
to EVs particularly presents enormous potential considering the vast amount 
of used vehicles in Africa. Meanwhile, with the necessary infrastructure already 
present, existing ICE vehicle manufacturers could pivot to EV production if properly 
incentivised. These examples demonstrate that the continent’s abundance of skilled 
mechanics, combined with ingenuity and resourcefulness that African innovators 
demonstrate, provide the groundwork for a sustainable, scalable model of EV 
development tailored to the unique needs and opportunities of the rapidly emerging 
African EV market, while contributing to the global advancement of electric mobility. 


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Opportunities extend into EV auto parts and battery manufacturing, leveraging 
Africa’s critical mineral resources, alongside innovative business models like pay-
as-you-go charging and solar charging stations, taking advantage of the continent’s 
abundant sunlight. While strategic policies to support local vehicle manufacturing are 
emerging in various African countries, the realisation of broad industrial ambitions 
requires a commitment to building the necessary human capital by skilling, up-
skilling, and re-skilling, especially among the youth, women, and unemployed.
5.	 Transport electrification in Africa will increase the demand for electricity, and the 
current fragility of the electric grid poses a critical concern for the viability and 
sustainability of electric mobility. Adopting EVs will have significant impact on the 
electricity system in terms of generation, transmission, distribution, and accessibility. 
While EVs could also play a role in stabilising the grid, for example, through a vehicle-
to-grid (V2G) approach, understanding the current state of power systems in Africa 
is crucial in evaluating the impact of EV deployment across African countries, as 
electricity is a central pillar of Africa’s energy infrastructure. The capacity, reliability, 
and reach of these systems play a key role in determining how effectively EVs can 
be integrated and supported. Increased demand from EVs necessitates robust and 
diverse generation facilities and power sources. Transmission networks will need to 
be upgraded to handle the increased load, especially during peak charging times, 
requiring a resilient infrastructure. On the other hand, the distribution system will 
face changes in load patterns, particularly in residential areas with home charging, 
demanding smarter and more responsive grid solutions. In the meantime, despite 
the strong case for the electrification of transport in Africa, the lack of adequate 
investment in the power sector and insufficient research on the impacts of this 
electrification hinders the development of innovative solutions, the exploration of 
technology applications, and the conceptualisation, design, and implementation of 
effective strategies.
6.	 Prioritising electrification of transport for the less costly, higher mileage, and 
extensively used vehicle segments in Africa could streamline the adoption of EVs, 
maximising environmental benefits and economic efficiency. Analysis indicates 
that two- and three-wheelers, along with passenger buses on high-use routes, are 
attractive candidates for the first stages of transport electrification efforts. Similarly, 
four-wheelers, taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and other commercial fleets are identified 
as more suitable for early electrification compared to less intensively used private 
family cars. 
7.	 An integrated sustainable transport strategy that includes mass rapid transport 
and non-motorised transport can enhance decarbonisation of transport. A holistic 
approach to sustainable transport can not only reduce carbon emissions but also 
has the potential to alleviate negative traffic externalities, thereby contributing to a 
healthier environment and improved quality of life. In Africa, where urbanisation is 
rapidly increasing, the need for efficient and sustainable transportation systems is 
more pronounced than ever. The implementation of mass rapid transit systems, such 
as the bus rapid transit (BRT) systems in Lagos, Nigeria, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 
exemplifies proactive steps towards sustainable urban mobility. Additionally, the 
development of light rail projects, like the Addis Ababa Light Rail in Ethiopia, serves not 


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only to decrease reliance on individual car usage but also to spearhead the transition 
towards electrification of public transport networks. Similarly, the development and 
adoption of non-motorised transport (NMT) infrastructure plays a crucial role in 
shaping sustainable urban mobility landscapes. In Africa, several examples highlight 
the progress and commitment towards enhancing NMT facilities. For instance, Nairobi 
in Kenya, and Cape Town in South Africa have taken significant strides in developing 
bicycle paths and pedestrian walkways, inspired by the success of Rwanda’s Kigali 
Car-Free Days, which promote active transport and raise environmental awareness.
8.	 Inadequate financial frameworks hinder decarbonisation efforts in Africa, limiting 
the continent’s ability to leverage transport decarbonisation as a catalyst for 
industrial growth and innovation. The establishment of a robust EV ecosystem, 
already stimulated by the emergence of local assembly and manufacturing of EVs, 
ambitious innovations such as the conversion of gasoline-powered vehicles to electric 
propulsion, battery swapping, and investments in renewable energy systems, as well 
as in inclusive non-motorised transport infrastructure, are constrained by inadequate 
financial frameworks. The success of these transport sectors, which are crucial for 
creating a new economic paradigm, generating green jobs, fostering technological 
innovation, and establishing new markets within the automotive industry, depends 
heavily on the availability of funding and investment. The scarcity of robust financial 
structures and investment may stem from multiple factors, including African countries’ 
challenges in developing comprehensive financial policies and frameworks such 
incentives for EV buyers, and the hesitation of investors, who may not fully recognise 
the opportunities within the continent’s evolving EV market. Therefore, addressing 
these financial barriers and enhancing investor confidence is crucial for unlocking 
the transformative power of decarbonisation through electrification in Africa.
9.	 Decarbonisation efforts compete with existing transport and oil industry regimes 
that benefit from the manufacture, sale, maintenance, and deployment of fossil fuel-
based vehicles. Entrenched regimes often have established powerful interests that are 
resistant to change due to financial, political, or ideological reasons. Decarbonisation 
involves reducing dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, which are the primary 
energy sources for conventional ICE vehicles. For transport sector operators such as 
the companies and organisations involved in manufacturing, operating, or maintaining 
transportation systems, decarbonisation will require adoption of new technologies, 
change of business models, and compliance with appropriate regulations. Similarly, 
policies, regulations, and incentives that encourage the adoption of cleaner 
transportation modes will disrupt institutional frameworks such as subsidies that 
have historically supported the fossil-fuel industry and transport systems or the 
associated fuel tax revenues for governments. Crucially, decarbonisation policies 
inherently challenge the status quo and can lead to significant economic, social, and 
institutional changes and tensions. To navigate competing interests, it is essential to 
actively engage stakeholders from traditional transport and fuel industries in crafting 
a shared vision for the future of transportation on the continent, while highlighting 
the economic, environmental, and social benefits. Such collaborations might include 
engagement with fuel industry representatives to explore the development of electric 
charging infrastructure as a new business venture, and shifting the perspective 


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from competition to complementary roles in the evolving transport ecosystem. 
Engaging stakeholders not as adversaries but as partners in progress can facilitate 
the development of integrated solutions that address economic, environmental, and 
social goals.
10.	Progress towards decarbonised and sustainable transportation can be achieved 
and accelerated by adopting a common position on sustainable transport across 
Africa. While the African Union’s Climate Change and Resilient Development 
Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 already provides a comprehensive 
framework for climate action, including in transport, a distinct strategy or position 
dedicated to sustainable transport does not currently exist. Such a strategy would 
align with overarching continental and global objectives for climate change priorities 
and enable Africa to capitalise on economies of scale and enhance its collective 
bargaining power on issues related to decarbonisation and overall improvement of 
the transport sector. Adopting a common position on sustainable transport across 
Africa does not imply a one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, a common framework should 
be based on shared principles that recognises the diversity of national circumstances 
and allows for flexibility in implementation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.	 City and regional authorities in Africa should promote local decarbonisation efforts. 
City and urban authorities should actively share insights and best practices on local 
decarbonisation efforts within Africa to accelerate their adoption continent-wide. 
This includes creating platforms for knowledge exchange, setting up pilot projects, 
and establishing benchmarks for success. Regional authorities should spearhead 
the establishment of agencies to enhance governance and collaboration within 
Africa’s transport sector. The formation of such bodies, exemplified by the African 
Association of Urban Transport Authorities (AAUTA), demonstrates a commitment 
to improving urban mobility across several countries. The AAUTA is a collaboration 
between the Greater Abidjan Urban Mobility Authority and the Africa Transport 
Policy Programme, incorporating over 40 urban transport leaders from 13 African 
countries. It aims to facilitate the exchange of best practices and lessons learned 
in urban transport system management, promote public-private partnerships, and 
strengthen cooperation with development partners.
2.	 Governments in Africa should implement the Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-
Resilience (EASIR) approach for sustainable transport. This approach combines 
enabling policies, mechanisms to reduce travel demand, promotion of sustainable 
transportation modes, and enhancements in vehicle and fuel efficiency. It aligns with 
global best practices and supports Africa’s strategic sustainable development goals. 
3.	 Governments in Africa should provide incentives to industries to promote and 
support local manufacturing. This includes local manufacturing of electric batteries 
and production and assembly of EVs, including two- and three-wheelers (motorcycles 
and tuk-tuks, respectively) as well as buses. This can be done through the provision 
of both policy and regulatory incentives such as tax breaks, subsidies, and facilitating 
partnerships between local industries and international companies. Such incentives 


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will not only help achieve decarbonisation of transport goals but also drive inclusive 
economic growth in line with Africa’s Agenda 2063 and the United Nations SDGs. 
4.	 Governments in Africa, industry, and academia should establish research 
partnerships to investigate energy demands and expected impact of EVs on the 
grid. These research collaborations can also assess the potential for charging EVs 
with renewable energy sources as well as on increasing local contents on EVs. In 
doing so, policy decisions on EV adoption and charging infrastructure will be context-
specific, evidence-informed, and based on actual data. 
5.	 Governments in Africa should develop comprehensive financing and policy 
instruments to support the upgrade of power grid systems, the construction of EV 
charging networks, and overall improve the public transport infrastructure. Innovative 
climate financing instruments can include infrastructure funding, blended finance, 
and green bonds, alongside taxes. This type of financing and policy instruments will 
encourage the acquisition of EVs, foreign investment, and inclusive business models 
that foster participation of SMEs and start-ups in the EV business ecosystem. In 
addition, governments can expand policy support to foster international cooperation, 
resource mobilisation, and the development of sustainable business models for 
electric mobility, leveraging existing approaches such as the Green Climate Fund 
aimed to use flexible financing solutions and climate investment expertise. 
6.	 Governments in Africa should prioritise the electrification of vehicle segments that 
provide the most immediate and highest decarbonisation benefits. Decarbonisation 
efforts should focus on electrifying two- and three-wheelers, as well as passenger 
buses operating on high-use routes, due to their lower costs, high mileage, and 
extensive use. These segments present a significant opportunity for immediate 
impact. Additionally, four-wheelers such as taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and other 
commercial fleets should be targeted in early decarbonisation efforts, given their 
frequent use and greater potential for reducing emissions. However, it is also critical 
to consider the role of private family cars. While these vehicles may not have the same 
high usage as commercial fleets on a per-vehicle basis, their cumulative impact due 
to sheer volume can be substantial. Tailored strategies based on vehicle use patterns 
and ownership costs are needed for this vehicle segment, as part of a comprehensive 
approach to electrifying four-wheelers.
7.	 Governments in Africa should implement stricter policies and regulations that 
support emission reduction during the transition to decarbonising the transport 
sector. While the transition towards EVs presents a significant opportunity for 
emission reduction, the potential of regulatory measures to curb emissions from 
existing ICE vehicles also needs to be a priority. Stricter emission standards for 
vehicles, as well as the introduction of policies that discourage the importation of 
older, more polluting cars, could significantly support emission reduction goals. 
Policies banning or restricting old and high-emitting vehicles from metropolitan 
centres have been shown to reduce urban pollution and encourage the adoption 
of cleaner transportation alternatives while also improving air quality, and enhancing 
public health and the quality of life in urban areas. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
8.	 Governments in Africa and other stakeholders should implement just transition 
principles to foster a holistic and socially inclusive decarbonisation of transport. 
Just Transition Principles advocate for a shift towards a sustainable economy that 
prioritises equity and access for all, including vulnerable groups and marginalised 
communities such as women, persons with disabilities and older persons, indigenous 
communities, low-income populations, and residents of rural areas. Just transition 
principles also safeguard against exacerbating existing inequalities by adopting 
gender and socially inclusive approaches when formulating transportation policies, 
for example by addressing safety issues that prevent women from engaging in active 
transportation, such as walking, and by addressing equity between women and men 
in the transport workforce. Developing accessible infrastructure such as sidewalks, 
ramps, and elevators in bus parks and on vehicles caters towards the needs of 
persons with disabilities and older persons. Finally, just transition principles promote 
investing in infrastructure that supports both urban and rural transportation needs 
and rural urban connectivity, ensuring that decarbonisation benefits are equitably 
distributed across all regions. 
9.	 Governments in Africa should improve existing transportation systems and adopt 
sustainable land-use development. Improving existing transport systems and 
adopting sustainable land-use developments such as compact and mixed-use 
development and transit-oriented development, are essential strategies for African 
governments to promote economic prosperity, social inclusion, environmental 
sustainability, and resilience. By prioritising these measures, African countries can 
create more liveable, equitable, and sustainable cities and communities for current 
and future generations. For instance, by investing in more efficient and accessible 
public transit options, including mass rapid transit options such as BRT and light 
rail transit systems, cities can significantly lower their carbon footprint. In addition, 
creating safer and more appealing conditions for active transportation, like walking 
and cycling, through dedicated bike lanes and pedestrian zones not only promotes a 
healthier lifestyle, but also reduces emissions. 
10.	Governments in Africa should actively foster strategic collaborations, robust 
advocacy, and innovation to advance sustainable transport across the continent. 
Partnering with industry, academia, and global civil society can enable governments 
to harness the power of advocacy and strategic collaborations in amplifying the call 
for the adoption of low-carbon transport technologies and practices. In this case, 
governments can utilise targeted policies, regulation, and financial incentives to 
challenge and disrupt the dominance of fossil fuels and support businesses in their 
transition to environmentally friendly operations. 
11.	Governments in Africa should establish a unified framework for decarbonised 
and sustainable transport aligned with continental aspirations and global climate 
change targets. This framework can build on existing blueprints, including the 
African Union’s visionary policies, and agreements such as the Climate Change and 
Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032, the 2023 
Nairobi Declaration, Agenda 2063, Programme for Infrastructure Development 
in Africa (PIDA), the African Renewable Energy Initiative, the Paris Agreement, and 


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its Nationally Determined Contributions and national long-term climate strategies 
of various African countries. A common position on sustainable transport not 
only aligns with overarching continental and global objectives but also leverages 
collective bargaining power in negotiations to secure technology transfers, financial 
investments, and international support essential for the transition. Moreover, a pan-
African consensus on sustainable transport can pave the way for the establishment of 
harmonised policies and interoperable infrastructure tailored to the continent’s unique 
challenges and opportunities. A common approach with time-bound objectives will 
serve as milestones, guiding the phased implementation of sustainable transport 
initiatives across Africa, ensuring that progress is both measurable and aligned with 
the overarching goal of fostering environmental sustainability and overall sustainable 
development, in line with Africa’s Agenda 2063.


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COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS 
AASSA Association of Academies and Societies of Sciences in Asia
EASIR Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience
AU African Union
BRT Bus Rapid Transit
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
EASAC European Academies Science Advisory Council
EU European Union
EV Electric Vehicle 
GHG Greenhouse Gas
IANAS InterAmerican Network of Academies of Sciences
IAP InterAcademy Partnership
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
IEA International Energy Agency
MRT Mass Rapid Transit
NASAC Network of African Science Academies
NDC Nationally Determined Contributions
NMT Non-Motorised Transport
PIDA Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa
R&D Research and Development
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
SSATP Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program
UN United Nations
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change


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GLOSSARY OF TERMS 
Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) framework: is a sustainability approach that emphasises 
three key strategies for reducing environmental impacts and promoting sustainable 
development. The avoid strategy focuses on avoiding or minimising activities that have 
negative environmental or social consequences. The shift strategy involves shifting from 
unsustainable practices or behaviours to more sustainable alternatives. The improve 
strategy focuses on continuously improving existing processes, products, and systems to 
enhance their sustainability performance.
Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) framework: An expanded approach 
to the traditional Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) that incorporates two additional strategies 
– enable and resilience - to promote a holistic approach aimed at enhancing transport 
decarbonisation and adaptation. The enable strategy establishes the foundational 
governance, laws, institutions, and financial arrangements necessary for effective 
decarbonisation policies. Lastly, the resilience strategy aims to enhance the resilience and 
adaptive capacity of transport infrastructure to withstand environmental, technological, 
and socio-economic changes.
Battery swapping: is a technology and service used primarily in electric vehicles (EVs) 
where the depleted battery of an electric vehicle is quickly replaced with a fully charged 
one. This process is typically performed at specialised battery swapping stations rather 
than recharging the battery through conventional charging methods.
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems: are high-capacity public transportation systems that 
aim to provide fast, efficient, and reliable bus services with features typically associated 
with rail transit but at a lower cost. BRT systems generally include dedicated lanes or 
corridors, stations with off-board fare collection, level boarding, priority at intersections, 
and frequent service.
Carbon markets: are mechanisms designed to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 
by putting a price on carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases. The concept 
behind carbon markets is to create financial incentives for industries and businesses to 
reduce their emissions by allowing them to buy and sell emissions allowances.
Carbon credits: are a tradable permit or certificate representing the right to emit one ton 
of carbon dioxide (CO2) or its equivalent. They are a key component of carbon markets 
and emissions trading systems, allowing businesses and governments to buy and sell the 
right to emit greenhouse gases within a regulated framework.
Concessional climate finance: refers to financial support provided by governments, 
international organisations, or other entities at below-market interest rates or with other 
favourable terms to help countries, particularly developing nations, address climate 
change challenges and transition to low-carbon, climate-resilient development pathways. 
Electric vehicles (EVs): are vehicles that are powered, either partially or entirely, by 
electricity stored in rechargeable batteries or other energy storage devices. Unlike 


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traditional internal combustion engine vehicles that rely on fossil fuels such as gasoline 
or diesel, electric vehicles use electricity as their primary source of energy for propulsion.
Electric vehicle (EV) roaming: refers to the ability for EV drivers to use charging stations 
operated by different charging networks or providers with a single access or payment 
method. Just as mobile phone users can roam onto different cellular networks while 
traveling, EV roaming enables drivers to access charging infrastructure across various 
charging networks without needing multiple memberships or payment accounts.
Greenhouse gas emissions: refer to the release of gases into the atmosphere that trap 
heat, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming and climate 
change. 
Green bonds: are a type of fixed-income financial instrument specifically earmarked to 
fund projects with environmental benefits. They are essentially debt securities issued 
by governments, municipalities, corporations, or financial institutions to raise capital 
for projects or activities aimed at addressing climate change, promoting renewable 
energy, enhancing energy efficiency, supporting sustainable land use, improving waste 
management, or other environmentally beneficial initiatives.
Green technologies: also known as clean or sustainable technologies, refer to innovations 
and practices that are designed to reduce environmental impact, promote resource 
efficiency, and contribute to sustainable development. These technologies aim to address 
environmental challenges such as climate change, pollution, resource depletion, and 
biodiversity loss by minimising emissions of greenhouse gases, pollutants, and waste 
while maximising the use of renewable resources.
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs): are vehicles designed to transport goods or passengers 
with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) exceeding 8,500 pounds (3,855 kilograms). 
These vehicles are typically larger and more powerful than light-duty vehicles and are 
used for various purposes, including freight transportation, public transit, construction, 
and agriculture. Heavy-duty vehicles play a critical role in the global economy by 
facilitating the movement of goods and people over long distances and in diverse 
operating conditions.
Light rail transit (LRT): is a form of urban rail transit characterised by its flexibility, capacity, 
and integration into urban environments. LRT systems typically operate on a combination 
of dedicated rights-of-way, semi-exclusive lanes, and mixed traffic, allowing them to 
provide efficient and reliable service in urban and suburban areas.
Low carbon cities: also known as sustainable cities or eco-cities, are urban areas that 
prioritise environmental sustainability, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote 
resilience to climate change impacts. These cities adopt integrated approaches to 
urban planning, transportation, energy, waste management, and other aspects of urban 
development to minimise their carbon footprint and enhance quality of life for residents.
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT): refers to a high-capacity urban public transportation system 
designed to efficiently move large numbers of passengers within a metropolitan area. 
MRT systems typically consist of electrified trains that run on dedicated tracks, providing 
fast, reliable, and frequent service to commuters.


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Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): are the pledges and commitments made 
by individual countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the 
impacts of climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Change (UNFCCC). Each country submits its NDC as part of the international effort to 
address climate change, particularly in the context of the Paris Agreement.
Net zero-carbon: refers to achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse 
gases emitted into the atmosphere and the amount removed from the atmosphere. In 
other words, it means that the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse 
gases are equal to the amount that is either offset or sequestered, resulting in no net 
addition to the atmosphere’s greenhouse gas concentration.
Non-motorised transport (NMT): refers to any form of transportation that does not rely 
on motorised vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, or buses, to move people or goods. 
Instead, NMT relies on human power or animal power for propulsion. Common examples 
of non-motorised transport include walking, cycling, skating, and the use of non-
motorised carts or wagons. NMT is often considered more sustainable, environmentally 
friendly, and healthier compared to motorised transport options, as it produces fewer 
emissions and promotes physical activity.
Off-grid energy solutions: refers to systems that provide electricity independently 
of traditional utility grids. These solutions are designed to meet the energy needs of 
individuals, communities, or facilities that are not connected to centralised power grids. 
These systems typically utilise renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, 
or biomass to generate electricity. Off-grid energy solutions often incorporate energy 
storage technologies such as batteries or pumped hydro storage to store excess energy 
for use during periods of low renewable energy generation or high demand.
Paratransit system: refers to a type of public passenger transportation that is characterised 
by its flexibility and operates by demand without having fixed schedules and is operated 
by private entities with minimal oversight and investment from government.
Renewable energy: refers to energy derived from naturally replenished sources that 
are not depleted when used. Unlike fossil fuels, which are finite and contribute to 
environmental pollution and climate change, renewable energy sources are abundant, 
clean, and sustainable. They offer significant potential for reducing greenhouse gas 
emissions, enhancing energy security, and promoting economic development.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technologies: are technologies that enables electric vehicles (EVs) 
to interact with the electricity grid, allowing them to not only consume electricity but also 
to provide electricity back to the grid when needed. V2G systems essentially turn EV 
batteries into energy storage units that can be tapped into during peak demand periods 
or to help stabilise the grid.


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CHAPTER ONE 
DECARBONISATION of TRANSPORT and
ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
The Paris Agreement set an ambitious global goal of limiting global warming to 1.5° 
Celsius above pre-industrial levels. To achieve this, global greenhouse gas emissions 
must peak by 2025, decrease by 43% by 2030, and reach net zero by 2050, as outlined by 
the United Nations. Under the Paris Agreement, parties are required to submit Nationally 
Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on 
Climate Change (UNFCCC). Transitioning to transportation systems with lower carbon 
emissions enables countries to significantly advance towards fulfilling their Paris 
Agreement commitments. Beyond the environmental, economic, and social advantages, 
the decarbonisation of transport is a crucial strategy for countries to meet their NDC 
targets. This chapter provides the necessary background, outlines the study’s objectives, 
and delves into the benefits, challenges, and strategies of decarbonising transport 
and adapting to climate change. It underscores the critical need for transitioning to 
sustainable transport systems and adapting to the rapidly changing climate realities.
1.1	 Introduction
The transport sector accounts for nearly a quarter of global energy-related greenhouse gas 
(GHG) emissions (IPCC, 2022). In 2022, worldwide carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from 
transportation were estimated at eight gigatonne, a 3% increase from 2021, according to 
the International Energy Agency (IEA). From 1990 to 2022, emissions from transportation 
grew at an average rate of 1.7% annually, faster than any other sector, except for industrial 
emissions which rose at the same rate (IEA, 2023). Transportation emissions are driven by 
the sector’s reliance on fossil fuels, which account for 90% of transport energy needs. 
Road transportation accounts for 75% of all transport sector emissions, with passenger 
vehicles, including cars and buses being the primary contributors (Tiseo, 2023). The 
health and financial impacts associated with current greenhouse gas emissions from 
transportation are enormous. It is estimated that, globally, pollution from the transport 
sector is responsible for the loss of about 7.8 million lives annually, an economic cost 
of USD 1 trillion in health damages (Anenberg, et al., 2019). In 2013, the estimated cost 
of premature deaths due to air pollution in Africa was approximately USD 450 billion 
(Ayetor, et al., 2021).
Africa is a small contributor (4%) to global transport emissions due to its small market and 
low levels of vehicle ownership (UNFCCC, 2023). As Figure 1 shows, Africa’s contribution 
to global transport GHG emissions has historically been minimal. While all regions 
have seen an increase in emissions over time, Sub-Saharan Africa’s emissions growth is 
relatively gradual and remains significantly lower compared to North America, East Asia 
and Pacific, and Europe and Central Asia. The average CO2 emissions per person per 


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2
year in Africa are only 0.8 tonnes. This is significantly lower than the global average of 4.8 
tonnes. However, emissions from Africa’s transportation are increasing at an estimated 
rate of approximately 7% annually, in stark contrast to the lower growth rates observed 
in other regions (SLOCAT, 2021). For example, in the United States the annual increase 
of transportation emission was less than 1% between 1990 and 2017, and in the United 
Kingdom 0.12% in the same period (Ayetor, et al., 2021). With the current economic and 
social growth occurring, Africa is expected to experience exponential growth in transport 
motorisation along with the concomitant increase in transport-related greenhouse gas 
emissions and adverse health effects in the coming decade.
Egypt, South Africa, Nigeria, Libya, Morocco, Kenya, and Ghana have the highest 
motorisation rates in Africa and are responsible for more than 70% of Africa’s emissions 
from the transport sector (Figure 2) (Ayetor, et al., 2021). The rapid rate of motorisation 
of African cities has led to chronic traffic congestion and high levels of pollution. The lack 
of fuel quality standards and the dumping of old and inefficient vehicles in the continent 
further exacerbates the negative impacts of increasing motorisation on air quality. 
It is estimated that 85% of vehicles in Africa are used vehicles imported from Europe, 
the United States, and Japan (Ayetor, et al., 2021). Many of these vehicles would fail 
roadworthiness tests and emission inspections in exporting countries but are dumped in 
African countries which often have weaker or no vehicle emission regulations. 
Geographical and socio-economic factors shape transportation choices in Africa. Despite 
a rapid motorisation rate, on average, 80% of the continent’s urban population lacks 
access to personal vehicles and a large proportion does not have access to motorised 
public transit services. Non-motorised modes of transport such as walking and cycling 
comprise the majority of urban trips (Sietchiping, et al., 2012). In some African cities, most 
journeys are made on foot while most motorised trips are made using informal motorcycle 
taxis or minibuses (Deeb, et al., 2022). According to Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2020), in 
2013, the average mode of transport across 14 African cities showed that walking was 
the most prevalent at 34%, followed by private cars at 22%, matatus/minibuses at 18%, 
motorcycles at 11%, buses at 9%, and other modes at 6% (Figure 3). Given the rise in 
Figure 1:  Global transport emissions by region (1990–2020)
1990
North American Region
East Asia and Pacific
Europe and Central Asia
Middle East and North Africa
Latin America and Caribbean
Sub-Saharan Africa
2.2 Gt
CO2o
1.7 Gt
1.1 Gt
500 Mt
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
2008
2011
2014
2017
2020
CLIMATEWATCH
Historical GHC emissions
 
Data source: Climate Watch; Location: East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia,
Latin America and Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America Region,
Sub-Saharan Africa; Sectors/Subsectors: Transportation; Gases: All GHG; Calculation: Total;
Show data by Regions.


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Dar es
Salaam,
Tanzania
Addis
Ababa,
Ethiopia
Accra,
Ghana
Abidjan,
Côte
d’Ivoire
Average
of 14
African
countries
Nairobi,
Kenya
(2007)
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2%
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29%
9%
Walking
KEY
Mode of Transport in Selected African Countries
Motorcycle
Private car
Minibus
Bus
Other
34%
11%
18%
27%
6%
22%
47%
19%
11%
12%
22%
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30%
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20%
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10%
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70%
80%
90%
100%
Mode of share
11%
61%
35%
incomes since then, it is probable that the use of private cars has increased, as higher 
earnings typically encourage a shift towards more private forms of transportation.
Public, or semi-public transport plays a significant role in most African cities. The most 
widely used public transportation system in many urban and semi-urban areas is the 
paratransit system. Paratransit refers to a type of public passenger transportation that is 
characterised by its flexibility and operates by demand without having fixed schedules 
and is operated by private entities with minimal oversight and investment from 
government (SLOCAT, 2021).
215
445
776
987
1614
1985
2205
2561
2761
3847
6918
7287
17254
18200
35239
53034
65000
Cape Verde
South Sudan
Burkina Faso
Mauritius
Togo
Botswana
Benin
Uganda
Namibia
Ethiopia
Ghana
Kenya
Morocco
Libya
Nigeria
South Africa
Egypt
10000
0
20000
30000
Carbon Dioxide Emissions (Giga Gramme)
40000
50000
60000
70000
Figure 2: Transport sector emissions in select African countries.
Source: Adapted from Ayetor, et al. (2021) 
Figure 3: Mode of transport in selected African cities (2013)
Source: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2020)


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4
The local names for paratransit vehicles vary across countries; medium-sized minivans 
or buses that accommodate 9 to 25 passengers are called matatus in Kenya, minibus 
taxis in South Africa (see Figure 4), and dala dala in Tanzania. Paratransit vehicles also 
include tricycle (three-wheelers) taxis in Ghana and motorcycle (two-wheelers) taxis 
in several eastern and western regions of Africa. Approximately 98% of commuters in 
Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), 91% in Kampala (Uganda), 90% in Lagos (Nigeria), 65% in 
Yaoundé (Cameroon), 82% in Algiers (Algeria), and 70% in Johannesburg (South Africa) 
rely on paratransit transportation (Giliomee, et al., 2023).
Figure 4: Popular paratransit vehicles in Africa and their names


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The popularity of paratransit vehicles makes them critical for consideration in transport 
decarbonisation. Despite their ubiquitous nature in Africa, paratransit vehicles are 
generally old, and electrifying them could reduce their tailpipe emissions while reducing 
operating and maintenance costs for operators (see Case Study 2 in Chapter 2).
In many African countries, where road quality is often poor and urban areas are congested, 
motorcycles (two-wheelers) — locally known as boda boda in East Africa, okada in 
Nigeria, and moto in Rwanda (see Figure 5) — are the preferred mode of transport. Their 
agility allows them to efficiently navigate through varied terrains and gridlocked traffic, 
outperforming four-wheelers and other vehicles. 
Figure 5. Motorcycles in the streets of Kigali, Rwanda
Photo credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff
Two- and three-wheelers (also known as tricycles or tuk-tuks for three-wheelers) 
have become increasingly popular in Africa and other emerging markets due to 
their availability, affordability, and adaptability. These vehicle segments which are 
predominantly purchased new in Africa, are projected to become a dominant force in 
Sub-Saharan Africa’s sustainable mobility transformative agenda (Powering Renewable 
Energy Opportunities, 2023). They are particularly advantageous for low-income 
countries and cost-effective to produce and are generally cheaper to electrify than buses 
and heavy-duty vehicles, as discussed in the cost benefit analysis of EVs in Section 5.3 in 
Chapter 5. Their smaller batteries can be charged via mini grids, making them suitable 
for areas with limited access to reliable electricity grid infrastructure (see Case Study 
7 in Section 5.9). Additionally, they can benefit from a battery-swap model, wherein a 
depleted battery is exchanged for a fully charged one at a designated swap station (see 
Sections 2.3.3 and 5.9).
African countries could leverage the growing preference for two- and three-wheelers 
to decarbonise this sector. For African EV manufacturers, prioritising the development 
and production of two- and three-wheelers presents a strategic short-term approach, 
alongside the production of four-wheelers and other vehicle segments (Cash, 2022). 


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6
However, EV manufacturers need to design electric motorcycles suited to the needs 
and landscape of the continent as most of the electric motorcycles in the continent 
imported from China and India are not well-suited for African conditions, they are costly, 
face unreliable electric and charging infrastructure, especially in rural areas (Powering 
Renewable Energy Opportunities, 2023).
1.2	 Current Status of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa
The Paris Agreement sets an ambitious global goal of limiting global warming to 1.5° 
Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Achieving this goal requires that global greenhouse 
gas emissions peak by 2025, decline by 43% by 2030, and fall to net zero by 2050 
(The United Nations, n.d.). The Paris Agreement mandates parties to submit Nationally 
Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on 
Climate Change (UNFCCC). Although implementation is voluntary, the NDCs aim to 
reach specific targets and objectives and require periodic updates. The first generation 
of NDCs, submitted by 191 countries, covered over 90% of global energy-related and 
industrial process CO2 emissions, with certain targets conditional on international support 
for technology, finance, and means towards implementation (SLOCAT, 2022). NDCs are 
updated by each country every five years to demonstrate progression from the previous 
NDC, reflecting the country’s “highest possible ambition”.
African countries have set ambitious goals to reduce transport sector emissions in line 
with the Paris Agreement. For example, Burkina Faso, the Gambia, Guinea, Ethiopia, 
Liberia, Nigeria and South Sudan have demonstrated commitment to decarbonise the 
transport sector by setting targets in their NDCs. Moreover, Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, 
Sierra Leone, South Sudan, and Togo have defined the adoption and promotion of 
electric mobility (e-mobility) as one measure to transform their transport sector. Table 1 
indicates transport-sector emission reduction targets of select countries in Africa.
Figure 6: Transport sector GHG emissions mitigation and adaptation actions.
Source: SLOCAT (2022)
Low carbon fuels
& energy vectors
29%
Innovation
& upscaling
2%
Electrification
15%
Transport system
improvements
22%
Mode shift demand
management
32%
Informational
& educational
16%
Institutional
& regulatory
31%
Structural 
technical
53%
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(b) Transport mitigation


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
As shown in Figure 6 (b), transport mitigation actions included in second-generation 
NDCs focus on mode shift and demand management (32% of all actions), followed by 
fuel and energy efficiency (29%), transport system improvements (22%) and electrification 
(15%) (SLOCAT, 2022). Countries like Cape Verde, Congo, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Seychelles, 
Sierra Leone, and South Sudan included in their NDCs’ actions to electrify public buses 
as an entry point for long term efforts towards more comprehensive electrification of 
Table 1: Transport-sector emissions reduction targets of select African countries
Country
Transport GHG emission targets in the NDC
Algeria
Committed to reduce greenhouse emissions by 22% by 2030 
relative to business as usual.
Egypt 
Aims to reduce emissions by 7% below the business as usual.
Eswatini
Aims to reduce emissions from transport by introducing commercial 
use of 10% ethanol blend in petrol and conducting studies to assess 
the adoption of electric mobility options. 
Gambia 
Intends to reduce emissions by 22% below the business as usual
Guinea
Intends to unconditionally reduce emissions by 10% below the 
business as usual.
Liberia
Intends to lower emissions by 15% below the business as usual. 
Mauritania
Intends to lower emissions by 1%, of which 5.21% of the target is 
unconditional, below the business as usual.
Namibia 
Intends to reduce emissions by 7% below the business as usual.
Mauritius 
Intends to reduce emissions by 8%, below the business as usual.
Rwanda 
Intends to reduce emissions by 9% through adoption of EVs and 
10% through improved vehicle standards below the business as 
usual.
Seychelles
Intends to reduce emissions by 30% by focusing on gasoline 
vehicles.
Sierra Leone
Commits to implementing low GHG fuels and incentives for vehicle 
demand reduction.
Somali
Intends to lower emissions by 56%, below the business as usual.
South Sudan
Intends to reduce emissions by 44% below the business as usual.
Sudan 
Intends to reduce emissions by 1% below the business as usual.
Uganda 
Intends to reduce emissions by 29% below the business as usual.
Zimbabwe 
Intends to reduce emissions by 1% through transport economy fuel 
policies and fuel efficiency improvements; and 1% by shifting from 
private to public transport. 
Source: UNFCCC NDC registry. https://unfccc.int/NDCREG 


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8
transport (SLOCAT, 2022). Figure 6 (a) shows transport adaptation actions which relate 
to road infrastructure resilience, majorly incorporated into design and planning of the 
transport systems and infrastructure. 
Supporting transport electrification with renewable energy is crucial for reducing 
emissions in the transport sector. Despite the mitigation benefits of using renewable 
energy to electrify the transport sector, few countries have linked transport electrification 
with using renewable energy for manufacturing and operating the vehicles. Only 10% of 
transport mitigation actions in Africa pertain to alternative fuels, and less than 3% mention 
the use of renewable energy. Among the submitted NDCs, Burkina Faso, Morocco, 
Namibia, South Sudan, and Tanzania stand out for linking transport to renewable energy. 
Meanwhile, Cape Verde has set a target to electrify at least 25% of its land-borne transport 
fleet (new road vehicles) by 2030, supported by renewable energy sources (SLOCAT, 
2022). To enhance transport resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change 
impacts, countries are expected to communicate their adaptation strategies in their 
NDCs. Thus, many African countries have featured transport adaptation actions in NDCs 
submitted, with 25 NDCs incorporating such measures. Notably, over half of these actions 
are geared towards enhancing the resilience of road infrastructure. Additionally, close 
to one-third of all transport adaptation actions revolve around integrating adaptation 
strategies into the design and planning of transport systems and infrastructure (SLOCAT, 
2022).
1.3	 Strategies for Decarbonising Road Transport
Replacing technologies that use fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) for 
electrification with those based on renewable energy sources (like solar, wind, and 
hydro), can play an important role in the decarbonisation of transport. Electric vehicles are 
generally more environmentally friendly than their petrol or diesel counterparts, producing 
fewer greenhouse gases, pollutants and noise. While EVs have higher emissions during 
the production stage, this is offset by lower emissions over their lifespan. Currently, 
electric vehicles emit 17-30% less GHG than traditional cars (European Environment 
Agency, 2018). With advancements in manufacturing efficiency and cleaner electricity 
production, the life-cycle emissions of electric vehicles could be reduced by at least 73% 
by 2050 (European Environment Agency, 2018). Except for the initial capital cost, currently 
between 30–40% higher than an equivalent ICE vehicle (Gallizzi, 2022), EVs also have 
lower operational and maintenance costs, making them cheaper overall (see Section 5.3).
Approximately 14% of all new vehicles sold in 2022 globally were EVs, a rise of 9% 
compared to 2021 (IEA, 2023). China, the European Union, and the United States, three 
major global automotive markets, have the highest rates of adoption of passenger EVs. 
China accounted for 47% of EV sales in 2021, followed by the EU (37%) and the United 
States (12%) (Kendall, et al., 2023). China, the EU, and the United States are expected 
to only sell EVs by 2035, and by 2050, 80% of the world’s vehicle sales are expected 
to be electric (Mckinsey, 2022). As global vehicle manufacturers move towards phasing 
out internal combustion engines within the next few decades, it becomes increasingly 
important for developing countries, including those in Africa, to follow the trend of 
transition to electric mobility. This shift is crucial to prevent these nations from becoming 
repositories for high-emission vehicles phased out in advanced economies, and to 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
ensure alignment with global trends towards more sustainable transportation.
Demand for EVs in Africa is rising, but data are limited. In 2021, Africa’s EV market had an 
estimated value of USD 11.94 billion and is projected to reach USD 21.39 billion by 2027 
(MordorIntelligence, 2023). South Africa, for example, is expected to have high demand 
for EVs, including from the paratransit transport sector (see Case Study 2 in Chapter 2). A 
recent study demonstrated significant interest among South African paratransit owners 
and drivers to adopt EVs in the future but emphasised the need to address concerns 
related to EV vehicle performance, safety, reliability, environmental impact, and operating 
costs (Hull, et al., 2023).
While adoption of electric vehicles can help address pollution, it does not necessarily 
resolve other transport sector challenges in Africa such as congestion and road safety, or 
the large amount of land that transport infrastructure may require. Consequently, while 
imperative, electrification of transport needs to be considered as an integral component 
of a broader, more comprehensive strategy for developing sustainable transport systems 
in Africa, such as the EASIR approach. Implementing a holistic approach that includes 
effective urban planning, the adoption of mass rapid transit (MRT), bus rapid transit (BRT) 
and non-motorised transport (NMT), along with the transition to EVs, is crucial not only 
for mitigating climate change, but also for assisting countries in achieving their Nationally 
Determined Contributions (NDC) targets. Overall, transitioning to a decarbonised 
transport sector offers an opportunity for broader environmental consciousness and the 
adoption of sustainable practices across various sectors.
 
1.4.	 The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience Approach 
to Decarbonisation of Transport 
Decarbonisation of the transport sector requires robust political frameworks and policies 
that aim to reduce emissions from transport, such as deployment of EVs, along with a 
consistent plan to eliminate ICE vehicles while establishing safer, reliable, and accessible 
non-motorised transport infrastructure in the continent. The Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-
Resilience (EASIR) approach provides a framework for the strategies for decarbonisation 
of transport in Africa.
Initially developed in the early 1990s as the ASI approach, the framework sought to (1) 
improve access to jobs, goods and services while enabling users to avoid motorised trips 
by smarter land use and logistics planning; (2) shift the transport of goods and persons to 
the most efficient mode; and (3) improve the efficiency and environmental performance 
of transport systems through improved vehicle, fuel, and network operations and 
management technologies. The successful development and implementation of any 
policy depends on the existence of effective institutional or governance frameworks. 
The Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP), an international partnership 
administered by the World Bank, proposed a fourth action pillar—Enable—to complement 
the ASI approach based on the specificities of the African context. Since enable actions 
are the prerequisites that make other actions in ASI possible, SSATP has proposed 
putting enable first, thereby converting ASI into the EASI policy framework, guiding 
decarbonisation of transport and transport accessibility reforms in Africa. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The 2022 World Bank report Pathways to Electric Mobility in the Sahel: Two- and Three-
Wheelers in Bamako and Ouagadougou, proposed the addition of another pillar—
resilience. The report, which assessed the potential for electrification of two-wheelers and 
three-wheelers due to their dominance in the African market highlighted the resiliency 
of these modes of transport despite the challenges they face. Like most parts of Africa, 
in Bamako, Mali, two-wheelers are used for private travel, commercial passenger travel, 
freight transport, and in motor taxis, while in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, they are used 
primarily as private vehicles. In both cities, three-wheelers are used predominantly for 
freight transport. The inclusion of a Resilience pillar thus recognises the necessity of 
creating or enhancing the resilience and adaptive capacity of transport systems and 
infrastructure to withstand various stresses and shocks, including those exacerbated by 
climate change, environmental degradation, and social changes as exemplified by two- 
and three-wheelers in Africa (World Bank, 2022).
The EASIR approach can be adopted by individual transport users, companies, and 
policymakers as shown in Table 2. For individual consumers of transport services such as 
passengers, there is a need for awareness of the impact of the transport sector in climate 
change as well as a mindset shift, and the adoption of sustainable modes of transport. 
For companies, adopting the approach requires a transformational shift in the way they 
operate — how they source, use, consume, and think about energy, and how they engage 
with multiple stakeholders. For governments and investors, there is a need for significant 
policy and financial commitments. 
Climate adaptation and mitigation actions adopted by African countries in their NDCs 
(see Section 1.2 of this Chapter) align with elements of the EASIR approach. Applications 
of EASIR actions through integrated, intermodal, and balanced approaches are vital to 
achieving sustainable low carbon transport. Relative to NDCs globally, EASIR actions in 
Africa are slightly more balanced, with 30% representing shift actions compared to 25% 
at the global level. Improve actions such as vehicle improvements make up 53% of all 
actions in the region, which is the lowest among all regions and slightly below the global 
level (58%) (SLOCAT, 2022), as outlined in Figure 7. 
Figure 7: Mitigation actions by enable-avoid-shift-improve approach.
Source: Adapted from GIZ (2022)
Avoid
4%
4%
33%
52%
53%
30%
First-generation NDCs
Second-generation NDCs
Shift
Improve
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1.5 Benefits of Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa
The benefits of decarbonising transport in Africa can be broadly categorised into 
environmental, economic, and social. These are discussed in some detail in the following 
sections.
1.5.1	 Environmental Benefits
Transitioning from fossil fuel-dependent vehicles to cleaner alternatives such as EVs 
supported by renewable energy sources like hydropower, solar and wind power will not 
only decrease air pollution, but also lessen reliance on imported fossil fuels, promoting 
energy independence. The environmental benefits also extend beyond immediate 
emission reductions. Embracing green transportation technologies can contribute to 
the preservation of Africa’s rich biodiversity and natural landscapes, often threatened 
by pollution and unsustainable development practices. The abundant sunshine and 
vast landscapes offer an ideal setting for harnessing solar energy, a potentially pivotal 
source for powering EVs and the necessary charging infrastructure. Another positive 
impact includes a decrease in noise pollution as EVs are significantly quieter than ICE 
vehicles. Moreover, as discussed in Chapter 4, decarbonising transport also offers an 
opportunity for sustainable transport and urban development, in line with the United 
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
 
1.5.2	 Economic Benefits
Sustainable transport solutions can promote economic development, reduce poverty, 
and improve access to transport while also reducing carbon emissions and protecting the 
environment (see Chapter 4). Unlike developed regions facing the difficult challenge of 
transitioning from an “old economy,” Africa has an advantage in that it can directly invest 
in a green economy, bypassing traditional, emission-heavy models of development. 
Within the transportation sector, current low motorisation rates mean that the continent 
can more easily focus on adoption of clean transportation models, for both personal cars 
and mass transit systems. Moreover, the continent is endowed with vast natural resources 
and a wealth of untapped renewable energy potential. These assets, if leveraged 
effectively, have the potential to not only contribute to reducing emissions but also to 
create substantial job opportunities, drive technological advancements, and stimulate 
sustainable economic growth.
 
One area with significant economic potential is the automotive sector. In developed 
markets, established auto manufacturers hold a dominant position, making it challenging 
for new vehicle manufacturers to enter the market, unless they showcase significant 
innovations in product development. Conversely, the African market remains untapped 
and offers promising opportunities for new entrants. The relative simplicity of EV 
production and the significant localisation of several key components (excluding batteries) 
offer opportunities for domestic production in many low-and middle-income countries. 
Innovative start-ups in Kenya (for example, BasiGo, Roam, Kiri, and Kuza Automotive), 
Uganda (for example, Kiira Motors Corporation), Rwanda (for example, Ampersand), and 
South Africa indicate the viability of diversifying the vehicle manufacturing industry in 
Africa (see Chapter 2).


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The emerging EV component supply and value chain thus offers significant economic 
advantages. As the demand for traditional ICE vehicle components wanes, a new market 
for EV-specific components, particularly batteries and electric drives, is rapidly expanding. 
With its rich reserves of essential minerals like cobalt and lithium, crucial for battery 
production, Africa is already recognised as a vital source of raw materials. Investing in 
local manufacturing of EVs and EV components could further provide opportunities for 
the development of automotive exports, which would stimulate economic growth and 
innovation in the automotive and related supply and value chains.
Transition to electric transportation also offers an opportunity to reduce the import bill 
and foreign exchange outflows associated with imports of fuel and used vehicles, since 
countries may save up to 50% in refuelling costs by transitioning to EV fleets (Scott, et 
al., 2023). Meanwhile, export of automotive products will result in associated foreign 
exchange earnings, potentially bolstering foreign reserves and further strengthening 
economic resilience and reducing macroeconomic vulnerabilities to energy-induced 
external shocks. Conversely, these positive macroeconomic effects will not be the same 
for all African countries. Fuel-importing countries stand to reap significant economic 
benefits from substituting hydrocarbon imports with domestically generated renewable 
energy forms. For petroleum-exporting African countries, fuel exports are a significant 
source of public revenue that drives economic growth and prosperity. As a result, they 
will have to invest in alternative revenue sources by diversifying hydrocarbon value 
chains to sustain the positive effects of the petroleum sector on public finances and on 
the domestic economy. In many countries, petroleum taxation is a dependable source 
of public revenue, although the level of dependence and flexibility to shift to other 
sustainable tax revenue sources vary widely across Africa. For example, tax revenues on 
petroleum products accounts for as much as 60% of total tax revenues in Nigeria, Gabon, 
Equatorial Guinea, and Angola, and less than a third in oil-importing countries such as 
Kenya and Botswana. Regardless, all countries will need to make fiscal adjustments to 
accommodate these changes and to proactively transition their public revenues systems 
away from hydrocarbons to new and more sustainable alternatives.
 
1.5.3	 Social Benefits 
The social benefits of sustainable transportation include improved accessibility of transport 
for all people and benefits related to public health and job creation. Sustainable mobility 
solutions promote accessible and affordable transportation options for all members of 
society, including those with limited mobility or financial resources, compared to transport 
systems focused on serving private vehicles. Public transportation, cycling infrastructure, 
and walking paths are examples of inclusive transportation modes that can be utilised 
by people of different socio-economic backgrounds. For urban residents, the use of low-
emission vehicles such as EVs and alternative modes like walking and cycling can reduce 
air pollution, leading to improvements in the quality of life for all. Meanwhile, the transition 
to decarbonised transport could result in increased social equity across socioeconomic 
groups in towns and cities across Africa. Designing or adopting new buses presents 
an opportunity to consider the needs of persons with disabilities in the design of the 
bus itself as well as in bus-parking infrastructure, following the Just Transition Principles 
(discussed in Chapter 5). Moreover, since transport decarbonisation will impact urban 


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design, it presents an opportunity to consider the needs of low-income communities 
and vulnerable groups in urban development and transport planning. Furthermore, EVs 
operate more smoothly and quietly than ICE cars since electric motors generate less 
noise and vibration, which may lead to a safer, more pleasurable and relaxing driving 
experience.
 
1.6	 Challenges in the Transition to Decarbonised 
Transportation
The transition to decarbonised transport in Africa faces several challenges, which can be 
categorised into issues related to electric vehicles (EVs), public and active transport, and 
broader systemic challenges.
1.6.1	 Systemic Barriers
The entrenched nature of fossil fuel energy systems, traditional transportation operators, 
and existing governance systems creates significant systemic barriers to decarbonisation. 
These entities often have established, powerful interests that are resistant to change 
due to financial, political, or ideological reasons. Overcoming these barriers requires 
not only technological innovation but also changes in policy, consumer behaviour, 
and investment patterns. The challenge is to dismantle these entrenched systems in 
a way that is economically and socially sustainable, while rapidly advancing towards 
greener alternatives. The multi-level perspective framework for understanding complex 
sustainability transitions involving multiple regimes and stakeholders (discussed in 
Chapter 5, Section 5.1) offers insights into how to disrupt these regimes and the complex 
transition to decarbonisation.
 
1.6.2	 Electricity Supply and Infrastructure
A stable and ample supply of electricity is a prerequisite for EVs. However, many countries 
in Africa struggle with inconsistent power supplies which could potentially limit the 
effectiveness of a transition to electric vehicles (see discussion in Chapter 3). The lack of 
infrastructure and irregular power supply results in high electricity costs. 
Although not unique to Africa, the sparsity of charging stations results in range anxiety 
(the fear of running out of power while driving with no place to recharge). Range anxiety 
is one of the main reasons cited as limiting large uptake of e-mobility by many private 
vehicle owners. Solutions such as battery swapping can address range anxiety, especially 
for long-distance travel and in rural areas of Africa where electricity supply may be 
intermittent. Battery swapping is the process of removing depleted batteries from an 
EV and replacing it with a charged one (see discussion of business models in Chapter 
2). Battery swapping ensures that the ‘recharge’ is almost instant, ensuring the user can 
continue their journey, minus the minimal time taken to replace the battery. Meanwhile, 
some countries, like Egypt and Rwanda, are mitigating high electricity costs through 
special tariffs for charging stations. Egypt offers set prices for EV charging (operators are 
provided with official licenses) and Rwanda has capped tariffs for charging stations with 
charge point operators at USD 10 cents/kWh (instead of 20 cents/kWh) and reducing 
tariffs for charges during off-peak hours.


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
1.6.3	 High Cost and Accessibility of Electric Vehicles
The initial high cost of EVs makes them less accessible in a continent with significant 
economic constraints. Financial institutions view the EV market as risky, offering high-
interest rates for EV financing, discouraging uptake. As a result, many EVs on the market 
remain more expensive than ICE vehicles. For example, in South Africa, an electric car is, 
on average, twice as expensive as a new ICE vehicle (Valero & Wink, 2022). 
In addition, there is a dependency on imported technology and expertise in the EV sector, 
hindering local industry development and innovation. Local EV industry development, 
innovation, design, and production can help counteract this dependency challenge. Two 
such examples are the electrification of public buses in Kenya (see Case Study 1, Section 
2.3.1), and the conversion of paratransit vehicles from ICE to EVs in South Africa (see 
Case Study 2, Section 2.3.9).
1.6.4	 Insufficient Policy Frameworks and Incentives
Robust policy frameworks and incentives are essential to support the widespread 
adoption of clean transportation. These measures should include VAT and custom duty 
exceptions, alongside initiatives to encourage financial institutions to develop accessible 
vehicle-financing packages for EV buyers. While such policy frameworks and incentives 
are in development, as discussed in Chapters 2 and 5 of this report, they remain 
insufficient or entirely lacking in many countries. Chapter 5 specifically outlines how 
these frameworks, including financial institution engagement strategies, can effectively 
promote the uptake of clean transportation models.
1.6.5	 Workforce and Industry
The shift from traditional automotive manufacturing and maintenance to greener 
technologies is a complex transition for the workforce and industry. The transition 
requires retraining workers, adapting existing manufacturing facilities, and developing 
new skill sets aligned with green technologies such as EV production and maintenance, 
or management of renewable energy systems. Moreover, the transition must be 
managed in a way that minimises job losses in traditional industries and creates new 
employment opportunities in the green sector. This requires significant commitment 
from all stakeholders.
1.6.6	 Underinvestment in Public and Active Transport
The lack of sufficient investment in public and active transport infrastructure severely 
restricts the development of sustainable transport options. This underinvestment 
leads to inadequate, unreliable, or non-existent public transit systems and discourages 
active transport modes like cycling and walking due to safety concerns and lack of 
supporting infrastructure. Expanding and maintaining efficient public transit systems, as 
well as developing infrastructure for non-motorised transport, are crucial for reducing 
dependency on personal vehicles and lowering emissions (see discussion in Chapter 4). 
This requires not only financial investment but also strategic urban planning to integrate 
different modes of transport effectively.


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1.6.7	 Poor Coordination and Non-inclusivity
Many African countries struggle with poor transport planning, coordination, and 
implementation, leading to fragmented and inefficient systems. This issue is compounded 
by non-inclusive infrastructural development, which often fails to consider the diverse 
needs of all population segments, including women, the elderly, and persons with 
disabilities. There is a critical need for integrated transport planning that considers the 
unique needs of different groups, thereby ensuring equitable access to transport services. 
This includes designing safe, accessible, and user-friendly transportation systems that 
cater to the needs of vulnerable populations and promote inclusive mobility.
These challenges highlight the critical need for coordinated efforts among governments, 
industry stakeholders, and international partners to successfully navigate the shift towards 
a decarbonised transport sector. A holistic approach that addresses technical, economic, 
social, and political dimensions is essential to overcome these obstacles and achieve 
sustainable transport solutions. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
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ACCELERATING DECARBONISATION OF
TRANSPORT IN AFRICA
African countries are already engaged in efforts to decarbonise road transport. This 
chapter explores some of these efforts and how to accelerate them. It highlights business 
models and solutions that are necessary in addressing issues that hinder uptake of 
electric vehicles such as lack of affordability and unreliable charging infrastructure. 
These include local manufacturing of EVs, innovative charging models, and financing 
mechanisms. This chapter also underscores the importance of adopting data-driven and 
evidence-based approaches in policy planning and decision-making to hasten the shift 
towards decarbonised transport across the continent.
2.1	 Policies and Regulations
Policies and regulations to decarbonise transport in Africa have been adopted across 
various levels—continental, regional, and national. At the continental level, the African 
Union’s Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) aims to facilitate 
regional integration by improving physical infrastructure in Africa by developing road 
networks, railways, ports, and airports to enhance connectivity between countries. PIDA 
also looks to expand the electric grid network across Africa, focusing on both renewable 
and non-renewable energy sources to ensure a sustainable and reliable power supply 
(AfDB, n.d.). The programme is crucial for addressing Africa’s infrastructure deficit, which 
is a major barrier to trade, economic growth, and development.
 
Similarly, Agenda 2063, Africa’s blueprint for developing inclusive and sustainable 
socio-economic development, includes a commitment to promote sustainable and 
efficient transportation systems across the continent (African Union, 2015). Agenda 2063 
underscores the development of sustainable transportation infrastructure, the use of 
alternative fuels, and the adoption of clean energy technologies (African Union, 2015). 
Equally, the African Renewable Energy Initiative aims to achieve universal access to 
renewable energy in Africa by 2025 (AREI, 2016). This initiative promotes the adoption 
of renewable energy technologies such as solar charging of EVs (discussed in Chapters 
3 and 5) in the transport sector. Building on these foundational efforts, the AU has 
strengthened its commitment to climate action by adopting the Climate Change and 
Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 (African Union, 
2022). CCRDSAP serves as a comprehensive framework for joint climate action at the 
continental level, enabling African countries to collectively address climate change and 
resilience. It encourages partnership development and supports the decarbonisation 
of critical sectors, including transport and energy. This strategy aligns with the African 
countries’ commitments under the Paris Agreement, drawing guidance from national 
climate efforts as outlined in the Nationally Determined Contributions and national long-
CHAPTER TWO


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term strategies for resilient development and decarbonisation. Additionally, the AU’s 
Nairobi Declaration that was adopted at the inaugural Africa Climate Summit emphasises 
the urgent need for decarbonising the global economy, advocating for equality and 
shared prosperity (African Union, 2023). The Declaration urges African countries to 
accelerate decarbonisation in transport, electricity, and industrial sectors by adopting 
smart, digital, and efficient technologies, such as battery storage, synthetic fuels, and 
renewable energy sources (African Union, 2023).
 
As noted previously, 85% of vehicles imported in Africa are used vehicles (Ayetor et al., 
2021). Until recently, there were no uniform vehicle standards across Africa (Kithome, 
2019). To align with the trade policy requirements as outlined in the African Continental 
Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA), the African Organisation for Standardisation 
(ARSO) and the African Export-Import Bank (Afreximbank) collaborated to harmonise 
standards and conformity assessment in the automotive sector to stimulate and boost 
trade among vehicle and parts manufacturers. The partnership led to the alignment 
of 13 standards, encompassing roadworthiness, automotive fuels, transportation of 
hazardous goods by road, classifications of motor vehicles and trailers, cross-border 
road transport management, vehicle homologation, and suggestions to embrace global 
standards (Kithome, 2021). This harmonisation was also in line with recommendations 
of a 2020 UNEP report on the climate effects of the vehicle-import industry. The report 
recommended the development of coordinated regulations at the global or regional 
levels to regulate trade-in used vehicles to end the trade of unsafe, obsolete, dirty, and 
faulty used vehicles (United Nations, 2020).
 
Regulations play a crucial role in driving the decarbonisation of transport in Africa 
and can have either positive or negative impacts on the process. At the national level, 
several countries have developed policies and regulations to promote and facilitate the 
decarbonisation of transport. Kenya’s National Climate Change Action Plan includes a 
focus on promoting electric vehicles, investment in non-motorised transport and public 
transport, and reducing emissions from the transport sector (Ministry of Environment and 
Forestry, 2021). In addition, Kenya’s National Automotive Policy aims to develop national 
capacities for competitive automotive products manufacturing anchored on training, 
innovation, research, and development. The strategy aims to increase the exports of 
automotive products to the East African region from 5% in 2018 to 15% by 2022 (Kenya 
National Assembly, 2022). To achieve this target, the government introduced incentive 
plans on locally assembled vehicles with the aim of replacing imported vehicles with locally 
assembled ones. However, due to increased competition from used vehicle markets and 
weak domestic vehicle production facilities, this target was not met (ReportLinker, 2023).
 
South Africa’s Automotive Production and Development Programme (APDP) aims to 
stimulate the expansion of the automotive production sector by providing incentives 
for both domestic and foreign manufacturers. While the primary goal is to boost local 
production, promoting the local automotive industry can facilitate the introduction and 
adoption of cleaner and more fuel-efficient vehicle technologies. South Africa also 
provides EV incentives, which, if integrated with local production strategies, can foster 
cleaner transportation. In addition, the South African Automotive Masterplan (SAAM, 
2021–2035) aims to support the production of 1% of global vehicles, or 1.4 million 
vehicles (both electric and non-electric) per annum in South Africa by 2035, which will 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
enhance the country’s status in the global vehicle production ranking (International 
Trade Administration, 2024).
 
In Rwanda, a 2010 Ministerial Order mandated that exhaust fumes of motor vehicles be 
included in the annual roadworthiness test and traffic police have acquired emissions 
inspection equipment, including those that can perform on-the-spot emissions checks 
(see Figure 8). In March 2022, Rwanda National Police (RNP), the body mandated with 
implementing motor vehicle emissions standards, together with other environmental 
institutions, launched the “Healthy Vehicle, Cleaner Skies,” a campaign to reduce air 
pollution in Kigali (Rwanda National Police, 2022). The campaign targeted operators 
of fossil-fuel powered vehicles and machinery, encouraging them to ensure that these 
vehicles and machines are kept in optimal working conditions, thereby minimising 
emissions.
 
Meanwhile, Rwanda’s strategic plan on electric mobility adaptation aims to have 20% of 
buses, 30% of motorcycles, and 8% of cars electrified by 2030 and provides substantial 
savings on fuel imports (Republic of Rwanda, 2021). Rwanda’s government also 
invested USD 900 million and USD 190 million for EVs and vehicle emissions standards, 
respectively (UNEP
, 2022). Rwanda has also launched a pilot project in partnership with 
Volkswagen to manufacture EVs locally (Volkswagen, 2019). 
 
In Nigeria, the National Automotive Industry Development Plan (NAIDP) 2023–2033 aims 
to revive the automobile industry by providing incentives for local vehicle production and 
assembly through tax breaks and import restrictions on second-hand vehicles (NADDC, 
2023). It imposes a 40% local content requirement and aims to ensure 30% local 
production of EVs by 2033 (NADDC, 2023). This decreases reliance on older, imported 
vehicles, which are often less fuel-efficient and more polluting. This shift becomes 
particularly impactful as local producers begin to transition towards the production of 
electric vehicles.
 
In Morocco, the National Energy Strategy targets a significant reduction in the transport 
sector’s reliance on fossil fuels, aiming for a 24.5% decrease in energy consumption 
by 2030 (Rim et al., 2021). The National Logistics Strategy seeks to enhance the 
sustainability of the government fleet by increasing the share of green cars (defined 
as hybrid or electric) by 30% (Benabdelaziz, n.d.); for example, the Post Office 
committed to electrifying a fleet of about 225 of its vehicles. Through the Programme 
for the Improvement of Urban Public Transport, Morocco aims to renew taxi fleets and 
extend tramway lines in Casablanca and Rabat to reduce public transport emissions 
(Benabdelaziz, n.d.). Tax incentives, infrastructure development, and training initiatives 
have also positioned Morocco as an attractive location for automotive investment, 
especially for manufacturing of EVs and hybrid vehicles.
 
Ghana’s Automotive Development Policy (GADP) aims to position the country as a 
fully integrated and competitive industrial hub for the automotive industry in the West 
Africa region. This includes attracting major global vehicle manufacturers to establish 
assembly plants in the country. By promoting local assembly and reducing the reliance 
on imported used vehicles, Ghana can influence the type and efficiency of vehicles on its 
roads, potentially favouring cleaner, low-emission options (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 
2019).
 


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The policies highlighted above offer a strategic blueprint for promoting sustainable 
transport solutions across Africa. They underscore the critical role of well-crafted policy 
instruments as accelerators in the continent’s transport sector decarbonisation, a 
theme that is further elaborated in Section 2.2 which categorises various types of policy 
instruments.
2.2	 Policy Instruments
Policy instruments play a critical role in advancing decarbonisation efforts in Africa. 
There are generally four types of policy instruments that are utilised or can be utilised 
by African governments: (1) market-based instruments (such as taxes, subsidies, fees, 
quotas, and penalties); (2) regulatory instruments (licenses, limits, prohibitions, laws); (3) 
direct provisions; and (4) information provisions. These policy instruments can be used 
to spur or stifle transport decarbonisation and are discussed below.
2.2.1	 Market-Based Instruments
Market-based instruments seek to alter incentives of economic agents to promote 
desirable behaviour and action to foster economic efficiency and promote social equity 
and environmental sustainability. Market-based instruments normally take the form 
of taxes and public subsidies incentivising private investment. For EVs, they include 
incentives that promote local manufacturing, distribution, purchase, and assembly of EV 
charging infrastructure and services needed to encourage electric mobility. As noted in 
Section 1.6, a challenge with accelerating EV adoption is slow market development of 
charging services; often only established when adoption rates reach the level required 
to support a commercial charging service model. Conversely, consumers are unlikely to 
adopt EVs in the absence of reliable and affordable EV charging services. For NMT, they 
include incentives that enhance the development of accompanying infrastructure such 
as bike lanes, pedestrian walkways, and bike-sharing programmes to make the more 
accessible and appealing to the public. Local governments should encourage the use of 
NMT, and public transportation, for example, through subsidies for the poor instead of 
building infrastructure for private vehicles as seen in many African cities (UN-Habitat, 2022). 
For MRT, governments can implement land use policies that encourage development 
around MRT stations, such as higher density zoning or improved permitting processes 
for transit-oriented developments. This can create vibrant, mixed-use communities that 
are easily accessible by MRT, driving ridership and increasing property values.
2.2.2	 Regulatory Instruments
Regulatory instruments include a wide range of command-and-control instruments 
implemented in the form of rules and regulations, standards and limits, restrictions 
placed on access, extraction and production, trade, and consumption of certain goods 
and services in the economy. Regulatory instruments that have been deployed in the 
transport and allied sectors need to be assessed for consistency with supporting efforts 
to transition to carbon neutral transportation to achieve the net-zero targets as outlined in 
the 2015 Paris Agreement. Such an assessment can identify regulations that run contrary 
to these efforts and possible reformation. It is critical to ensure that the regulatory 
instruments are holistic and foster policy coherence while also being cost-effective.
 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Several countries, including Algeria, Chad, Kenya, Mauritius, and Seychelles, have used 
regulatory instruments to prohibit importation of second-hand vehicles of a certain 
age in a bid to reduce carbon emissions (UNEP
, 2017). For example, in Algeria, Chad, 
Mauritius, and Seychelles, an imported diesel vehicle cannot be older than three years; 
in Kenya, Mauritania, and Namibia, eight years; in Benin, Democratic Republic of Congo, 
and Eritrea, 10 years; and in Liberia, Nigeria, and Eswatini, 12 years (UNEP
, 2017). Other 
countries have also banned use of ordinary diesel in preference of low sulphur diesel to 
reduce carbon emissions (UNEP
, 2017).
 
EVs and charging service ecosystems require specific supporting regulatory instruments 
that address various aspects of usage. This may include standards for the construction 
and operation of charging stations, guidelines on the sourcing and disposal of EV 
batteries, safety protocols, and incentives to encourage EV adoption. Moreover, 
regulations can also consider the integration of EV infrastructure with existing urban and 
rural environments, to ensure accessibility and convenience for users.
 
Infrastructure standards and regulations can also enhance road safety and promote the 
integration of different transport modes, such as linking NMT with public transportation 
systems in African countries. These could include implementing urban speed limits, 
establishing clear rules for yielding to pedestrians at crossings, and setting penalties for 
reckless driving that endangers NMT users. Additionally, regulations could support NMT 
integration with public transport by mandating the provision of bike racks on buses and 
trains and ensuring that transit stations are accessible by foot or bike.”
2.2.3	 Direct Provision
Direct provision instruments occur when governments directly provide goods or services 
to its citizens, rather than through market mechanisms or private sector entities. These 
instruments are often used in areas where the government deems it essential to have 
direct control to ensure equitable access, quality, and efficiency, or where the market may 
fail to provide these goods or services adequately.
 
Direct provision instruments offer an alternative option for African governments to 
support critical aspects of decarbonised transport, such as the adoption of EVs. In 
addition to market- and policy-based instruments, governments can play an important 
role in providing enabling infrastructure needed to make public and non-motorised 
transport, mass rapid transit, and electric mobility business models profitable and 
sustainable. Governments can directly invest in and build EV charging stations across 
cities and along major highways, and in rural areas to support the lack of commercial 
provision. This will alleviate range anxiety and position EVs as a more viable option for 
consumers. Moreover, direct provision of electric public transit and the electrification of 
government fleets (official government vehicles) can also set positive precedents for EV 
adoption while creating a stable demand for EVs and charging infrastructure, ultimately 
attracting private investors.
2.2.4	 Information Provision
Information provision entails the dissemination of relevant, accurate, and timely 
information to the public or specific target groups to increase public education and 


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awareness. This provision can play an important role in shaping and changing public 
preferences and behaviour in the selection of transport options. For instance, some 
consumers perceive electric vehicles as expensive and have adopted a “wait and 
see” approach while continuing to use ICE vehicles (Alanazi, 2023). Even in countries 
with incentives for EV purchases, consumers may be unaware of such incentives. The 
utilisation of efficient strategies for information sharing on EVs, including the promotion 
of existing incentives for EVs, and e-mobility modes in general, will assist the transition 
to sustainable transport. Furthermore, to change consumer attitudes and behaviour 
(preferences) on walking and cycling when appropriate infrastructure is available, public 
awareness and campaigns to battle misinformation are required.
 
2.3	 Business Models and Solutions
EVs have high upfront cost compared to ICE vehicles and current EV charging 
infrastructure is inadequate, causing range anxiety amongst potential customers and 
hindering uptake. New business and financing models can address both the issue of 
affordability and access to charging infrastructure to accelerate adoption of EVs in Africa. 
Business models and solutions include local assembly and manufacturing, conversion 
of ICE vehicles to EVs, auto parts manufacturing, battery swapping, Pay-As-You-Go 
charging, solar charging stations, vehicle to grid, integrated mobility platforms, and 
battery recycling and are discussed below. The business models can incorporate EVs 
charging at large supermarket complexes and large hospitals, as well as private charging 
at homes and offices.
2.3.1	 Local Assembly and Manufacturing
Local manufacturing of EVs can create jobs and reduce the cost of EVs, making them 
more accessible to consumers. Policies that support local manufacturing, coupled 
with the infusion of technology and skills into the local market, could position Africa as 
a potential EV hub for local and regional markets. Several countries, including Egypt, 
Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, and South Africa have policies supporting local 
vehicle manufacturing (see Section 2.1), and have attracted both global automakers and 
new innovative e-mobility companies.
 
Global companies involved in the manufacturing or assembly of electric vehicles in Africa 
include Nissan and BMW in South Africa, Volkswagen in Rwanda, Hyundai Kona in Nigeria, 
and Renault in Morocco. BYD (Build Your Dreams), a Chinese multinational company 
known for affordable EVs and batteries, has shown interest in the African market through 
partnerships with local companies. Aside from the popular brands, Africa is increasingly 
developing its own vehicle brands. Emerging African manufactured brands include Kiira 
Motors (Uganda), Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (Nigeria), Katanka (Ghana), Mobius 
(Kenya), Laraki (Morocco), and Birkin Cars (South Africa). Companies like Kiira Motors 
in Uganda, Mobility for Africa in Zimbabwe, Ampersand in Rwanda, and BasiGo and 
Roam in Kenya (see Case Study 1 and Figure 9) aim to develop and manufacture electric 
vehicles tailored to the specific needs and conditions of the continent. 
Unlike all other vehicle segments, two-wheelers, or motorcycles (called boda bodas 
in much of East Africa, okadas in Nigeria, and taxi-motos in most English-speaking 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Figure 8. BasiGo bus in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: BasiGo (2023)
Case Study 1
BasiGo — pioneering electric public transportation in Nairobi, Kenya
Rapid urbanisation in Nairobi and other major Kenyan cities has led to an influx of vehicles 
on the road. The prominence of matatus and buses has significantly contributed to the 
escalating issues of traffic congestion and air pollution. Launched in Kenya, BasiGo’s 
mission centres on transforming public transportation by introducing electric buses, 
contributing to sustainable urban mobility, and reducing carbon emissions. BasiGo 
initiated operations by importing electric buses and setting up charging infrastructure 
in strategic locations along busy transit routes and points where buses typically stop for 
the night, ensuring buses could be conveniently charged overnight or during off-peak 
hours. Through a partnership with the Chinese EV manufacturer BYD, BasiGo introduced 
two 25-seat buses to kickstart a pilot project. The company adopted a business model 
that allows bus operators to pay for the buses and their batteries under a Pay-As-You-
Drive system. Under this system, operators have two options for adopting electric buses: 
purchasing the bus without the expensive battery and leasing the battery or leasing the 
entire bus including the battery with a small initial deposit. Both options include free 
access to BasiGo charging stations and maintenance services from BasiGo’s technicians. 
This approach treats the battery, a significant part of an EVs cost, as a service rather than 
a one-time purchase and thus lowers the entry barrier for operators accustomed to the 
high upfront costs of diesel buses. BasiGo prioritised training drivers and maintenance 
personnel and launched awareness campaigns to educate the public on the multiple 
benefits of transitioning to electric transportation. According to Samuel Kamunya, head 
of business development at BasiGo, who briefed the Working Group, BasiGo faced a set 
of challenges while pioneering electrification of Kenya’s public transportation. The most 
significant challenge was the initial investment needed to procure pilot electric buses, 
necessary parts, and to set up the essential charging infrastructure. Additionally, there 
was “range anxiety” among potential users and stakeholders, stemming from concerns 


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Figure 9. Local manufacturing of electric buses in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: ROAM (2024)
about the driving range, and availability and accessibility of charging stations. Moreover, 
the entrenched cultural and economic importance of the traditional “matatus” and buses 
in Kenya’s transportation landscape initially made it challenging to achieve immediate 
broad acceptance among transport operators. BasiGo has made a notable environmental 
impact by preventing the use of 178,307 tonnes of diesel, resulting in a substantial 
reduction of 426 tonnes of carbon emissions. Economically, operators have experienced 
tangible benefits, with a notable reduction in operational costs. The economic relief 
comes from the diminished need for regular maintenance and the complete elimination 
of fuel expenses inherent to traditional buses. Furthermore, the public’s reception of 
BasiGo’s initiative has been overwhelmingly positive. Commuters have expressed their 
appreciation for the buses, citing the quieter rides, absence of pollutants, and the overall 
enhanced comfort.
BasiGo plans to have 1,000 buses on Nairobi’s roads by 2025 and has secured more 
than 100 reservations from operators. Kenya produces over 70% of its electricity from 
renewable sources, making the transition to electric buses not only environmentally 
beneficial but also cost-effective for operators. BasiGo is exploring potential 
collaborations with renewable energy providers to ensure sustainable charging 
solutions. Despite ongoing challenges, BasiGo’s success stands as a promising 
example for other African countries considering the adoption of EVs in public 
transport. In recognition of this potential, in June 2023, BasiGo received a USD 1.5 
million grant from the US Agency for International Development (USAID) to pilot its 
pay-as-you-drive model in Kigali, Rwanda, further expanding its innovative approach 
to sustainable transportation (USAID, 2023). 
Figure 10. Two- and three-wheelers in Mombasa, Kenya
Photo credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
African countries) and three-wheelers (called tuktuks in much of East Africa) are largely 
purchased new in Africa (Kiruga, 2019) (Figure 10). The vehicle segments are easier to 
electrify and have gained more traction in Africa and other emerging markets because 
of their availability, affordability, and flexibility. For instance, two- and three-wheelers EV 
sales in East Africa are gaining traction. They are better for low-income countries and 
low-cost production since they are generally cheaper to electrify compared to buses 
and heavy-duty vehicles. They have smaller batteries which can be charged through a 
mini-grid, making them suitable for use in areas with low access to reliable electricity-
grid infrastructure. They can also benefit from a battery-swap model, in which a depleted 
battery is replaced with a fully charged battery from a designated “swap station”. Two- and 
three-wheelers can make the transition more financially feasible, especially for countries 
with limited resources (Mckinsey, 2022). For African EV manufacturers, focusing on two- 
and three-wheeled vehicles in the short term could make sense, and transition to four-
wheeled vehicles in richer areas would offer a sustainable pathway to decarbonisation of 
the transport sector (Cash, 2022).
2.3.2	 Auto Parts Manufacturing 
Auto parts manufacturing presents a viable opportunity for businesses in many countries 
interested in supplying to both domestic and international markets. The local production 
of auto parts could also generate export revenue and create new employment 
opportunities. The major parts of an electric vehicle include electric motor, DC-DC 
converter (electronic circuit or electromechanical devices that convert a source of direct 
current [DC] from one voltage level to another), power inverter traction battery pack, 
charge port controller, onboard charger auxiliary batteries, thermal system (cooling), and 
transmission, as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Key components of an electric vehicle.
Source: Sambo (2023)


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These parts are made from a combination of materials including steel, aluminium, 
magnesium, lead, nickel, lithium, petrochemicals (plastics), magnets, and copper. Africa 
is rich in these minerals, and there are also industries that trade or process these materials 
that could form both the supply and value chains for these materials for existing and 
future auto parts manufacturing.
2.3.3	 Battery Swapping Stations
Battery swapping involves replacing a depleted battery of an EV with a fully charged 
one. Instead of waiting for a battery to charge, battery-swapping stations allow users 
to simply replace the battery and go. This model, widely implemented in Asia, could 
solve problems related to long charging times and the limited availability of charging 
infrastructure in Africa. In China, one company, Nio, has established over 1,200 battery 
swapping stations, and plans to have 4,000 stations by 2025. Gogoro, a Taiwanese 
energy company, has implemented battery swapping in their operational model for 
urban electric two-wheel scooters and motorcycles, with more than 2000 swapping 
stations available in Taiwan. Ampersand, a Rwandan EV company, has implemented 
battery swapping in their paratransit system with single-passenger motorcycle taxis 
with some of its swapping stations strategically located near solar powered charging 
stations or gasoline stations, enhancing the visibility of the EV ecosystem (Figure 12). 
Meanwhile, Spiro, a Benin-based start-up, aims to deploy more than 1.2 million batteries 
for electric two-wheelers by establishing battery swapping stations (Lewis, 2023). The 
company has operations across Benin, Togo, Rwanda, and Kenya. 
Battery swapping provides an alternative to traditional charging methods and is especially 
suitable for regions such as Africa where fast-charging infrastructure might be too expensive 
or technically challenging. In addition to reducing “range anxiety,” (discussed in Chapter 
4) for potential EV owners, battery swapping could also result in battery standardisation 
(technologies and sizes to enhance the swapping process), simplifying the supply chain.
Hand-swappable batteries can be used for smaller vehicles, but pose significant 
challenges for larger vehicles. Large vehicles might require expensive and integrated 
robotic systems to swap out the battery of a larger EV. Sub-Saharan Africa has a unique 
model where the same vehicle (a minibus taxi, MBT) is used for both urban and long-
Figure 12. Ampersand’s electric vehicle battery swapping station in Kigali, Rwanda
Photo credit: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
distance applications, presenting challenges for electrification (Akpa et al., 2016). A 
solution to this challenge was proposed by Giliomee et al. (2023), who developed a 
hot-swappable trailer battery bank to eliminate the mechanical challenges of battery 
swapping and reduce the recharging time during long-distance travel. The group 
quantified the energy expenditure of an electric minibus taxi (eMBT) for long-distance 
travel, proposed an operational plan for routes in South Africa, evaluated the impact on 
the electrical grid, and suggested offsetting the strain with solar power installations to 
reduce net greenhouse gas emissions (Giliomee et al., 2023). 
A second study evaluates implemen-tation of battery-equipped trailers that can supply 
extra energy to the EVs and increase their range, while the depleted battery can be 
unhooked and replaced with a fully charged one — reducing recharging downtime in 
time-critical long-distance paratransit in SSA. The use of the battery bank trailer (see 
Figure 13) reduces the number of stops required and the total trip time, benefiting both 
the MBT operator and the environment. Using the battery bank trailer also protects the 
longevity of the internal battery, as the external battery is primarily used for energy and 
allows for easy upgrades.
Figure 13. Trailer-based battery swapping model for long-distance transport.
Photo credit: MJ Booysen, working group member
2.3.4	 Localised Battery Storage
Localised battery storage can be used to 
address EV charging needs, particularly in 
sunny regions like Africa where solar energy is 
abundant. These systems store excess energy 
during peak production times and release 
it as needed, ensuring a consistent charge 
rate and therefore balancing demand with 
renewable energy availability. Research has 
shown that a local storage of approximately 
half the vehicle’s battery size is sufficient to 
ameliorate the impact of each vehicle on the 
grid and to optimise utilisation of available 
renewable sources (Füßl et al., 2022). Figure 
14 shows an example of a battery storage 
solution. 
Figure 14: Example of a battery bank used to charge 
electric vehicles in Berlin. The battery bank charges slowly 
from the grid, but discharges quickly into the vehicles. 
Photo credit: JH Giliomee


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2.3.5	 Pay-As-You-Go Charging
The Pay-As-You-Go charging model is a model where users pay for charging on a per-use 
basis. This model can remove the barrier to EV adoption for those concerned about the 
costs of home charging equipment, as it offers a flexible payment structure for consumers. 
Moreover, it encourages entrepreneurs to establish more charging stations as there is a 
viable payment system. Making EVs accessible to a larger portion of the population will 
result in increased adoption rates and stimulate market competition by pushing other 
companies to offer better lease or rental deals. Pay-As-You-Go models that facilitate EV 
roaming can be particularly useful. Roaming allows drivers to charge anywhere with one 
single account instead of requiring charging at a specific brand of charger. 
Figure 15. Electric vehicle roaming
Source: EV Roaming Foundation
2.3.6	 Solar Charging Stations
Given the abundance of sunlight in most of Africa, combining solar energy with EV 
charging makes the electrification of transport more sustainable. Such stations could 
be set up in urban and rural areas, providing affordable and green energy (Figure 
16). Harnessing abundant solar energy will reduce dependency on non-renewable 
electricity sources, while the integration of clean energy with clean transport deepens the 
environmental impacts. In this instance, hybrid EVs with both solar-charging capabilities 
and traditional electric charging options, such as those illustrated in Figure 17, are more 
appropriate. This dual approach ensures vehicles can remain operational under various 
conditions, maximising their efficiency and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
2.3.7	 Vehicle-to-Grid
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology enables EVs to supply electricity back to the power 
grid, transforming them into mobile energy storage units. This system allows EVs to both 
draw electricity from the grid and supply it back, thereby stabilising and supporting the 
grid during peak times or energy shortages (see Figure 18). Denmark has demonstrated 
the viability of V2G systems through a collaboration between Nissan, the local energy 
company Enel, and EV owners. In this model, EV owners in Denmark can monetise the 
energy stored in their vehicle batteries by feeding it back into the grid at times of high 
demand, thus enhancing grid stability and facilitating the integration of renewable 
energy sources (Nissan Motor Corporation, 2016). This concept holds significant 
promise for Africa, where the abundant renewable energy resources could be leveraged 
Figure 16. Solar powered charging station for electric vehicles in Kigali, Rwanda
Source: Moses Ogutu, IAP staff
Figure 17. Electric vehicle with solar charging components.
Source: Sambo (2023)


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to create a sustainable and resilient energy system. With the appropriate infrastructure 
investments, Africa could harness its extensive renewable energy systems, such as solar 
and wind power, to support a continent-wide implementation of V2G technologies. This 
would not only aid in stabilising the energy grid but also in maximising the utilisation of 
renewable energy. 
2.3.8	 Battery Recycling
Once EV batteries are no longer fit for transport usage, they can still hold significant 
residual capacity. These batteries can be repurposed for stationary energy storage 
applications like grid support or domestic energy storage, creating a secondary revenue 
stream and enhancing sustainability. Notable examples include a partnership between 
the auto manufacturing company Nissan and the power management company Eaton. 
Eaton introduced a residential energy storage solution called xStorage, which uses 
Grid
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Figure 18: Illustration of the vehicle-to-grid concept
Source: adapted from Ravi & Aziz (2022)


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
repurposed batteries from Nissan Leaf vehicles to store excess energy. Homeowners 
can then use these during peak periods or power outages (Nissan Motor Corporation, 
2016). Similarly, in Gothenburg, Sweden, old bus batteries are used to store energy in 
apartment buildings (AB Volvo, 2019). These batteries capture and store solar energy 
generated from panels on the building, which can then be utilised during peak times. 
These examples highlight the potential of repurposed EV batteries in providing cost-
effective, sustainable energy storage solutions, aiding in grid stabilisation, and furthering 
the goals of a circular economy. The development of these recycling formats in Europe 
was encouraged through legislative policy instruments. In China and the European 
Union, manufacturers are required to pay for the cost of collecting and recycling electric 
vehicle components, and similar laws are being considered in the United States (Lim, 
2021). Similar models could be applied in African countries. 
2.3.9	 Conversion of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles to Electric
Innovators in several African countries have pioneered the transformation of ICE 
vehicles into EVs by replacing the ICE engine with EV components. For example, in 
South Africa, researchers at Stellenbosch University have made notable strides by 
successfully converting paratransit minibus taxis from gasoline to electric power (Lacock 
et al., 2023), as discussed in Case Study 2 in this section. The continent’s abundance of 
skilled mechanics and workshops, coupled with a vast supply of used cars, combined 
with ingenuity and resourcefulness that African innovators consistently demonstrate, 
lay the groundwork for a sustainable, scalable model of vehicle conversion. In turn, this 
approach expands the different paths of achieving scalable adoption of EVs in Africa as 
it encourages local innovators, engineers, and entrepreneurs to develop solutions and 
business models tailored to the unique needs and opportunities of the rapidly emerging 
African EV market, while contributing to the global knowledge pool of electric mobility. 
To illustrate further, even BasiGo (Case Study 1) discussed in Section 2.3.1 in this chapter, 
represents conversion of existing gasoline vehicles to EV powertrain. BasiGo works with 
the same traditional manufactures of ICE vehicles in Kenya. The only exception is that 
instead of using an ICE component, the vehicle is fitted with EV components.
The infrastructure required for this transformative manufacturing route is thus already in 
place since many conversions are being carried out in general mechanical workshops 
already equipped with some of the necessary, albeit basic tools and equipment. To 
achieve scalable production, only moderate expansions will be required. This might 
include, for example, the introduction of materials handling equipment like cranes 
and conveyors, which can help accommodate increased volume and complexity of 
operations.
In addition to creating a new economic paradigm, generating jobs, fostering technological 
innovation, and establishing new markets within the automotive industry, the conversion 
of ICE vehicles to EVs potentially positions the continent as a world leader in sustainable 
transport. This could, for example, result in foreign investment, partnerships, collaborative 
projects on electric mobility, and overall impact in shaping the future of transportation.


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Figure 19. The electric retrofitted minibus taxi (original model from 2009)
(a) Completed retrofitted taxi. (b) Retrofitted electric vehicle’s electronic dashboard
and controls (Drive (D), Neutral (N), Reverse (R) (Lacock, et al., 2023)
Case Study 2
Electrifying paratransit vehicles in Stellenbosch, South Africa
Despite South Africa’s ongoing electricity challenges, there is an interest among paratransit 
industry operators to transition to electric transportation. However, their willingness to 
immediately transition their fleet from ICE vehicles to electric alternatives is inhibited 
by concerns related to vehicle performance, safety, reliability, environmental impact, 
and operating costs (Hull, et al., 2023; Lacock et al., 2023). Up to 72% of commuters 
use paratransit in South Africa (Lacock, et al., 2023), therefore electrification of this sector 
would be a big step toward the decarbonisation of transport in the country.
 
Building on the study, innovators at Stellenbosch University in South Africa have embarked 
on a project to convert paratransit vehicles into EVs. The team successfully retrofitted 
(converted) a Toyota Hiace Ses’fikile, commonly used in the South Africa paratransit 
industry, from an ICE propulsion to electric propulsion. The process involved testing 
various elements such as weight, torque, and speed to verify the feasibility of retrofitting. 
Retrofitting vehicles allows older cars to stay in use while decreasing emissions, even 
Case Study continued on next page


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Figure 20. Vehicle with combustion-related components removed
(a) Front view of the stripped vehicle. (b) Empty engine compartment. (c) Bottom view of stripped vehicle before 
electric motor and prop-shaft installation. (d) Electric motor with prop shaft (protective cover not shown). (e) Radiator 
for the electric motor coolant (Lacock, et al., 2023)
though they need to comply with local and national roadworthiness standards (Lacock 
et al., 2023). The researchers computed the electric charging needs of these vehicles 
and proposed alternative charging and battery swapping models. This assessment 
involves analysing the energy efficiency of the taxis, which refers to the amount of energy 
consumed per unit of distance travelled. By examining the energy efficiency under 
various driving conditions, the researchers gained insights into the efficiency variations 
and estimated the achievable range for different battery sizes. They also analysed the 
total energy requirements of the taxis throughout a typical day of operations. 
While the adoption of this process for the paratransit industry would greatly impact the 
overall decarbonisation goals of South Africa, it is vital to also consider the impact of 
widescale EVs usage on the supply of electricity. The authors note that the electrification 
of “all minibus taxis in South Africa could add a load of 5% of what the grid can currently 
deliver” (Stellenbosch University, 2023). The issues of electric grid are further discussed in 
Chapter 3.  


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2.4	 Data-Driven Decision Making
Africa has one of the world’s fastest motorisation rates, and evidence-based policy 
planning and decision-making are critical. However, African countries lack rigorous 
collection of transport-related data and a coordinated system to disseminate data when 
available. For example, accurate data collection in analysing the energy demand of EVs in 
Africa can directly impact the successful decarbonisation of informal paratransit through 
electrification (Collett & Hirmer, 2021).
In the case of paratransit vehicles widely used in Africa, four main data capturing methods 
are used in Africa: passenger-based tracking, vehicle-based tracking, roadside-based 
counting, and household travel surveys, with the passenger-based tracking being the 
most used (Rix et al., 2022). Traditional methods for capturing transportation data, such 
as manually recording inflows and outflows of passengers or equipping passengers 
themselves to track the vehicles, have many drawbacks, including human error and 
limitations in tracking individual vehicles. Vehicle tracking technology, while more 
expensive to set up, provides more accurate and reliable data as it is not influenced by 
human behaviour. Analysis of the estimated power profile of electric vehicle charging 
conducted by Booysen et al. (2022) showed disparity between passenger-based tracking 
and vehicle-based tracking, with the vehicle-based tracking dataset providing a more 
precise representation of the vehicle’s energy requirements (see Figure 21). 
Accurate data collection is also needed to assess energy efficiency values for electric 
vehicles. (Abraham et al., 2023) compared the methodologies and simulation tools used 
in two studies on electric minibus taxis in South Africa that projected different energy 
efficiency values for these vehicles: 0.39kWh/km (Hull, et al., 2023) and 0.93kWh/km 
(Abraham et al., 2023). Hull et al., (2023) used high-frequency data, while (Abraham et 
Figure 21. Comparison of per-vehicle power profiles from passenger-based tracking
Source: Adapted from Booysen, et al. (2022)
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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
al., 2023) used low-frequency data. The low-frequency data require artificial up sampling 
to capture acceleration and deceleration patterns (further referred to as simulated data), 
while high-frequency data require more bandwidth and storage. Hull et al., (2023) limited 
their study to 62 trips in different driving conditions, while Abraham et al. tracked nine 
taxis over two years, providing a more complete representation of movement patterns. 
The researchers in the Abraham study also had a more complete representation of 
microscopic acceleration, deceleration patterns, and route details. The simulation tool 
used by Abraham et al. is designed for low-frequency data, while high-frequency data 
are needed to accurately simulate an EV model. Abraham et al.’s simulation tool uses 
a driver model and road network obtained from OpenStreetMap to predict the route 
a vehicle would have taken to up sample the low-frequency data. Differences in these 
virtualisations and the effect thereof on subsequent energy analysis were pointed out by 
(Giliomee et al., 2023). The two studies also used different EV models, which calculate 
the energy requirements of the vehicles. (Abraham et al., 2023) used a well-tested and 
peer-reviewed third-party EV model by Kurczveil et al., (2014) bundled with the SUMO 
software, while Hull et al. (2023) developed their own custom EV model, which has had 
significantly less testing and public exposure.
Given that there are no electric minibuses in Sub-Saharan Africa to validate any of the 
models and assumptions, it is crucial to choose realistic and representative parameters 
for accurate planning and thus implement simulation tools that are representative of 
actual mobility. Figure 22 shows the improvement in energy efficiency between the 
models after aligning input parameters for the simulation. 
After eliminating all the discrepancies between the two simulation tools for a given data 
input, a final efficiency estimation is obtained that ranges from 0.49 to 0.53 kWh/km, as 
shown in Table 3. 
Figure 22. Comparing energy efficiency models in paratransit vehicles
Source: Adapted from Abraham, et al. (2023) 
Energy consumption (kWh/km)
Abraham data
Abraham Sim
Abraham data
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Abraham Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Original)
Hull Sim
Configuration
Abraham data
Abraham Sim
Abraham data
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Abraham Sim
Hull data
(Down sampled)
Hull Sim
Hull data
(Original)
Hull Sim
(b) Final
1.4
(a) Original (replicated)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0


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36
Decarbonisation of transport is already taking place 
 
 
City and regional authorities in Africa should
across Africa. There are numerous ongoing
promote and scale up local decarbonisation
projects aimed at decarbonising transport in
efforts. City and urban authorities should
different cities and in the sub-regions of Africa.
actively share insights and best practices on
These projects, such as the growing adoption
local decarbonisation efforts within Africa to
of electric mobility solutions, bus rapid transit
accelerate their adoption continent-wide. This
(BRT) systems, and light rail transport (LRT).
includes creating platforms for knowledge
There is also an emphasis on non-motorised
exchange, setting up pilot projects, and
transport such as walking and cycling
establishing benchmarks for success. Regional
demonstrating local successes in
authorities should spearhead the
decarbonisation, with significant economic,
establishment of agencies to enhance
social, and environmental benefits.
governance and collaboration within Africa’s
transport sector.
Policy and regulatory instruments can facilitate
Governments in Africa should implement stricter
the decarbonisation of transport. African
policies and regulations that support emission
governments are employing a diverse
reduction during the transition to decarbonising the
range of policy instruments to accelerate the
transport sector. Stricter emission standards for
decarbonisation of transport at  continental
vehicles, as well as the introduction of policies
and local levels. These are categorised into
that discourage the importation of older, more
four main types: (1) market-based instruments
polluting cars, could significantly support
(such as taxes, subsidies, fees, quotas,
emission reduction goals. Policies banning
import duties, and penalties) (2) regulatory
or restricting old and high-emitting vehicles
instruments (licenses, limits, prohibitions
from metropolitan centres have been shown
laws); (3) direct provisions (governments
to reduce urban pollution and encourage the
directly providing goods or services to its
adoption of cleaner transportation alternatives
citizens); and (4) information provisions
while also improving air quality,  and
(dissemination of relevant, accurate, and
enhancing public health and the quality of life
timely information to the public).
in urban areas.
Decarbonisation of transport has the potential
Governments in Africa should implement stricter
to drive industrial growth and create green job
policies and regulations that support emission
opportunities across Africa. There is growing
reduction during the transition to decarbonising the
local assembly and manufacturing of EVs
transport sector. Stricter emission standards for
Continued on next page
Table 3: Simulation of electric vehicle energy consumption
Hull Data
Hull Data
Abraham Data
(Downsampled)
(Original)
Abraham
Hull
Abraham
Hull
Hull
Simulator
Simulator
Simulator
Simulator
Simulator
Replicated original 
results
0.88a
0.42
0.88
0.45
0.39
Final result
0.50
0.50
0.53
0.53
0.49
The deviation from the originally reported 0.93kWh/km is addressed earlier in the paper 
(Abraham et al., 2023).
 2.5            Findings   and   Recommendations


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
in Africa, as well as initiatives to convert
vehicles, as well as the introduction of policies
gasoline-powered vehicles, including popular
that discourage the importation of older, more
paratransit vehicles, to electric propulsion
polluting cars, could significantly support
in various African countries which provide
emission reduction goals. Policies banning
enormous opportunities for industrial growth
or restricting old and high-emitting vehicles
and innovation. Opportunities extend into
from metropolitan centres have been shown
EV auto parts and battery manufacturing,
to reduce urban pollution and encourage the
leveraging Africa’s critical mineral resources,
adoption of cleaner transportation alternatives
alongside innovative business models like
while also improving air quality,  and
pay-as-you-go charging and solar charging
enhancing public health and the quality of life
stations, taking advantage of the continent’s
in urban areas.
abundant sunlight.


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38
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CHAPTER THREE
SAFEGUARDING VULNERABLE ELECTRICITY GRIDS: 
ACCESSIBILITY, GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND 
DISTRIBUTION
Africa’s electricity grids are characterised by infrastructural flaws, inefficiencies, limited 
coverage, and lack of government oversight, preventing universal access to electricity 
and hampering the continent’s development. Transmission and distribution networks on 
the continent require major improvement and are likely to become the real bottleneck in 
Africa’s sustainable development. This chapter reviews the current state and challenges 
of electricity in Africa, and the potential impact of large-scale adoption of EVs. The 
discussion highlights the need for additional research to fully understand how the 
transition to EVs might affect Africa’s electrical grid and power distribution networks.
 
3.1	 Current State and Challenges of Electricity in Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa is the least electrified region, with around 567 million people 
representing about 43% of the total population without access to electricity in 2021, 
according to the 2023 energy progress report published jointly by a group of international 
agencies, including the World Bank and the International Energy Association (IEA, 
IRENA, UNSD, World Bank and WHO, 2023). According to the report, while Africa has 
made steady progress in electrification in the past decade, the number of people 
without access has generally remained stagnant between 2011 and 2021 due to rapid 
population growth (see Figure 23). 
 
Electric shortages are frequent in many countries. For instance, in Southern Africa, except 
for Angola and Botswana, widespread power cuts have been common in the past decade 
(Crisis24, 2023). South Africa, the continent’s most industrialised economy, with the largest 
grid and access to electrification, has experienced rolling blackouts, locally known as 
“load shedding”, of up to 10 hours a day. Load shedding occurs when electricity demand 
outstrips supply. To stabilise production and maintain voltage, authorities deliberately 
turn off parts of the grid in a rotating schedule to manage and equalize distribution of 
electricity (Crisis24, 2023). Short-term power outages elevate operational risks as they 
lead to increased instances of theft, violence, road accidents, and disruptions in transport 
and communication systems.
 
Nearly four out of five firms in Sub-Saharan Africa report regular and lengthy outages as 
significant impediment to business operations, according to the World Bank Enterprise 
surveys (Oseni, 2019). A high proportion of businesses in the region (53%) own or share 
a generator, the highest rate worldwide. Using backup power systems costs triple the 
price of regular electricity in places like Nigeria and Uganda (Oseni, 2019).
 


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Furthermore, certain communities — such as those in informal urban settlements or in rural 
areas — face greater challenges in obtaining reliable electricity. In 2021, approximately 8 out 
of 10 people lacking electricity resided in rural areas, most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa 
(IEA, IRENA, UNSD, World Bank and WHO, 2023). This hinders equal opportunities for 
economic development and improvement in quality of life among various societal sectors. 
The primary reason for lack of access is the high cost of electricity; even when services are 
available, they are often unaffordable (Barasa, 2021). Additionally, while there is significant 
focus on expanding the reach of the electric grid, there is less attention to making electricity 
more affordable (Barasa, 2021). Consider the cost of running a refrigerator for a year in 
African countries compared to industrialised countries such as the United Kingdom. One 
comparative study found that it costs 49% of average GDP per capita in Liberia and 13% 
in Rwanda to run a refrigerator compared to negligible cost of (less than 1%) in the United 
Kingdom (Hairsine, 2023). This disparity highlights the significant economic burden of 
basic appliance use in African countries compared to industrialised ones.
3.2	 State of the Electrical Grid and Potential Burden from 
Electric Vehicles
Adopting EVs will have significant impact on the electricity system in terms of generation, 
transmission, distribution, and accessibility (Table 4). While Africa has made progress in 
expanding its electric grid, the power utility infrastructure continues to underperform in 
many countries, subjecting the grid to fluctuations (Dioha, et al., 2022). The status of the 
power systems is a major consideration when assessing the impact of deploying EVs in 
African countries since electricity forms a central pillar of Africa’s energy infrastructure. 
The capacity, reliability and reach of these systems play a key role in determining how 
effectively EVs can be integrated and supported. 
Figure 23: Access to electricity in Africa as a share of population in 2020.
Source: World Bank (2020)


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40
Table 4: Projected electric vehicle power system impacts in African countries
Category
Impacts
African Countries context
Power 
Demand
Increased energy 
consumption leads to an 
altered daily load
curve, modified peak load 
in terms of magnitude, 
duration, and timing, as 
well as heightened load 
profile variability and 
uncertainty.
Location, weather, demographics, 
and driving patterns influence EV 
adoption, power consumption, and 
charging behaviour; electric two- and 
three-wheelers dominate; economic, 
regulatory, and geographical 
difficulties in establishing ‘public 
charging infrastructure’.
Generation
System 
Additional electricity 
generation is required, 
necessitating new capacity 
investments for security 
and adequacy, leading to 
increased power system 
emissions, high ramping 
needs from sharp power 
demand spikes, and a 
heightened demand for 
ancillary services.
Existing challenges with electricity 
access include security and reliability 
issues, high generation investment 
needs due to rapidly growing 
demand, carbon-intensive generation 
capacities that often rely on inefficient 
fossil fuel units, and poor market 
regulation coupled with difficulties in 
providing reserves.
Transmission
System
Risk of congestion and 
distortion of electricity 
prices; increased need 
for transmission capacity; 
increased need for reactive 
power.
Limited interconnectivity and cross-
border capacity; lacking regulations 
for appropriate transmission system 
to encourage investments; high 
investment needs to maintain 
adequate. 
Distribution
System
Overloading feeders and 
transformers, necessitating 
capacity upgrades; 
increased power losses; 
voltage deviations; power 
quality issues, such as 
harmonic distortion.
Weak, poorly designed distribution 
systems; high distribution system 
losses; high rate of transformer failures 
and maintenance need; insufficient 
management, standards, and 
regulations; low awareness of power 
quality issues; and high reinforcement 
needs due to growing demand.
Source: Adapted from (World Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 
2023)
Increased demand from EVs necessitates more robust and diverse generation facilities and 
power sources. Transmission networks will need to be upgraded to handle the increased 
load, especially during peak charging times, requiring more resilient infrastructure. The 
distribution system faces changes in load patterns, particularly in residential areas with 
home charging, demanding smarter and more responsive grid solutions. As EV adoption 
grows, these changes will require careful planning, investment, and innovation to ensure 
the electricity system remains reliable, efficient, and capable of meeting new demands.


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3.3	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity 
Distribution System
 
The impact on the distribution network is perhaps the most immediate and visible. 
Widespread use of EVs introduces new patterns of electricity consumption, especially 
where home charging solutions are prevalent. This shift can lead to significant changes 
in load profiles, with increased demand during evenings when people typically charge 
their vehicles at home (Dioha, et al., 2022). During the early stages of deployment of EVs, 
the impacts on power distribution was not prioritised by decision-makers (World Bank 
and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023). Utility providers assumed 
existing capacity was sufficient and the adoption would be gradual to allow network 
adaptation. Yet, as EV usage has grown, the potential effects on power distribution, such 
as transformer overloads, power losses, and voltage fluctuations, have become crucial 
issues (World Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023).
While EVs can handle intermittent supply due to their storage capacity, the additional load 
on grids, especially in countries with energy shortages, can worsen existing problems. In 
contexts like South Africa where blackouts are common, there’s growing concern about 
how to sustainably power EVs and the resulting strain on the already fragile electrical 
infrastructure given the substantial costs to the economy. The Reserve Bank of South 
Africa estimates that load shedding costs the economy approximately ZAR 899 million 
(USD 50 million) daily (Naidoo, 2023), suggesting that the economy subsidises excess 
electricity usage. With load shedding costing the economy ZAR 25/kWh (USD 1.25/kWh) 
and assuming EV efficiency is 5 km/kWh, the economic subsidy for electric mobility is 
approximately ZAR 6/km (USD 0.3/km) when charged directly from the grid, effectively 
(Booysen, et al., 2023). 
Moreover, as electric two-wheelers are introduced, they are expected to significantly 
impact local power distribution in rural areas. To effectively address these challenges, a 
comprehensive approach is needed that focuses on establishing robust infrastructure, 
installing suitable chargers tailored to local needs and gaining a thorough understanding 
of both charging behaviour and the levels of EV penetration.
 
3.4	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on the Electricity 
Transmission System
Alongside the need for increased generation capacity, the adoption of EVs necessitates 
substantial upgrades to the existing electricity transmission infrastructure. The adoption 
of electric vehicles naturally results in increased demand for electricity, especially during 
charging times, and this can strain the transmission systems. Therefore, it is imperative 
to evaluate and determine the spatial distance between areas with highest EV load 
(charging demand) and essential power units, particularly in large geographical regions 
relying on centralised power generation or transmission system. This assessment can 
help ensure efficient energy distribution and system stability.
Power transmission networks in the continent are usually unreliable and poorly 
developed, both in countries and in cross-country transmissions, leading to frequent 


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42
failures and high losses. Losses due to distribution and transmission cost USD 5 billion 
annually in sub-Saharan Africa (Adams, et al., 2020). Furthermore, the yearly investment 
required in Africa from 2015 to 2040 for expansion of transmission is between USD 3.2 
billion and USD 4.3 billion (AfDB, 2019). Other challenges include the risk of gradual 
oscillation or frequent control on the tie lines when power generation units stop working. 
In Nigeria, for instance, preventing deviation or strengthening frequency control is vital for 
efficient deregulation of the power market (Vanfretti, et al., 2009). Inadequate regulatory 
frameworks of market electricity trading, little involvement of private investment, or 
lack of policies of the transmission systems are some of the challenges that need to be 
considered when planning, operating, and expanding the transmission. The temporal 
and spatial availability of renewable energy sources like wind and solar can also impact 
power transmission systems and should be integrated into the accounting of EV demand 
or supply shocks when possible. In general, modernisation of transmission lines, coupled 
with the integration of advanced technologies such as smart grids, becomes imperative 
to ensure that these increased loads can be managed efficiently and reliably.
3.5	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity 
Generation 
The transition to EVs markedly elevates the demand for electricity, necessitating additional 
energy supply over and above the standard or customary distribution levels. By 2021, EVs 
used 55 million megawatt-hours of electricity, approximately 0.2% of the global energy 
consumption. It is estimated that by 2030, EVs will consume approximately 4% of total 
global energy and 10% by 2040, exerting more pressure on the national grids (World 
Bank and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, 2023). This heightened 
demand necessitates not only the expansion of existing power generation facilities, but 
also the development of new ones. The move towards EVs thus acts as a catalyst for the 
expansion of green energy sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, aligning with 
global efforts to decarbonise energy systems. Globally, countries that have embraced EVs, 
such as the United States, have developed strategies to bolster their energy production 
capacities, with a keen focus on sustainable sources such as renewables (US National 
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2021). The additional electricity 
needed to power electric vehicles can be harnessed from renewables (see Section 5.7). 
EVs with solar-charging capabilities such as solar roofs (discussed in Chapter 2) can even 
charge while on the road, further reducing demand for power.
 
3.6	 Impact of Adopting Electric Vehicles on Electricity 
Accessibility
The rise of EVs also brings into focus the issue of accessibility and affordability of charging 
infrastructure. For EVs to be a viable option for a broader population, there needs to 
be an adequate and easily accessible network of charging stations. This requirement 
is particularly crucial in densely populated urban areas and along major transportation 
corridors. Globally, China’s approach in creating a vast network of public charging stations 
exemplifies the efforts needed to support wide-scale EV adoption. In Africa, countries 


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Transport electrification in Africa will increase the    
Governments in Africa, industry, and 
demand for electricity, and the current fragility of
academia should establish research
the electric grid poses a critical concern for the
partnerships to investigate energy demands
viability and sustainability of electric mobility.
and expected impact of EVs on the grid. 
Adopting EVs will have significant impact on
These research collaborations can also assess
the electricity system in terms of generation,
the potential for charging EVs with renewable
transmission, distribution, and accessibility.
energy sources as well as on increasing local
Understanding the current state of power
contents on EVs. In doing so, policy decisions
systems in Africa is crucial in evaluating the
on EV adoption and charging infrastructure
impact of EV deployment across African
will be context-specific, evidence-informed,
countries, as electricity is a central pillar of
and based on actual data.
Africa’s energy infrastructure.
Prioritising electrification of transport for the
Governments in Africa should prioritise the
less costly, higher mileage, and extensively used
electrification of vehicle segments that provide
vehicle segments in Africa could streamline the
the most immediate and highest decarbonisation
adoption of EVs, maximising environmental
benefits. Decarbonisation efforts should focus
benefits and economic efficiency. Analysis
on electrifying two- and three-wheelers,
indicates that two- and three-wheelers, along
as well as passenger buses operating on
with passenger buses on high-use routes,
high-use routes, due to their lower costs,
are attractive candidates for the first stages
high mileage, and extensive use. These
of transport electrification efforts. Similarly,
segments present a significant opportunity
four-wheelers, taxis, ride-sharing vehicles, and
for immediate impact. However, in countries
other commercial fleets are identified as more
where it is feasible to decarbonise heavy-duty
suitable for early electrification compared to
vehicles and less intensively used cars, such
less intensively used private family cars.
efforts should be pursued concurrently.
like Rwanda (Case Study 3 in Chapter 4), Kenya (Case Study 1 in Chapter 2), and South 
Africa have been working on large scale charging infrastructures that can support large-
scale EV adoptions. Availability of large-scale public charging infrastructure can not only 
ensure the practicality of using EVs for daily commutes but also addresses range anxiety 
concerns, making EVs more attractive option for consumers.
Ensuring an affordable power supply is also essential for creating an accessible electric 
vehicle charging ecosystem. Some African countries have started to regulate their 
electricity prices for EV consumers. For instance, in March 2023, the Energy and Petroleum 
Regulatory Authority (EPRA) in Kenya approved a special e-mobility tariff effective for three 
years (Odhiambo, et al., 2023). The e-mobility tariff is set at USD 0.12 per kWh for energy 
consumption of up to 15,000 kWh during peak periods, and USD 0.06 per kWh of the 
same quantity during off-peak periods before taxes and other related charges are added 
to the total cost of consumption (Odhiambo, et al., 2023). The e-mobility tariff is lower than 
the general domestic tariff (USD 0.16 per kWh for consumption above 100 kWh) and the 
commercial tariff (USD 0.15 per kWh for the same quantity). The special electric mobility 
tariff is considered a step in the right direction towards incentivising power supply for EVs.
 3.7            Findings   and   Recommendations


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DECARBONISATION OF TRANSPORT IN THE CONTEXT 
OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION IN AFRICA
Every society requires a reliable means of transport to drive its socioeconomic development 
and growth. There is a correlation between the level and quality of transport infrastructure 
and productivity and economic growth. When transport options are reliable, productivity 
and economic growth improves (Zhang & Cheng, 2023). Among the multiplier effects 
that can result from an effective transport infrastructure are enhanced market access, 
increased employment opportunities, and new investments. When transport infrastructure 
is insufficient in terms of capacity or dependability, economic losses such as diminished 
or missed opportunities can lead to a decline in the quality of life (Rodrigue, 2020). 
Moreover, availability of other essential amenities such as food and water depend on 
good transportation services. For instance, good road networks between rural and urban 
areas ensure that foods from farms reach the market in time leading to decreases in post-
harvest food losses. Decarbonisation of transport in Africa can only be achieved within 
the broader context of establishing a sustainable transportation system, in line with the 
sustainable development of goals (SDGs).
 
4.1 Defining Sustainable Transportation 
In its 2016 report, the UN Secretary-General’s High-level Advisory Group on Sustainable 
Transport defined sustainable transport as the provision of services and infrastructure 
for the mobility of people and goods — advancing economic and social development to 
benefit today’s and future generations — in a manner that is safe, affordable, accessible, 
efficient, and resilient, while minimising carbon and other emissions and environmental 
impact (UNEP
, 2016). The High-Level Advisory Group’s report, titled Mobilising 
Sustainable Transport for Development, underscored the pivotal role of sustainable 
transport in achieving the SDGs and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change.
Sustainable transport is connected to various SDG targets, either directly as a core 
element, or indirectly as a secondary factor (see Figure 24). Sustainable road transport 
aims to address societal issues, economic efficiencies, and environmental protection. In 
addressing societal issues, sustainable transportation can increase the quality of life and 
of living standards and can ensure that transportation systems are accessible to people 
of all ages, abilities, and income levels. For economic efficiency, sustainable transport 
promotes mobility systems that are adaptable, cost-effective, efficient, and which provide 
value for money over their life cycle including construction, operation, and maintenance. 
It also involves investing in infrastructure that supports sustainable modes of transport. 
Finally, sustainable transport focuses on the interplay between the industry’s practices 
and the physical environment, such as the reduction of the transportation’s environmental 
CHAPTER FOUR


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
impact—particularly in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, and air and noise pollution. 
It also encourages the use of low-emission vehicles such as EVs and car-sharing and 
promotes alternative modes of transport like trains, cycling, and walking. 
 
4.2	 Decarbonisation of Transport and Sustainable 
Development Goals in Africa 
Decarbonisation of transport in Africa can significantly contribute to sustainable 
transport’s economic, environmental, and social goals, and aligns with both the core and 
secondary SDGs described in Figure 24. Because this report focuses on road transport, 
the following discussions will focus on how decarbonisation of transport can contribute 
to select SDGs related to road transport, with a particular focus on sustainable cities and 
communities (SDG 11). Sustainable urban transportation is crucial to the achievement 
of other SDGs such as health and well-being (SDG 3), especially for urban populations 
which have the most transport pollution and climate change (SDG13). Meanwhile, 
the transition to decarbonisation can contribute to the achievement of other goals, 
such as those focused on decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), through green 
jobs that emerge during the energy transition and new industries, such as the electric 
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Core SDGs
Secondary SDGs
Health & wellbeing
Industry & infrastructure
Sustainable cities
Energy systems
Work & economic growth
Consumption & production
3
7
8
12
Climate change
Water ecosystems
13
14
Land ecosystems
15
9
11
Sustainable
Transportation
Modes
Society
Economy
Environment
Safety
Health
Disturbance
Access
Opportunity
Material
and Energy
Growth
Employment
Pricing
Competitiveness
Climate
change
Air quality
Noise
Footprint
Waste
Operations
Infrastructures
Figure 24: Linking transport to sustainable development goals.
Source: Adapted from Rodrigue (2020)


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46
vehicle manufacturing and related innovations, arise. Table 5 provides an overview of 
how decarbonisation of transport contributes to the realisation of select economic, 
environmental, and social development in Africa.
Table 5: Contribution of decarbonised transport towards select sustainable 
development goals
SDG 
Indicator
Goal
Social
Impact
•  Good Health and Well-Being (SDG 3): Decarbonised transport reduces
    air pollution, leading to lower incidences of respiratory and
    cardiovascular diseases. For example, replacing diesel buses with
    electric ones in congested cities like Lagos, Nairobi, or Cairo could
    significantly reduce air pollution, positively impacting public health.
  
•  Gender Equality (SDG 5): Safe, accessible transport systems can
    empower women by improving access to education and employment
    opportunities, including through just transition policies. 
  
•  Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG 11): Decarbonised transport
    systems, such as efficient public transit and pedestrian friendly urban
    design, enhance the quality of urban life, making cities more liveable
    and inclusive. 
Economic 
Impact
•  Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8): Transitioning to a low
    carbon transport sector can create new jobs in renewable energy,
    electric vehicle production, and infrastructure development. 
  
•  Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure (SDG 9): Decarbonisation of
    transport can drive innovation in green technology and infrastructure
    development. 
Environmental
Impact
•  Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7): Decarbonisation of transport
    involves a shift to electric vehicles powered by renewable energy
    sources, promoting the use of sustainable energy. For example, 86.98%
    of electricity is generated from renewable sources in Kenya (KenInvest,
    2023), with the majority coming from geothermal and hydroelectricity.
    This means that EVs in the country will rely on purely sustainable
    electricity. 
  
•  Climate Action (SDG 13): By reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
    decarbonisation of transport directly contributes to climate change
    mitigation. 
  
• Life Below Water (SDG 14) and Life on Land (SDG 15): Reduced
    emissions and cleaner air from decarbonised transport indirectly benefit
    marine and terrestrial ecosystems by decreasing overall pollution and
    mitigating the impacts of climate change. Though not directly related to
    transport, the Great Green Wall initiative, which focuses on the Sahel
    region, demonstrates a broad commitment to environmental
    sustainability, which decarbonised transport can complement.


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
4.3	 Sustainable Urban Transport Development
Africa is expected to experience rapid urbanisation in the coming decades, with more 
people moving from rural to urban areas (United Nations, 2017). Rapid urbanisation in 
the continent is driven largely by a host of factors, including natural population growth, 
rural-urban migration, the demographic and spatial expansion of urban settlements, 
reclassification of rural areas to urban areas, and crisis events like conflicts and disasters 
(Teye, 2018). With rapid and often unplanned urbanisation, city authorities are confronted 
with the challenges of unregulated and spiralling low-density settlements (urban 
sprawl), overcrowded inner-cities, and slums and rapid motorisation. Urban sprawl can 
complicate the planning of sustainable urban transportation. Urban sprawl occurs when 
urban populations move from higher density towns and cities to lower density and less 
developed but growing residential areas in the outskirts of a town. One major impact of 
urban sprawl is increased reliance on road vehicles, longer commute times, and longer 
daily travel distance, since the sprawled settlements are not always connected to public 
transit systems (Mwaura & Kost, 2017). A car-dependent culture results in high energy 
consumption, more emissions, and smog, and can also have health-related impacts. 
Urban sprawl can also result in development of dense and irregular settlements, such as 
slums, which make planning for public services such as transportation and other social 
services difficult (Saghir & Santoro, 2018). Studies have revealed that in cities across 
Africa, jobs are often not reachable within an hour using public transport (ITDP
, 2019; 
Brookings, 2023). This highlights a significant disconnect between urban development 
and transportation efficiency on the continent. It also suggests that despite Africa 
experiencing the world’s fastest rate of urbanisation, its cities are failing to fully harness 
the economic benefits typically associated with urban growth.
Policymakers can project future transportation needs of the cities and implement 
medium and long-term plans that incorporate decarbonisation transportation policies. 
This can involve identification of strategic hotspots where most people live, and those 
that are likely to experience future urban and transportation pressure and invest in mass 
transit systems to limit the number of personal cars (including EVs) and pressure on the 
roads. Potential approaches to achieving sustainable urban planning include: 
•	
promoting compact and mixed-use development including through the development 
of smart cities;
•	
implementing low-carbon transportation services;
•	
promoting sustainable road transport policies;
•	
ensuring road user preparedness; 
•	
integrating transport sector decision-making agencies. 
4.4	 Smart Cities and Intelligent Transport Systems
Smart cities have emerged as an efficient approach to sustainable urban development. 
Smart cities leverage technology to enhance efficiency, sustainability, and quality of life 
in the urban environment. This includes the deployment of intelligent transport systems 
(ITS) (Platzer, 2021) that encompass services like e-hailing, bike sharing, car sharing, and 


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advanced traffic management technologies. As illustrated in Figure 25, the smart city 
transportation model operates on a foundation of smart infrastructure, which includes 
connected and sustainable multi-modal transport options, such as buses, bikes, and 
trains, all working in tandem with automated systems like toll and fare collection. Data 
integration is key in this system, drawing from diverse sources like emergency services, 
weather forecasts and traffic updates to optimise the flow and safety of transport. Smart 
services are delivered through a central command centre which oversees a variety of 
systems, from smart parking and automatic vehicle locating to driver monitoring and 
vehicle health monitoring systems. These integrated services work together to minimise 
travel times, enhance route management, and improve overall traffic management. With 
real-time data and analytics, the system can promptly respond to incidents, adjust traffic 
signals to reduce wait times, and provide timely updates to commuters, contributing to a 
more resilient and adaptable urban transportation network.
 
Figure 25: Integrated intelligent transport system in smart cities
Many African countries are actively engaged in developing smart cities, a trend that 
signifies the continent’s push towards technological innovation and sustainable 
urbanisation. Kenya’s Konza Technopolis, approximately 60 kilometres south of Nairobi, 
is a comprehensive smart city project designed to spur technological innovation and 
boost the information technology (IT) sector. This ambitious project includes world-class 
infrastructure, a business district, a research-oriented university campus, and residential 
areas. In Rwanda, the Kigali Smart City Project is transforming the capital with smart 
infrastructure solutions like intelligent traffic lights to alleviate congestion and a city-wide 
Wi-Fi network to enhance connectivity. In Nigeria, Lagos is pioneering the Eko Atlantic 
Project, a city built on reclaimed land from the Atlantic Ocean. Eko Atlantic stands out for 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
its self-sufficiency and sustainability, featuring energy-efficient buildings, an independent 
clean energy supply, advanced urban water management, and integrated smart city 
technologies aimed at improving residents’ quality of life. Mauritius is another noteworthy 
example, with its series of smart city projects like Ebène CyberCity, Mon Trésor Smart 
City, Moka Smart City, Côte d’Or Smart City, and Cap Tamarin Smart City. These projects 
are at the heart of Mauritius’s strategy to modernise infrastructure and improve living 
standards, emphasising eco-friendly practices and sustainable community development. 
These initiatives demonstrate Africa’s strong commitment to leveraging technology and 
sustainability in its urban development strategies, and directly addressing the challenges 
and opportunities presented by the continent’s rapidly urbanising landscape.
4.5	 Compact Land Use and Transit-Oriented Development 
Compact and mixed-use development is an urban planning strategy that blends 
residential, commercial, and institutional land uses, promoting proximity of different 
amenities. Compact and mixed-use development are a fundamental component of 
transit-oriented development (TOD) which focuses on creating vibrant, sustainable 
communities centred around public transport infrastructure. The communities are 
designed to encourage walking, cycling and the use of public transit, while minimising 
reliance on private vehicles (ITDP
, 2017). TOD also promotes providing a range of 
affordable housing options to accommodate diverse income levels and support inclusive 
communities, establishment of transit-supportive policies, quality public spaces, and 
cycling and pedestrian-oriented infrastructure (ITDP
, 2017). By designing pedestrian 
and cyclist-friendly streetscapes and encouraging mixed-use zoning, this approach can 
foster active transport while also enhancing the walkability and accessibility of cities. This 
approach also has the potential to facilitate social equity benefits, such as affordable 
housing and improved access to services for low-income communities, which, in turn, 
can decrease transportation costs and enhance economic opportunities. The application 
of ITS in compact and mixed-use developments enhances their effectiveness. For 
instance, real-time traffic updates and data analytics provided by ITS can assist in 
optimising routing and scheduling, improving the overall transportation experience for 
both commuters and operators. City officials, armed with this data, can make informed 
decisions that further the quality of life for residents, as is the case of Kigali, Rwanda (Case 
Study 3 on this Chapter).
 
4.6	 Mass Rapid Transit 
Urban transportation systems that rely mostly on private vehicles or low-capacity transport 
vehicles such as paratransit systems, whether electric or not, will inevitably encounter 
or continue to experience challenges around congestion and parking. The solution to 
reducing the allure of private vehicle use lies in the availability of quality public transport 
systems that bypass traffic jams and road congestion (ITDP
, 2023). An example of this 
mass rapid transit (MRT) or rapid transit is a type of high-capacity public transportation 
typically developed and used in urban settings. MRT systems including metros, light rail 
train (LRT), and bus rapid transit (BRT) have emerged as vital solutions to urban transport 


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Figure 26: Car free day exercise in Kigali, Rwanda
Image Source: Ashimwe (2022) 
Time
PM2.5 [µg/m3]
0:00
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8:00
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Hourly mean variation of PM2.5 from 2017 to 2020 in Kigali
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Figure 27: Impact of limiting vehicular traffic on air pollution in Kigali, Rwanda
Source: Kalisa, et al. (2021)
Case Study 3:
Implementing net zero transport in Kigali, Rwanda
In 2016, Rwanda established the Kigali Car Free Day as part of efforts to make Kigali a 
more environmentally sustainable city. During the car free day, motorists are encouraged 
to ditch their vehicles and motorbikes and a road of approximately 10 km is for motorised 
transport. The car free day encourages the use of non-motorised transport such as 
cycling and walking. In addition to reducing traffic congestion and air pollution, it has 
helped cement a culture of walking and cycling among the population. Car-free days are 
found to reduce fine particulate matter (PM2.5) such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke in the 
air by approximately 15%, leading to a 3.7% reduction in total PM2.5 pollutions in the city 
annually (Figure 27) (Kalisa & Sudmant, 2022).
Other initiatives implemented by the government include deployment of electric 
vehicles and motorcycles, establishment of charging infrastructure. The government 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
challenges. MRTs offer the potential for high-capacity, reliable, and efficient public 
transportation, and contribute significantly to reducing urban congestion, pollution, and 
greenhouse gas emissions. The adoption of MRT systems can contribute to the goals of 
decarbonised transport, if they are electrified, as well as to the modernisation of urban 
transportation in Africa.
Several African cities have recognised the benefits of MRT systems and have begun 
to implement them. These include the Algiers Metro (Algeria), Addis Ababa Light 
Rail (Ethiopia) (Case Study 4), Cairo Metro (Egypt), Lagos Rail Mass Transit (Nigeria), 
Casablanca Tramway (Morocco), and the Gautrain (South Africa).
also launched the Rwandan Green Fund (FONERWA), which supports projects focused 
on climate change mitigation, adaptation, and sustainable development. Rwanda has 
also made significant positive changes in reforming its public transport system aiming 
to improve accessibility, efficiency, and sustainability such as implementation of smart 
payment systems.
Rwanda has also established car-free zones, to restrict the use of cars in certain regions 
of the city of Kigali. The purpose of these car free zones is to reduce vehicle traffic and 
promote pedestrian-friendly transportation in urban centres. Within cities, car-free zones 
contribute to reductions in both GHG emissions and air pollution. Since they encourage 
physical activity and a healthier lifestyle by providing safe and accessible spaces for 
people to walk, jog, cycle, or participate in recreational activities, they contribute to health 
and wellbeing. Furthermore, due to reduced parking facilities, they encourage use of 
public transportation systems, such as buses.
The city of Kigali has also established dedicated bike lanes, providing safe and convenient 
routes for cyclists. There are also bicycle taxis and bike rental programmes which charge 
as low as one dollar per ride. Moreover, Rwanda aims to increase the share of hybrid cars 
in its vehicle fleet, particularly in the public transport sector. There were approximately 
1,500 hybrid cars and about 5,000 electric motorbikes, respectively, in Rwanda as of 
September 2021. Affordable electric motorbikes are being introduced into the market 
through government and private initiatives. There were about 80 public and private 
charging stations as of September 2021 located in urban centres, commercial areas, 
and along major transportation routes. Solar-powered charging stations are also being 
explored to leverage renewable energy resources.
Rwanda has developed various incentives to promote e-mobility. These include tax 
incentives and import duty exemptions, subsidies, and financial support for purchase of 
EVs, charging infrastructure, reduced registration fees, and lower road taxes for hybrid 
and EVs. There are also incentives for the conversion of traditional motorcycles to electric 
motorcycles. Other measures include stricter emission standards for vehicles, integration 
of electric mobility considerations in urban planning and transportation policies, and 
development of guidelines and standards for the installation of charging stations and 
infrastructure. In 2020, Rwanda committed to invest 900 million USD and 190 million in 
electric vehicles and vehicle emissions standards, respectively.
Rwanda’s car free-day has become a reference point for healthy lifestyles and 
decarbonisation initiatives, as other African countries such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, 
and Zimbabwe are introducing their own car-free days (United Nations, 2020).  


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Figure 28: Light rail system in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Source: Assefa, et al. (2016) 
Case Study 4:
Light rail train in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
In Addis Ababa, transportation is responsible for 47% of CO2 emissions. Operational 
since 2015, the Addis Ababa light rail is Africa’s first light rail train (LRT) system. It stretches 
over 34 kilometres and has significantly improved urban mobility  in Ethiopia’s capital by 
offering an affordable and faster alternative to buses and paratransit transport (Figure 
28). Currently, the LRT service is transporting approximately 120,000 passengers daily, 
using 17 trains on both routes (Woldeamanuel, et al., 2022), though it has a capacity 
to transport up to 60,000 individuals per hour (C40 Cities, 2016). The train operates 
on Ethiopia’s predominantly renewable energy-powered grid, utilising hydropower, 
geothermal, and wind resources. 
Impacts: The project was expected to lower emissions by 55,000 tonnes of CO2 
annually in 2015 when it began operations to 170,000 tonnes of CO2 by 2030 (C40 
Cities, 2016).  Moreover, since LRT systems are less land-intensive than conventional 
roads, the project will decrease the burden of transport on urban ecosystems. 
Socially, the train significantly reduced commuting time to work because of its higher 
than average speed of 10 km/hour, while the LRT has 22 km/hour. Economic and 
social benefits such as jobs and improved health have also come from the project.  
Several cities have also adopted bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, recognising them as 
cost-effective solutions that can improve urban mobility and address congestion. BRT 
systems are characterised by dedicated bus lanes, modern stations, and priority at traffic 
signals, and offer many of the advantages of a tram or light rail system but at a fraction of 
the cost and with greater flexibility. BRT systems have become a popular option for cities 
looking to upgrade their public transport networks without the extensive infrastructure 
and investment required for rail. Examples of BRT systems in Africa include:


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a.	 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania — DART (Dar Rapid Transit): The DART system is the first 
BRT system in east Africa. It extends over 20.9 kilometres and transports 172,000 
passengers daily, providing quicker travel via high-capacity buses. Since it began 
operations in 2016, the DART has transformed Dar es Salaam city’s public transport 
system and is often touted as a model for other African countries on how to develop 
and operate BRT systems in cities with unregulated paratransit systems (ITDP
, 2017). 
In 2018, the city of Dar es Salaam became the first African city to win the Sustainable 
Transport Award due to its BRT system and other transformative improvements to 
transit, cycling, and walking (Sustainable Transport Award, 2018).
 
Figure 29: Dar rapid transit system, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2019)
b.	 Lagos, Nigeria — Lagos BRT: Launched in 2008, Lagos busway was the first BRT-
like system to be built in Africa and has continued to expand. It was designed to 
create a more efficient and organised public transportation system in Lagos. The 
system has been successful in reducing commute times, improving the reliability 
of bus services, and serving as a more affordable transport option for millions of 
Lagos residents.
c.	 Johannesburg, South Africa — Rea Vaya: This BRT system serves the Johannesburg 
metropolitan area, offering a fast, safe, and affordable public transportation option. 
Rea Vaya is known for its efficiency and safety and has significantly improved public 
transport in Johannesburg, reducing reliance on private vehicles.
d.	 Cairo, Egypt: While traditionally known for its extensive metro system, Cairo is also 
in the process of developing a BRT system to complement its existing transportation 
network. Once operational, it’s expected to significantly improve urban mobility in 
Cairo, reducing traffic congestion and providing a quicker and more reliable mode 
of transport.


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e.	 Accra, Ghana – Aayalolo: Accra’s busway, known as Aayalolo, aims to provide a 
more organised and efficient bus service to reduce travel times and improve public 
transport. Although not a BRT, it offers designated BRT-like lanes for buses and 
aims to make public transport more attractive and efficient, thereby improving daily 
commutes.
f.	 Nairobi, Kenya: Nairobi’s planned BRT system is part of an urban renewal initiative 
to address the city’s notorious traffic congestion and improve public transport. 
Once implemented, it’s expected to provide a faster, reliable, and more efficient 
transportation option for Nairobi’s growing population.
Globally, while BRT systems have been adopted widely, the majority are powered by 
traditional fossil fuels. In Africa the scenario is similar, with electric-powered BRT systems 
being a relatively new concept. Only one African country, Senegal, (see Case Study 5), 
currently has an electric BRT system. However, there is growing interest and incremental 
adoption of electric buses in public transport fleets. Considering the potential benefits 
of EVs and the evolving landscape of transportation technology, African cities have 
compelling reasons to consider adopting electric-powered BRT systems; including their 
high passenger transport capacity and ability to address the environmental and health 
concerns associated with increasing urbanisation. 
When it comes to urban development, MRT systems play a pivotal role in fostering 
compact, sustainable urban environments. They reduce the demand for expansive road 
networks and parking spaces, paving the way for increased green spaces and mitigating 
urban sprawl. For instance, well-developed and efficient MRT and BRT systems can 
encourage people to shift from private cars to public transport. This modal shift is essential 
for reducing traffic congestion, lowering emissions, and promoting more sustainable 
urban mobility. In addition to providing efficient and affordable transportation, BRT 
systems often spur economic development along their routes, encouraging investment 
and improving access to jobs and services.
While challenges such as finance remain, the continued development and expansion of 
MRT systems across the continent will be crucial for sustainable urban development and 
the overall well-being of African cities. For better function and maximised usage, these 
new and existing MRT projects, especially railways, can be integrated into comprehensive 
intermodal transport systems in three ways.
First, establishing seamless connections between rail and other modes of transport 
is crucial. This means strategically locating railway stations to ensure they are easily 
accessible from major urban centres and are well-connected to local public transport 
networks, such as bus and minibus services. Planning for last-mile connectivity, through 
options like shared taxis, biking facilities or walkable pathways, is also vital to ensure the 
smooth transition of passengers and cargo from trains to their final destinations.
Second, and especially for passenger transport, synchronisation of schedules and 
ticketing systems across different modes of transportation can greatly enhance the user 
experience and efficiency and encourage usage. Implementing integrated ticketing 
systems that cover trains, buses, and other local transport options can simplify travel for 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Case Study 5:
Electric mass rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal
The capital city of Senegal, Dakar is one of the fastest growing cities in the world that is 
expected to have a projected population of 6.5 million by 2025. This makes it imperative 
for the city to modernise its transportation infrastructure to match its expanding needs 
and dynamic urban environment. Consequently, Dakar’s transportation landscape has 
been revolutionised with the introduction of the Dakar Regional Express Train (TER) and 
bus rapid transit (BRT), which are expected to significantly enhance urban mobility and 
promote sustainable transit. Both systems are central to Senegal’s strategy for an efficient, 
eco-friendly, and integrated urban transport network.
Bus Rapid Transit: Launched in December 2023, the Dakar BRT system (Figure 30), is the 
first all-electric BRT in Africa and signifies a major leap in enhancing clean transportation 
in African cities. The project is expected to provide a host of socioeconomic benefits, 
including improved travel and emissions reductions. Through its dedicated bus-only 
lanes (Figure 31), fixed routes and stops, predictable timetables, and a safe ride for 
up to 320,000 people daily commuters. It aims to enhance access to jobs, health, and 
education services, particularly for women and other low-income residents, with 59% of 
job opportunities in Dakar being reachable in an hour or less. The BRT also contributes to 
improved air quality and to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and align 
well with climate change mitigation efforts. 
With Dakar’s air pollutants at levels seven times higher than advisable (Dewast, 2019), 
largely due to vehicle emissions, the new BRT system aims to ameliorate air quality. 
Encouraging the switch from private cars to public transit, it is projected to significantly 
cut air pollution and greenhouse gases, with the World Bank anticipating a decrease 
of 1.2 million tonnes in GHG emissions over three decades, equivalent to removing 
260,000 cars from the roads (World Bank, 2023). The implementation of the BRT also 
comes with the introduction of the city’s first dedicated bike lanes alongside the BRT 
route, complemented by substantial eco-conscious landscape improvements such as 
trees and various plants.
Figure 30: Electric-powered bus rapid transit in Dakar, Senegal
Source: Chen, et al. (2023)


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The BRT includes performance indicators to ensure best-in-class quality of service, 
punctuality, safe operations, GPS-connected vehicles, modern payment system for users 
through contactless smart cards, improved security with video surveillance, appropriate 
signposting, and lighting systems, as well as pedestrian safety (World Bank, 2023).
Figure 31: Dedicated bus rapid transit lane in Dakar, Senegal
Source: Chen, et al. (2023) 
Since Dakar’s transport challenges are similar to other African cities’, the project serves as a 
blueprint for the introduction of electric-powered BRT systems in Africa as the experience 
and lessons learned can be shared and replicated in other urban areas. According to 
the World Bank, it demonstrates the impact of collaborative financing, involving multiple 
development partners and the private sector. The project was backed by multiple entities, 
including the World Bank, the European Investment Bank, IFC, MIGA, the government, 
and the private sector. Electrification of the BRT’s buses was made possible with USD 144 
million in private sector financing, delivered through a public-private partnership (PPP) 
implemented with the support of IFC. This exemplifies how substantial the infrastructure 
funding gap is in developing countries and illustrates the successful mobilisation of 
private capital for urban transport development.
Dakar Regional Express Train (TER): Launched in 2021, the TER is a flagship project 
under the Emerging Senegal Plan (Government of Senegal, 2023), aiming to provide 
fast, secure, reliable, and affordable transportation. The railway boasts a 36-km line 
with 13 stations, employing latest rail technologies, including the European Rail Traffic 
Management System for high-capacity operations, carrying 115,000 passengers daily at 
speeds up to 150 km/h. It significantly reduces pollution by 32%, enhancing urban health 
and mobility. The TER not only boosts economic productivity and quality of life but is also 
set to expand, further integrating into Dakar’s transportation network (AfDB, 2022).
Both the BRT and TER are critical components of Senegal’s vision for an efficient, 
sustainable, and accessible urban transportation system. They represent a significant 
investment in public infrastructure, aiming to enhance the daily lives of residents, reduce 
environmental impacts, and set a precedent for future transportation projects in Africa 
and other developing regions.  
 


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passengers, making it more appealing to use public transport. Moreover, incorporating 
digital technology and data analytics into transport planning can significantly improve 
the efficiency and attractiveness of the rail network. Utilising real-time data for managing 
schedules, predicting maintenance needs, and optimising routes can enhance the 
reliability and performance of railway systems.
Finally, effective communication and collaboration among various stakeholders — 
including government entities, private sector partners, and local communities — are 
essential for the success of these projects. This collaborative approach ensures that the 
railway developments are aligned with broader urban and regional planning goals and 
that they meet the actual needs of the populations they serve.
4.7	 Integrated Urban Planning and Policy Making 
The optimal approach to incorporating climate-friendly transport options into urban 
areas is in their planning phase. This entails implementing measures to guarantee the 
harmonisation of all sectorial plans and the integration of climate-friendly transport and 
land use considerations throughout all stages (Kumar, et al., 2016). In many cities, the 
responsibility for land use or spatial planning and transport planning rests with different 
public-sector agencies. For instance, in Ghana, national agencies like the Land-Use 
and Spatial Planning Authority and the National Development Planning Commission 
are tasked with planning and developing settlements. However, many other entities 
such as the Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Railway Development, the 
Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Local Government, Decentralisation and 
Rural Development and including the Ghana Highway Authority, the Department 
of Urban Roads, Department of Feeder Roads, the Department of Transport entities 
have responsibility for transport issues. While the National Development Planning 
Commission (NDPC) is geared towards establishing a unified framework for planning, 
other national and regional institutions continue to develop and carry out their own 
plans, programmes, and projects with minimal consultation with NDPC. To address 
institutional fragmentation and discourse, planning activities need to be streamlined for 
more effective and coordinated delivery. Transforming the transport system is possible 
through strengthening local governments’ capacities to develop and implement 
efficient urban development plans and incorporating them into the national financial and 
regulatory framework (UN-Habitat, 2009). Governments can promote transit-oriented 
development which incorporates compact and mixed-use development, cycling and 
walking designs, well-connected street networks, and affordable housing options, 
thus, fostering connectivity, inclusivity, and sustainability. Low-carbon transportation 
policies such as low-emission zones, congestion charges, and parking policies that 
discourage car use can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport 
sector. Planners and urban designers can work with policymakers to implement these 
policies by conducting research to identify the most effective strategies, engaging 
with stakeholders to build support for the policies, and monitoring and evaluating the 
effectiveness of policies.


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4.8	 Rural-Urban Connectivity 
Rural-urban connectivity refers to the capacity for connecting areas (cities, towns, and 
villages) and people, by physical and non-physical means, through transport and 
communication (Avery, 2017). It measures the distance and ease with which people, 
goods and services move between and within rural and urban nodes (locations). Rural-
urban connectivity is also highly correlated with economic development (affluence) and 
is an important indicator of transport development in Africa. High rural-urban connectivity 
is generally associated with low market integration and productivity and is an indicator 
of the depth of income disparities between rural and urban households and localities.
Africa’s rural-urban connectivity landscape varies from one country to another depending 
on the level of socio-economic development, population, rate of urbanisation, and 
geographical and climatic conditions among others. Intergovernmental Panel on 
Climate Change (IPCC) that 45% of the global population lives in rural areas and 90% 
of these reside in developing countries (IPCC, 2014). This number is higher in Africa at 
approximately 52%, with Burundi having one of the highest proportions of people living 
in rural areas estimated at about 86% and Gabon the lowest at less than 10%. 
Despite the important role that rural-urban connectivity plays in igniting the growth and 
prosperity of rural economies, most countries prioritise investment on urban transport 
networks and infrastructure at the expense of rural regions. For instance, just a third (34%) 
of the rural population in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has access to road networks, compared 
to 90% in East Asia and the Pacific countries (Workman & McPherson, 2020). Besides, the 
average length of a road connecting two geographical locations or cities, as measured by 
the circuitousness ratio, an indicator of how curvy a road connecting two cities or locations 
is also high in Africa compared to the rest of the developing world (Prieto-Curiel, et al., 
2023). This is because of Africa’s complex physical terrain. Connecting rural and urban 
locations often involves meandering road networks to avoid landscapes such as mountains, 
rivers, and wetlands. This not only increases the economic and environmental cost of 
constructing and maintaining requisite transport infrastructure networks and systems to 
ease rural-urban connectivity, but also increases travel time and subsequently carbon 
emissions from motorised road transport. In general, the quality of road infrastructure is 
relatively poor in Africa compared to other developing regions such as Asia and Latin 
America. The road quality index, developed by the World Economic Forum and used in 
computing global competitive index rates, estimates Africa’s road quality at 3.43 points in 
a 7-point scale, compared to 4.39 in Asia, and 4.95 in OECD countries. The road quality 
index in Egypt, Rwanda, Mauritius, Morocco, and South Africa ranges from 4.7 to 5.1 while 
in Chad, Mauritania, Madagascar, DRC, Angola, and Mozambique, it ranges from 1.9 to 
2.4 points. Improving rural-urban connectivity could help narrow down disparities and 
promote equitable growth between rural and urban regions.
The poor-quality road infrastructure in rural areas is in part responsible for the large 
increase in motorcycles in Africa in the last decades. In 2022, the number of registered 
motorcycles in Sub-Saharan Africa was estimated at 27 million, compared to 5 million in 
2010 (FIA Foundation, 2022). The number of registered motorcycles in Africa is expected 
to increase at an average annual rate of 9.54% between 2022 and 2030 (FIA Foundation, 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
2022). In rural areas, motorcycle taxis provide over 70% of passenger and goods transport 
 
annually (Jenkins, et al., 2021).
Motorcycles are flexible and better at navigating complex rural terrain and overcrowded 
urban streets, and in moving people from door to door with greater fuel efficiency 
(Figure 32). They are convenient, fast, affordable, and mobile phone penetration has 
made them easily accessible on-demand through a simple text or phone call within rural 
communities. However, given the unregulated nature of their operations, motorcycles 
account for more than half of road deaths (and as high as 70%) in many Sub-Saharan 
countries, in both rural and urban settings (FIA Foundation, 2022). 
 
Figure 32: Motorcycles navigating diverse rural terrain in Africa
Photo credit: Jack Omondi, NASAC staff.
Given the high usage of motorcycles in many African regions, integrating safety measures 
for motorcycles into road design could enhance their safety. Similarly, electrifying the 
continent’s large motorcycle fleet will also help Africa to achieve its climate change 
mitigation and the SDGs. In addition, promoting multimodal transport strategies such as 
integrating walking and cycling infrastructure with planned or existing public transport 
systems can enhance sustainable transport, as illustrated in Case Study 6.
Within the urban context, in addition to motorcycles and three-wheelers, electric 
microcars (Figure 34) also present a promising avenue for reducing greenhouse gas 
emissions while enhancing urban transport efficiency. Microcars are very small and 
lightweight vehicles. They are typically designed for short-distance urban travel and 
are known for their compact dimensions, which makes them well-suited for navigating 
crowded city streets and for ease of parking (Elmasry, et al., 2024). 
From a social perspective, microcars offer an affordable and accessible means of 
transportation, especially in densely populated urban areas where traffic congestion 
and limited parking are persistent challenges. Their small footprints make them ideal for 
navigating narrow city streets, thus improving urban mobility. Environmentally, microcars 
are often powered by electric or hybrid engines, which further diminishes their carbon 
footprints (Elmasry, et al., 2024). Furthermore, the production of microcars generally 
requires fewer resources than standard vehicles, contributing to a more sustainable 


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Case Study 6:
Enhancing the walking environment in Kisumu, Kenya
Kisumu, a key hub in western Kenya, has experienced a boom in infrastructure projects 
due to its role as a regional commercial, educational, and administrative centre. This 
growth has brought urban mobility issues common in emerging African cities, such as 
rising car traffic, inefficient public transport, and inadequate facilities for walking and 
cycling. 
In Kisumu, non-motorised transport (NMT) is predominant: 53% of daily trips are on foot, 
13% by matatu, 13% by boda-boda, and smaller percentages by other modes. Kisumu’s 
flat terrain makes it suitable for walking, cycling, and driving tuktuks and microcars. 
However, infrastructure often prioritises motorised transport. To address this, Kisumu 
introduced the Kisumu Sustainable Mobility Plan (KSMP), supported by UN-Habitat 
and the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP). The city is now 
implementing designs focusing on pedestrian and cyclist safety (Figure 33). For example, 
the USD 2.2 million Kisumu Triangle involves upgrading 1.5 km of pathways with features 
like wide footpaths, streetlights, public toilets, and measures to prioritise pedestrians. The 
project’s second phase will invest USD 6 million to enhance eight km of roads, aligning 
them with Kenya’s 2011 policy that expressly includes walking and cycling facilities in new 
urban road projects.  
Figure 33: Artist’s impression of a pedestrian friendly transportation terminus in Kisumu, Kenya
Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2020)


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
An integrated sustainable transport
Governments in Africa should improve
strategy that includes mass rapid transit
existing transportation systems and
and non-motorised transport can enhance
adopt and scale up sustainable land-use
decarbonisation of transport. A holistic
development. Improving existing transport
approach to sustainable transport can
systems and adopting sustainable land-
not only reduce carbon emissions but
use developments such as compact and
also has the potential to alleviate negative
mixed-use development and transit-oriented
traffic externalities, thereby contributing
development, are essential strategies for
to a healthier environment and improved
African governments to promote economic
quality of life. In Africa, where urbanisation is
prosperity, social inclusion, environmental
rapidly increasing, the need for efficient and
sustainability, and resilience. For instance,
sustainable transportation systems is more
by investing in more efficient and accessible
pronounced than ever. The implementation
public transit options, including mass rapid
of mass rapid transit systems, such as the
transit options such as BRT and light rail
bus rapid transit (BRT) development of light
transit systems, cities can significantly lower
rail projects, and non-motorised transport
their carbon footprint. In addition, creating
infrastructure and policies  serves not only
safer and more appealing conditions for
to decrease reliance on individual car usage
active transportation, like walking and cycling,
but also to spearhead the transition towards
through dedicated bike lanes and pedestrian
electrification of public transport networks. 
zones not only promotes a healthier lifestyle, 
but also reduces emissions.
Figure 34: Example of a microcar.
Source: Moses Ogutu, IAP Staff.
manufacturing process that can also be adopted by African countries. Still, it is crucial 
to address potential challenges, such as the need for charging infrastructure for electric 
microcars and ensuring that these vehicles meet safety standards. Microcars have 
already been introduced in some African countries including South Africa which has 
many microcar models. For instance, at the Smarter Mobility Africa Summit, held in South 
Africa in October 2021, a notable highlight was the showcase of a compact electric 
microcar by Funky Electric (Piper, 2023). Further cementing this trend, in June 2023, City 
Blitz, an electric microcar was introduced in the South African market (Droppa, 2023). A 
shift towards smaller, more efficient vehicles could be particularly relevant in the context 
of Africa’s urban dynamics. 
 4.9               Finding   and   Recommendation


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POLICY OPTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Innovative policies and regulations aimed at fostering cleaner transportation alternatives 
are essential in realising decarbonised and sustainable transport objectives. The policy 
options and implications explored in this chapter seek to address the broad spectrum 
of needs and challenges associated with the decarbonisation of transport in Africa. 
Recognising that no single policy pathway suits all countries in the continent, the 
adoption and implementation of policies needs to be customised to fit the specific 
priorities and conditions of each country. Central to the transition towards decarbonised 
transport, however, is ensuring a just transition, one that is equitable and inclusive for all 
stakeholders involved.
While regulations are essential for driving the decarbonisation of transport in Africa, 
policymakers must carefully balance the need for environmental protection with 
considerations of economic viability, equity, and social welfare. Collaborative and 
inclusive policymaking processes, informed by robust stakeholder engagement and 
evidence-based analysis, are essential to maximise the positive impacts and minimise 
the potential drawbacks of regulatory interventions in the transportation sector.
Some of the positive impacts’ regulations play in decarbonisation of transport in Africa 
include emission reduction, promotion of cleaner technologies, creation of conducive 
environment for investment in sustainable transportation infrastructure and technologies 
and reduction on reliance on private vehicles and encouragement of modal shifts 
towards more sustainable modes of transport. However, stringent regulations can impose 
additional costs on vehicle manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. Distortion 
of market dynamics hinder competition, leading to inefficiencies and unintended 
consequences, and limited enforcement capacity and institutional weaknesses that can 
undermine the effectiveness of regulations aimed at decarbonising transport.
 
5.1	 Disrupting Dominant Regimes in the Transport Sector 
Policies and processes of decarbonising road transport will result in the disruption 
of existing and often dominant regimes in the transportation sector. These regimes 
include the oil or fossil fuel industry, transport sector operators, and the institutions and 
institutional frameworks that govern these transport systems. Decarbonisation involves 
reducing dependence on oil and other fossil fuels, which are the primary energy sources 
for conventional ICE vehicles. Transitioning to low-carbon or zero-carbon alternatives like 
EVs significantly impacts the demand for fossil fuels. For transport sector operators such 
as the companies and organisations involved in manufacturing, operating, or maintaining 
transportation systems, decarbonisation will require them to adopt new technologies, 
change business models, and comply with different regulations. For instance, car 
CHAPTER FIVE


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manufacturers will need to shift from producing traditional vehicles to electric ones, while 
vehicle owners and both private and public service providers will need to acquire new 
vehicles. Decarbonisation efforts will necessitate new or revised policies, regulations, and 
incentives to encourage the adoption of cleaner transportation modes. This could disrupt 
existing institutional frameworks that have traditionally supported existing regimes, 
such as subsidies that have historically supported the fossil-fuel industry and transport 
systems or the associated fuel tax revenues for governments (discussed in Section 5.4). 
Decarbonisation policies inherently challenge the status quo and can lead to significant 
economic, social, and institutional changes and tensions. 
The Multi-Level Perspective (MLP), a framework for understanding challenges associated 
with complex sustainability transitions encompassing multiple actors, including 
businesses, consumers, social movements, policymakers, academia, media, and investors 
(Geels, 2019) has been applied to assess the speeds and natures of transitions across 
countries, such as electric mobility in the UK and Germany, and offers a useful lens for 
understanding the challenges associated with decarbonising transport. Figure 35 depicts 
the MLP
, highlighting its three analytical levels (niche–regime–landscape) and temporal 
phases (emergence, diffusion, and reconfiguration). This arrangement facilitates the 
identification and visualisation of influences and interactions across various levels.
The MLP argues that for transformative innovations such as EVs to be effectively adopted, 
some essential factors need to be considered (Medina-Molinaa, et al., 2022). First, it is 
important to understand the regime—that is the dominant actors, practices, and rules 
that govern the current system—and the implications of maintaining the existing regime. 
Second, because the regime constitutes a social and technical system, it is important to 
Landscape developments put pressure on existing regime
Landscape 
Regime
Niches
Emergence
Diffusion
Reconfiguration
Time
The regime is dynamically stable
New configuration breaks through, taking
advantage of ‘windows of opportunity’.
 
Adjustments occur in regime
Small networks of actors support innovation
on the basis of expectations and visions
 
Learning and experiments take place
Markets & consumer
preferences
Industry
Policy
Technology
Culture
Science
Figure 35: The multi-level perspective framework for complex sustainability transitions.
Source: Adapted from International Science Council (2019)’s adaptation of Geels (2019).


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understand how to disrupt the regime and what the associated consequences may be. 
Disrupting the regime to usher in a more sustainable and decarbonised system may 
occur, for example, by introducing alternative (and often more sustainable) practices from 
niche actors or taking advantage of landscape pressures or “shock events” (such as the 
COVID-19 pandemic). Changes in the global contexts, such as increased awareness of 
climate change impacts by society, can also provide opportunities for destabilising the 
regime to allow transition to sustainable solutions. Third, all five subcategories of regimes 
(policy, science and technology, industry practices, market and user preferences, and 
culture) need to simultaneously change to transition successfully to a sustainable socio-
technical system. Regimes are typically stable systems and difficult to disrupt for various 
reasons: the sub-regimes are aligned, mutually dependent, re-enforcing, evolving, and 
subject to the same set of rules. This points to the importance of niches, which according to 
the MLP
, is where alternative approaches to socio-technical transformation, and innovative 
practices with potential to transform (change, disrupt, destabilise) regimes occur. 
Thus, for successful decarbonisation of transport to occur, strategies are needed to 
address these regime dimensions comprehensively, recognising that focusing on one 
area (like policy) without considering others (such as technology, market preferences, 
and culture) is unlikely to yield transformative change. 
In addition to the business models and solutions discussed in Chapter 2, the policy 
options and implications presented in this chapter attempt to address most of the 
identified needs and challenges to decarbonisation of transport in Africa. African 
countries have unique and differing needs, and no single policy pathway can meet the 
needs of all countries. The adoption and application of policy pathways for decarbonising 
transport needs to be tailored to the specific priorities and prerequisites of individual 
countries.
5.2	 Promotion of Electric Vehicles
Many countries around the world including countries in Africa such as Egypt, Kenya, 
Mauritius, Rwanda, South Africa, and Uganda have developed policies to promote 
the use of EVs such as subsidies, tax incentives, and development of affordable and 
accessible charging infrastructure (see Section 2.1). EVs offer significant cost advantages 
over ICE vehicles in terms of operating expenses. EVs have lower fuel costs, as electricity 
is generally cheaper than gasoline or diesel, leading to substantial savings over the 
vehicle’s lifetime. EVs also have fewer moving components, hence they require less 
maintenance. As a result of the electric motor’s durability relative to ICEs, they also have 
longer lifespans.
 
5.3 Cost-Benefit analysis of Electric Vehicles Compared to 
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles
The total cost approach is widely utilised to compare the costs of acquiring and operating 
EVs compared with those of conventional vehicles (Liu, et al., 2021; Wu, et al., 2015). This 
method aggregates the purchase price and operating expenses, such as maintenance, 


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battery replacement, energy, fuel, financing, and insurance costs for various electric 
mobility modes — including cars, buses, and two-wheelers — and contrasts them with 
their conventional counterparts. Additionally, it factors in the external benefits and costs 
associated with decarbonisation, such as environmental and health impacts. To enable 
cross-country comparisons, the total costs are adjusted for taxes and subsidies, which 
significantly affect the final acquisition and operational expenses of EVs. Table 6 applies 
the total cost approach to provide a comparative cost-benefit analysis of EVs versus ICE 
vehicles, using Thailand as a case study (Suttakul, et al., 2022).
Table 6: Comparing cost elements for electric and internal combustion engine 
vehicles in Thailand
Type
Total 
Cost of 
Ownership 
(TCO) 
(USD)
Deprecation 
Cost
(USD)
Energy
Cost
(USD)
Battery
Cost
(USD)
Other
Costs
(USD)
Internal
Combustion
Engine (ICE)
61,190.00
26,311.70
23,864.10
611.90
10,402.30
Hybrid
Electric
Vehicles
(HEV)
54,940.00
29,118.20
13,735.00
1,098.80
10,988.00
Plug-in
Hybrid
Electric
Vehicles
(PH)EV
55,940.00
33,564.00
7,831.60
2,797.00
11,747.40
Battery
Electric
Vehicles
(BEV)
60,890.00
34,098.40
6,089.00
10,960.20
9,742.40
 Note: Depreciation cost reflect capital cost for the vehicle over its life cycle. 
 Source: Suttakul, et al. (2022) 
Table 6 compares the costs of owning and operating an ICE vehicle against three types 
of EVs over a 15-year period: hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric 
vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). HEVs combine a petrol engine with 
a battery-powered electric drivetrain without plug-in capability. PHEVs feature both a 
petrol engine and an electric drivetrain, with the ability to recharge via plug-in. BEVs are 
fully electric with plug-in charging but do not use petrol.
The analysis shows that while BEVs vehicles have a higher initial cost, over a 15-year 
horizon they have a marginal cost advantage over ICE vehicles (60,890 vs 61,190). 
However, BEVs offer substantially lower energy costs, at just a quarter of that of ICE 
vehicles, with battery costs —18% of total EV costs — being the main expense. With 


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advancements in EV and battery technology, the costs associated with depreciation 
and batteries are expected to decrease, making BEVs much more economical than ICE 
vehicles. This shift will likely ease the transition to BEVs, assuming other concerns, such as 
range anxiety and infrastructure limitations, are addressed. Currently, HEVs and PHEVs 
face a cost advantage of USD 6,250 compared to ICE vehicles, aznd this gap is expected 
to widen as the technology becomes more affordable. It should be noted that Table 6 
focuses only on direct costs which include maintenance, battery replacement, energy 
and fuel, financing, insurance, and related expenses. The direct costs do not account for 
the environmental and social implications associated with using either type of vehicle, 
which are significant factors in the push for decarbonisation to mitigate GHG emissions 
and advance the global climate agenda. These broader impacts are detailed in Table 
7 in this section, and Appendix A, both of which compare the national aggregate cost 
advantage of EVs in select African countries. 
Table 7: National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicle adoption in 
select African countries by 2030
Countries
Charging
infrastructure Cost 
Advantage (USD)
Capital Cost
Advantage (USD)
Operating Cost
Advantage (USD) 
Subtotal (USD)
Externality (USD)
Cost Advantage 
(Economic Analysis)
(USD)
Net taxes subsidies
(fiscal wedge) (USD)
Economic Cost
Advantage plus
fiscal wedge (USD)
Egypt
-4107
-13010
15300
-1817
19019
17202
10165
8348
Ethiopia
-1512
-4692
6920
716
1330
2046
11359
12075
Ghana
-3017
-6241
10846
1588
2494
4082
9346
10934
Nigeria
-4330
-6511
10850
9
1934
1943
-1112
-1103
Rwanda
-2762
-5112
6356
-1518
1760
242
25110
23592
Source: Briceno-Garmendia, et al. (2023)
Although the upfront capital costs of acquiring EVs are high, these vehicles typically have 
a lifespan of around 15 years. Hence, the costs and benefits are calculated over this period 
using the World Bank’s approved discount rate of 7% (Briceno-Garmendia, et al., 2023). 
Egypt and Nigeria face the highest costs in providing charging infrastructure, translating 
into higher capital costs compared to countries like Ethiopia and Rwanda. The capital cost 
differential for EVs ranges from USD 5,112 in Rwanda to USD 13,010 in Egypt, relative 
to the cost of acquiring and operating an equivalent ICE vehicle, which spans between 
USD 10,000 to USD 20,000 for the countries examined. Initially, acquiring an EV is at least 
10% more expensive than an ICE vehicle, but this gap narrows to 5% when considering 
positive fiscal incentives such as lower EV taxes. In Ethiopia, the fiscal incentives are so 
substantial that they eliminate the cost disparity between EVs and ICE vehicles.


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EVs are preferred for their minimal GHG emissions, which translates to significant 
environmental and social benefits over ICE vehicles. These benefits, or externalities, 
are computed and presented in column 6. When these external benefits are added to 
the operating costs of EVs, the net cost advantage under the 30x30 decarbonisation 
scenario target becomes positive for all countries studied. Egypt, in particular, sees 
higher external benefits due to its dense population. This scenario posits a net social 
advantage in acquiring and operating EVs, supporting the goal of 30% of new cars and 
buses and over 70% of two- and three-wheelers being electric by 2030. 
The fiscal benefits of adopting EVs, which result in lower taxes for importers compared to 
ICE vehicles, range from USD 8,348 in Egypt to USD 23,592 in Rwanda, where favourable 
taxes on EVs significantly reduce their purchase price compared to ICE vehicles. The 
Rwandan case shows how effective fiscal policies can internalise environmental costs to 
promote electric mobility, sustainability, and social inclusion through improved health 
outcomes.
Similar to four-wheeled electric vehicles (EVs), electric motorcycles offer notable cost 
savings compared to their fossil-fueled counterparts. These savings manifest across 
various operational aspects, highlighting the financial benefits of adopting electric 
mobility in two-wheeled transportation. One of the most significant areas of savings is in 
energy (fuel vs. electricity), service and maintenance costs. Data based on models like the 
Roam Air — an electric motorcycle — illustrate a marked reduction in these expenses (see 
Table 8). Electric motorcycles incur service and maintenance costs of just USD 0.035 per 
10 kilometres, a stark contrast to the USD 0.05 per 10 kilometres required for traditional 
motorcycles. This represents a 33% reduction in service and maintenance expenses, a 
saving attributed to the simplified mechanical design of electric vehicles. The reduction 
in service and maintenance expenses increases over the product lifetime from 33% up 
to 70%, due to faster deterioration of parts requiring lubrication and higher vibrations in 
fossil fuel vehicles. The absence of conventional engine components reduces the need for 
regular oil changes and minimises the number of moving parts susceptible to wear and 
tear. Moreover, the operational or running costs of electric motorcycles further emphasise 
their economic advantage. Operating at a cost of only USD 0.08 per 10 kilometres, electric 
motorcycles present a significantly cheaper option than fossil-fueled motorcycles, which 
have running costs of USD 0.288 per 10 kilometres. This 68% reduction in running costs 
can accumulate to substantial long-term savings for owners, particularly beneficial for 
those who frequently rely on their motorcycles for daily commutes or leisure.
Table 8: Comparing cost elements for electric vs fossil fueled motorbike
Aspect
Fossil Fueled 
Motorcycle
Electric
Motorcycle
Improvement
Service & Maintenance Cost (per 
10 KM)
USD 0.05
USD 0.035
33% cheaper
Emissions (CO2 per KM)
27g
0g
97% reduction
Running Cost (per 10 KM)
USD 0.288
USD 0.08
68% reduction


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In conclusion, a cost-benefit analysis that encompasses environmental and social costs 
can powerfully inform public policy options and the design of optimal fiscal incentives for 
promoting electric mobility. It underscores the critical role that fiscal and monetary policies 
play as economic instruments in fostering electric mobility and the decarbonisation of 
transport, both in Africa and beyond.
5.4	 Minimising Tax Revenue Losses 
Fuel tax losses represent one of the biggest challenges for most governments with the 
transition to EVs. In January 2022, the United Kingdom projected losses of about USD 
6.8 billion annually in fuel duty within eight years due to the transition to EVs (Goodrich, 
2022). As fuel duties comprise approximately a third of yearly revenues in the country, 
this posed a great threat to the tax income used to enhance, operate, and maintain 
motorways, with EVs already representing over 10% of the domestic vehicle market.
Similarly, fuel is an important tax revenue base in many African countries. For instance, 
the government of Ghana collects eight different taxes on each litre of fuel sold. These 
comprise of levies for energy debt recovery, energy fund, energy sector recovery, 
price stabilisation and recovery, road fund, sanitation and pollution, special petroleum 
tax and unified pricing petroleum fund (Acheampong, 2022). The fuel pump price is 
therefore higher for Ghanaian motorists at about USD 1.14 per litre, relative to those 
paid by motorists in Nigeria (USD 0.169), Togo (USD 0.91), and Ivory Coast (USD 1.076) 
(Goodrich, 2022). Reduced consumption of fuel through the introduction of EVs would 
thus result in reduced tax income. While some governments may hesitate to adopt 
EVs due to this reduction, the lost income can be recovered by shifting tax handles to 
alternative broad-base taxes, such those on telecommunication and mobile financial 
services. Governments will get more revenues through the surge in electricity purchases 
to charge EVs and the import taxes of EVs. Other compensating revenue sources would 
include increasing carbon taxes on hydrocarbons uses and excise duties, road taxes, 
and other levies on motor vehicles more generally where a motor vehicle becomes a 
new alternative tax base. Road pricing schemes in which motorists pay based on the 
time, distance and location travelled can also be adopted. In this case, road toll fees can 
be an alternative compensating tax base for fuel. 
African governments heavily subsidise fossil fuels, at an average cost of 1.4% GDP to 
cushion consumers against rising global oil prices. But this creates heavy fiscal debt. 
For instance, Nigeria spent more than USD 30 billion on fuel subsidies in the past 15 
years, resulting in a significant budget deficit (Goodrich, 2022). On the other hand, 
Kenya’s petroleum expenditure in 2021 was about USD 2.6 billion, widening the trade/
balance of payments deficit (Brookings, 2023). If EVs can gain traction in these countries, 
government spending could be channelled away from fossil fuel subsidies towards other 
sectors such as clean energy development and other poverty reduction initiatives. 
Oil producing countries like Angola, Equatorial Guinea, and Nigeria may be hesitant 
about global and continental phase-out of ICEs in the near future because of the need 
to safeguard the oil exports that sustained their economies. In 2019, the Nigerian senate 
unanimously rejected a bill which sought to phase out ICEs by 2035 (IOA, 2022). While 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
reforms that seek to regulate petroleum products such fuel prices will remain fraught with 
economic and political contestations, in the longer term, EVs are expected to replace 
ICE vehicles, leaving oil-producing countries with no choice but to support the adoption 
of EVs and pursue other pathways for diversifying petroleum value chains away from 
fossils. Besides, there are numerous uses of oil and gas apart from its use as fuels for 
transportation, electricity generation, and in industries.
5.5	 Transport Sector Governance, Institutional Framework 
and Policy Ownership
A major challenge in governing road transportation in Africa is the absence of sustained 
actions and long-term strategic planning in the sector (Sustainable Mobility for All, 2022). 
Often, national and subnational governments struggle to effectively tackle mobility 
issues due to a lack of comprehensive planning. Moreover, even when such plans are in 
place, their implementation is frequently inadequate. It is common for new plans to be 
introduced, only to be replaced when a change in administration occurs. The incoming 
authorities often disregard the efforts made by their predecessors and hastily modify or 
halt ongoing programmes rather than sustain them for political expediency.
Furthermore, the effectiveness of these programmes is hindered by the lack of 
coordination and monitoring among the various entities involved in road transport 
(Sustainable Mobility for All, 2022). Responsibilities are frequently dispersed among 
different national, subnational, metropolitan, or local entities without clear delineation, 
leading to confusion, neglect, and even duplication of roles leading to inefficiencies 
in programme implementation. These factors contribute to an environment where 
private stakeholders can easily overstep boundaries and take advantage of the poorly 
regulated context.
One way to address these challenges is to establish a transport planning and regulatory 
metropolitan agency, particularly for major cities and metropolitan areas. This institution 
would assume the role of the lead authority for transport planning, regulation of public 
transport supply, and improvements to the transport system, including parking and 
traffic management. Examples of successful initiatives include the Lagos Metropolitan 
Area Transportation Authority (LAMATA), which has broad powers and independent 
resources over transport planning in Lagos, Nigeria. LAMATA is recognised for reviving 
a previously dysfunctional and unregulated transport system (Gomez-Ibanez, 2015). The 
implementation of such agencies can be difficult, and strong political commitment and 
sufficient resources are necessary to ensure their effectiveness. 
African countries have also explored the formation of regional transport infrastructure 
agencies encompassing several countries including the establishment of the African 
Association of Urban Transport Authorities (AAUTA) in February 2023 (Kaori & Malgrace, 
2023). The initiative emerged through a collaboration between The Greater Abidjan 
Urban Mobility Authority (AMUGA), or Autorité de la mobilité urbaine dans le Grand 
Abidjan, and the Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP), which is an international 
partnership administered by the World Bank (Niina & Annin, 2023). The AAUTA brings 
together over 40 urban transport leaders from 13 African countries. It aims to serve as a 


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dedicated platform for African urban transport authorities (UTAs) to meet and exchange 
lessons learnt and good practices related to planning, coordinating, regulating, financing 
and managing urban transport systems, and promote public-private partnerships that 
provide the best conditions for mobilising resources and strengthening cooperation 
with partners in development (Kaori & Malgrace, 2023). Regional initiatives such as 
these can foster learning and collaboration in transport sector governance across 
Africa, especially in the context of the renewed urban designs that are necessary to 
accommodate electric mobility. 
In addition to the AAUTA initiative, city authorities can also follow the example of the C40 
Cities Climate Leadership Group, which unites 96 cities globally in a concerted effort to 
combat climate change. Through this platform, cities share strategies, innovations, and 
actionable plans, thereby cultivating a global network of municipal leaders committed to 
the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the development of resilient, low-carbon 
urban environments. The C40 initiative demonstrates the potential of collaborative 
platforms to inspire similar efforts within Africa, thereby enhancing the continent’s capacity 
for transport decarbonisation. By leveraging collective expertise and initiatives, such 
collaborations can drive significant progress in regional sustainable development efforts.
5.6	 Investments in Public Transport
Investments in public transport systems such as mass rapid transit modes (light rail 
and bus rapid transit (discussed in Section 4.6) are an effective way of reducing carbon 
emissions in the transport sector. Cities across the world, in both developed and emerging 
economies such as Bogota (Colombia), Sao Paulo (Brazil), and Jakarta (Indonesia) have 
invested in these systems, and have seen significant emissions reductions and improved 
public transportation. To benefit from the environmental and social benefits associated 
with public transportation systems such as mass rapid transit, countries need to:
•	
Prioritise investment in public transit infrastructure: Investing in public transit 
infrastructure, such as bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, light rail, and commuter rail, 
can significantly improve public transit in Africa, in turn reducing transport sector 
emissions as populations reduce reliance on personal cars. Countries such as 
Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania have already made progress in this area by investing 
in BRT systems, expanding existing rail networks, and building new commuter rail 
systems (as discussed in Section 4.6). 
•	
Develop integrated transportation systems: Integrated transportation systems 
connect different modes of transportation, such as buses, taxis, and trains, and 
improve the efficiency and convenience of public transit. Cities such as Lagos, 
Nigeria, have implemented integrated transportation systems that allow passengers 
to use a single ticket to access multiple modes of transportation (AfDB, 2019), making 
it convenient and attractive to users. 
•	
Encourage public-private partnerships: Public-private partnerships can help increase 
private investment in public transit and improve the quality of service and innovation 
in transport systems. For example, in Rwanda, the government has partnered with 
private companies to establish a new dedicated bus lanes (DBL) system. Dedicated 


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bus lanes for public transport in the country are expected to be operational on a pilot 
basis in mid-2024 (TRT Africa, 2023). Public-private partnerships have successfully 
been utilised to enhance public transport systems around the world, including in 
infrastructure financing and development. 
•	
Prioritise safety and security: Improving safety and security of public transit systems 
can help to increase ridership and improve the overall perception of public transit. 
Measures such as installing CCTV cameras, hiring security personnel, and improving 
lighting in and around transit stations can help to enhance safety and security (Lierop 
& El-Geneidy, 2016). 
•	 Implement innovative fare collection systems: Implementing innovative fare 
collection systems, such as smart cards and mobile payments, can help to improve 
the efficiency and convenience of public transit. For example, Kenya has proposed 
to implement a smart card system for its upcoming BRT system, which could help 
reduce fare evasion and improve the overall customer experience (The World 
Bank, 2017).
5.7	 Investments in Renewable Energy
Electric vehicles could maximise their contribution towards decarbonisation efforts if 
the electricity used for charging them comes from renewable energy sources such as 
geothermal, hydroelectric, solar, wind power or biofuels. Africa is naturally endowed with 
these renewable energy sources. For instance, hydropower is widespread, particularly in 
east and central Africa, with countries like Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo 
harnessing river systems to generate hydroelectricity. Solar and wind power are also 
increasingly being utilised due to Africa’s abundant sun and favourable wind conditions, 
especially in the north and in parts of East Africa. Geothermal energy is also being tapped 
in the Rift Valley, notably in Kenya, which is the top geothermal power producer in Africa. 
Increased adoption of EVs can drive the demand for cleaner energy, acting as a catalyst for 
further investment in renewable energy infrastructure. Increased adoption of EVs can also 
create a positive feedback loop, where the growth of e-mobility spurs decarbonisation 
of the electric grid itself. In addition to supporting regulation, investments in renewable 
energies can be enhanced through innovative financing mechanisms such as green 
bonds, which are specifically destined for the funding or refunding of green projects — that 
is, projects that are sustainable and socially responsible in areas as diverse as renewable 
energy, energy efficiency, clean transportation or responsible waste management (AfDB, 
2019). 
Off-grid energy solutions that provide electricity independently of the traditional 
centralised electrical grid can also serve areas where it is either too expensive or 
impractical to connect to the grid. Examples of common off-grid energy solutions 
include solar photovoltaic systems, wind turbines, micro-hydro power, biomass and 
biogas systems, battery storage systems, and hybrid systems that combine two or more 
of power systems to ensure a consistent and reliable power supply. Off-grid solutions are 
crucial for enhancing energy access in remote or underserved areas and are also a part 


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of the strategy for many regions to increase the use of renewable and sustainable energy 
sources (Nyarko, et al., 2023).
5.8	 Promote Non-Motorised Transport
Non-motorised transport (NMT) such as cycling, walking, and other human-powered 
transport can significantly reduce carbon emissions in the transport sector. Many cities 
in Europe have invested in cycling infrastructure, such as bike lanes and bike parking 
facilities, which have encouraged people to cycle instead of drive. A study by the European 
Cyclists’ Federation (ECF) found that increased cycling could reduce carbon emissions 
from the transport sector by up to 10% by 2050 (European Cyclists’ Federation, 2015). 
NMT, especially walking, is the dominant mode of transport in Africa, since between 33% 
and 90% of trips are made as a pedestrian (Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program 
(SSATP), 2015). Walking is popular in Africa because of many factors including favourable 
weather, short trips, poverty, and the high cost of private and public transit (Hernandez, 
et al., 2021). Figure 36 compares modes of transport in Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. 
 
Walking
 
Public transport
(Bus/minibus/
matatu)
Cycling
Two-wheeler
(Bodaboda)
Own private car
Three-wheeler
*Bajaj/Tuktuk)
Own private
motorcycle
Office transport
service
Taxis (Uber, Bolt)
Daily
1–2/3–4 days a week
1–3 days a month/ Once a month
1–2 times a year
never
90%
3% 3%
30%
13%
7%
49%
10%
84%
4%
2%
19%
7%
3% 3%
68%
8%
21%
23%
5%
43%
2%
81%
8%
2%
6%
3%
13%
1%
56%
25%
5%
91%
3%
2%
3%
1%
95%
2%
1%
Figure 36: Modes of transport used in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: Mitullah (2023)
NMT infrastructure remains underdeveloped in Africa. In many countries, it is common 
to find pedestrians walking across and along major arterials and highways, as there are 
often no secondary roads that could be used as an alternative. When NMT infrastructure 
such as footpaths are available they are sometimes poorly designed or frequently ill-
maintained, leading to secondary problems such as inaccessibility for people with 
mobility challenges (e.g., those in a wheelchair or with a walking stick) drainage problems, 
inadequate lighting, and poor landscaping that make them unsafe or unattractive for 
users (Vanderschuren, et al., 2022). Figure 37 shows a finished walkway in Nairobi; 
instead of the pathway being located on the sides of the road, it is in the centre of a busy 
road, forcing pedestrians to cross the street to utilise it (IDS-VREF MAC study 2020–2021, 
pedestrians in Nairobi). 
 


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Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
Many who opt for non-motorised transport thus suffer from challenges such as road 
injuries and fatalities. Africa has the highest proportion of pedestrian and cyclist deaths, 
accounting for 44% of the total number of road deaths (United Nations, 2023). Many 
of these can be prevented by implementing policies that promote NMTs. NMT policies 
in Africa, though increasing, are limited to a few countries. As Figure 38 illustrates, 
NMT policies are either adopted at the national level (for example, as part of a national 
transport master plan) or sub-national level (for example, by a local city), with some 
countries having both. 
 
African countries can adopt and improve non-motorised transport in several ways 
including:
•	
Developing a cycling and walking infrastructure that is safe, comfortable, and 
accessible: Providing dedicated and well-designed bike lanes and pedestrian paths 
can encourage more people to walk and cycle. Amsterdam and Copenhagen have 
shown that investing in cycling infrastructure can result in significant increases in 
the number of people cycling (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Access to high-quality bike 
lanes is key since it can enhance a shift to a near-zero carbon form of transport and 
improve the health and safety of people. A study of European cities found that even 
occasional cyclists (once or twice weekly) had 84% lower CO2 emissions per person 
from all daily travel than non-cyclists (Systems Change Lab, 2023). The study noted 
that if 10% of the population was to change travel behaviour from driving to cycling, 
emissions from transportation would be expected to drop by about 10%. 
•	 Implementing policies that support active transportation: Governments can 
implement policies such as active transportation plans, complete streets policies, 
and incentives for employers to promote active transportation. Complete streets 
is a transportation policy and design approach that requires streets to be planned, 
designed, operated, and maintained to enable safe, convenient, and comfortable 
travel and access for all anticipated roadway users, regardless of their age, 
Figure 37: Pedestrian footpath in Nairobi, Kenya
Source: Moses Ogutu, IAP.


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74
abilities, or mode of travel. This can help create a culture of walking and cycling 
and encourage more people to choose active modes of transportation. One 
such example is Rwanda (see Case Study 3). Moreover, African countries should 
design manuals for urban areas to mainstream proven practice street designs that 
promote the use of sustainable modes of transport and enhance the safety of 
vulnerable road users like cyclists and pedestrians. 
•	 Involving the community in planning and design: Engaging with the local 
community and understanding their needs and preferences is essential when 
planning cycling and walking infrastructure. This can help ensure that the 
infrastructure is designed to meet the needs of the community and is, therefore, 
more likely to be used by people.
Figure 38: Non-motorised policies in African countries
Source: Adapted from Collaboration for Active Mobility in Africa


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•	
Encouraging multi-modal transportation: Encouraging people to use a combination 
of transportation modes can help reduce car use and increase the use of walking 
and cycling. Providing facilities such as bike parking and bike share schemes can 
encourage people to combine cycling with public transportation. Paths and crossings 
should also be cogniant of the specific needs of women, children, and the elderly. 
•	
Addressing safety concerns: Addressing safety concerns is crucial for encouraging 
more people to walk and cycle. This can be achieved through infrastructure 
improvements such as well-lit paths and crossings.
5.9	 Technology and Innovations for Sustainable Mobility 
Technology transfer is key to driving innovation and the shift to sustainable transport 
in Africa, particularly in regard to the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and related 
infrastructure. Technology transfer in transportation is giving rise to new forms of 
flexible, shared mobility and on-demand services. The use of such technologies has 
enabled the integration of multiple transportation modes in Africa and is facilitating 
more environmentally friendly, predictable, and high-volume trips. To scale and achieve 
this technology transfer in transportation in Africa, it is essential to create partnerships 
between developed countries which are early adopters of EVs, and emerging African 
countries. These collaborations would facilitate access to EV technologies, including 
those under copyright protections, crucial for decarbonising transport globally. African 
transport tech startups are at the forefront of this sustainable transition, with more than 500 
startups active across the continent (Briter Bridges, 2023; GSMA, 2023). These startups 
have attracted significant investment, securing around USD 1.4 billion over the past four 
years, primarily in passenger solutions, multi-tier systems, and logistics services (GSMA, 
2023). They are not only the third most attractive sector in Africa’s startup landscape, but 
are also pivotal in offering solutions to the continent’s transportation challenges, focusing 
on reliability, affordability, and reduced carbon emissions. These startups such as Roam 
in east Africa (see Case study 7 in this Section) are often adapting foreign technologies to 
suit local conditions, terrains, environmental challenges, and infrastructure needs. 
Despite their innovative approaches, including the use of intelligent transport systems 
and big data analytics, these startups face considerable challenges like inadequate 
infrastructure, funding shortages, and limited managerial expertise (Dosso, 2022). Skilled 
roles such as design engineers and solar technicians are scarce, often leading startups 
to depend on expatriate talent. To overcome these barriers and continue advancing, it is 
crucial for these startups to engage in long-term research and development, partnerships 
that integrate advanced knowledge and technologies from established companies and 
research institutions. While policy support in Africa is gradually improving, sustainable 
mobility startups still struggle to obtain localised data on market practices and demands. 
Intervening policy is needed to encourage and support these startups.
 


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Case Study 7:
Roam, electrifying motorcycles in Africa
Passenger buses and the popular two-wheelers (motorcycles or motor taxis) are the main 
public transport vehicles serving the growing population of African cities but are also 
some of the highest carbon-emitting vehicles on the market (SitatiI, et al., 2022). Founded 
in 2017, Roam is an East Africa based company with the vision of electrifying the African 
transport and energy systems. Roam initially focused on electric conversions, converting 
ICE vehicles to EVs, but later evolved to provide tailored solutions to meet local market 
demand through business segments that now include an electric motorcycle (two-
wheelers) designed in Kenya and tailored for Africa (Roam Air); electric bus production 
for Kenyan and African public transport sectors (Roam Transit), which produces the 
Roam Move and Roam Rapid; off-the-shelf energy and charging products (Roam Energy 
& Charging); and tailored software applications to fleet owners, business operators, 
financiers and others that includes a mobile application for chargers and transactions 
(Roam Canopy).
Roam’s research found that ownership of the battery and the system increases product 
lifetime, providing the best performance and the lowest total cost of ownership. In the 
case of motorcycles (Roam Air), the company provides each user with a home charger 
that allows users to charge at home and anywhere at any time (Figure 39). The company 
also established ROAM Hubs, multi-purpose electric charging stations that act as an 
ecosystem solution for motorcycle operators. The hubs offer battery rental services and 
public charging access, and are outfitted with after-sales support, including spare parts 
and maintenance services provided by skilled technicians. 
Figure 39: A motorcycle rider charging his own battery at a Roam hub
Source: ROAM (2024)


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5.10	 Just Transition Principles
The decarbonisation of the economy is reshaping labour markets and workforce skills in 
complex and dynamic ways, influenced by global trends like technological advancements 
and demographic changes (International Labour Organisation, 2022). As e-mobility 
is increasing, various segments of the conventional automobile value chain, spanning 
manufacturing, sales, and service sectors will become obsolete or undergo significant 
transformations. These changes are likely to result in job losses in the conventional ICE 
vehicle industry, while at the same time creating new job opportunities in the EV industry. 
This transition will require upskilling existing workers and training new ones. In Africa, 
where many transport jobs are informal, workers often lack social safety nets and access 
to essential resources like credit or insurance, which will make it challenging for them to 
adapt their business models to these changes.
To ensure socially equitable and inclusive outcomes alongside environmental 
sustainability, Africa needs to ensure that the transition to a net-zero economy follows a 
just transition approach. A just transition through social justice has been recognised as 
a fundamental precondition for sustainable transport (Bongardt, et al., 2023). According 
to the International Labour Organisation, (ILO) a just transition means greening the 
In line with the goal of achieving climate impact with speed and scale, home charging 
allows for deployment without the need for capital intensive charging infrastructure. 
Public infrastructure can be used assupport, rather than as a necessity. The lower cost of 
this strategy lowers operating cost by 28% to the end user. The motorcycle components 
subject to maintenance have been designed to be serviceable with common ICE 
components. This allows owners to have flexibility and low cost in maintenance. In 
addition, the hubs serve as public access locations for software and technology updates 
on the motorcycles making them one-stop-shops for the varying needs of the operators. 
The hubs are open to other EV players, with several already leveraging this infrastructure 
today. This open EV platform enables the industry to scale faster, reducing the higher 
amortisation of closed architecture charging infrastructure being pushed to the end user. 
Roam’s electric motorcycles have made a notable environmental impact, with each 
kilometre driven on the Roam Air mitigating 58 g/CO2e. The social and economic 
impacts are equally significant, with every dollar invested in Roam generating a social 
return of $2.4 through reduced ownership costs and increased income for users. Over 3 
million kilometres have been covered by Roam’s electric motorcycles, underscoring the 
widespread adoption and effectiveness of their solutions.
Roam’s journey has yielded valuable insights, including the importance of vertical 
integration, the demand for low-cost ownership, and the effectiveness of designing for 
local conditions. The higher upfront cost remains the primary barrier to faster adoption 
rates. However, the significantly lower operational costs ensure a more affordable total 
cost of ownership in the long run. Overcoming this barrier requires achieving economies 
of scale, possible through innovative financing methods such as non-dilutive funding, non-
recourse debt, first-loss guarantee funds, and carbon financing.  


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economy in a way that is as fair and inclusive as possible to everyone concerned, creating 
decent work opportunities and leaving no one behind (ILO, 2021). Just transitions involve 
maximising the social and economic opportunities of climate action, while minimising 
and carefully managing any challenges—including through effective social dialogue 
among all impacted groups, and respect for fundamental labour principles and rights. 
Ensuring a just transition is important for all economic sectors, including transport.
The ILO’s “Guidelines for a Just Transition towards Environmentally Sustainable Economies 
and Societies for All” (ILO, 2015) highlights key principles for effective transport 
decarbonisation, and just transition, including:
•	
Safeguarding worker rights: A just transition places a strong emphasis on 
safeguarding workers’ rights and livelihoods during the transition. It advocates for 
retraining and reskilling programmes, fair employment opportunities in emerging 
sectors, and maintaining social protections. As decarbonisation of transport will result 
in job losses and demand new skills, governments, private sector, non-governmental 
organisations and other stakeholders need to work together to implement 
programmes to support workers in the transport sector. 
•	
Ensuring stakeholder participation, equity, and inclusion: A just transition prioritises 
social equity and inclusion, ensuring that no group or population is disproportionately 
burdened or excluded from the benefits of the transition. This involves paying 
particular attention to marginalised and vulnerable groups, including women, 
indigenous communities, low-income populations, and residents of rural areas. It 
aims to correct historical inequalities, promote equal opportunities, and ensure fair 
cost and benefit distribution. Historically, the transport system has not addressed 
the safety of women or equity between women and men in the transport workforce 
(International Transport Forum, 2022). Moreover, persons with disabilities and older 
persons (PWDOD) also have unique challenges that hinder their mobility and 
access to effective transportation services. In Africa, key transport issues affecting 
PWDOD include inaccessible infrastructure like missing sidewalks, ramps, and 
elevators, especially for wheelchair users, a lack of vehicles adapted for their needs, 
and insufficient awareness among transport staff about their requirements. Lack of 
accessible transport significantly hinders persons with disabilities and older persons 
from participating in economic activities, as evidenced by the Kenya Integrated 
Household Budget Survey (KIHBS) 2015/2016, which revealed that over half of 
the persons with disabilities in both urban and rural areas face mobility-related 
challenges that impede their ability to engage in work or access education and 
welfare services, thus isolating them from critical societal functions and opportunities 
for economic independence (KIPPRA, 2020).
•	
The move towards decarbonisation of transport in Africa offers a chance to 
improve inclusivity and accessibility for these groups. Solutions include developing 
infrastructure with features like ramps and elevators at transportation hubs, upgrading 
vehicle fleets with accessibility features especially for new EVs, integrating technology 
for enhanced access, and increasing awareness and training among transport 
operators and staff. An example of this includes South Africa’s MyCiTi Integrated 
Rapid Transport System in Cape Town. MyCiTi stands as the first universally accessible 


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transport system in Sub-Saharan Africa that explicitly prioritised universal accessibility 
from its inception by integrating all the essential features to accommodate passengers 
with various mobility needs. These universal access features include tactile paving to 
assist visually impaired individuals in navigating to stations and platforms, induction 
loops at ticket kiosks for the hearing impaired, and CCTV surveillance both on 
buses and at stations for enhanced security. Additionally, the service offers boarding 
bridges on buses along residential and central city routes, ensuring level access from 
bus stops directly onto the buses for those who need it (DiSA, 2024). 
•	
Integrating Sustainable Development Goals: A just transition recognises the 
interconnection of social and environmental challenges and seeks to address them 
concurrently, promoting a holistic approach to sustainability. This involves integrating 
decarbonisation policies with broader socio-environmental actions for cohesive and 
effective sustainability strategies, as discussed in Chapter 4.
The Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) Partnership, a global initiative for international 
cooperation on transport and mobility issues advocates for the integration of just 
transition principles in sustainable mobility in developing countries in areas such as 
governance, equity and climate finance (SuM4All, 2022). It emphasises the need to 
develop transport systems and policy priorities to achieve the greatest socioeconomic 
benefits for all and notes that even though high-income countries have incentivised the 
purchase of EV passenger vehicles through purchase subsidies, this approach may not 
be applicable in low-income African countries. Since the upfront capital costs of EVs 
are relatively high, limiting their uptake at scale in low-income countries in Africa, the 
SuM4All partnership suggests that in some countries, a push towards EV adoption can be 
delayed until supporting infrastructure and ecosystem are developed. Therefore, scarce 
public resources should instead be focused on improving the transport system through 
measures like the provision of adequate, safe, comfortable, inclusive, and sustainable 
public transport (SuM4All, 2022).
5.11	 Sustainable Electric Vehicle Supply and Value Chains 
The principal materials used in the production of EVs and EV batteries such as cobalt, 
lithium, and nickel, continue to be in short supply as demand and prices increase. The 
price of lithium rose seven-fold between 2021 and 2022 (IEA, 2022). EVs use lithium-
ion batteries, and most EVs require six times the amount of minerals a non-electric 
car requires (IEA, 2022). Africa has a large concentration of the minerals required 
to manufacture EVs, including global deposits of cobalt (54%), manganese (46%), 
bauxite (24%), graphite (21.2%) and vanadium (16%) (Anon., n.d.). The Democratic 
Republic of Congo (DRC) alone accounts for 70% of the world’s cobalt production 
and more than 50% of the world’s reserves (Anon., n.d.). Nevertheless, despite the 
continent’s vast reserves, it remains a net exporter of the minerals, largely operating 
the primary stage of the mineral value chain (mining), approximated at USD 8.8 
trillion by 2025 (Anon., n.d.).
For African countries to participate effectively in the EV value chain, they will need 
to break their overdependence on mineral exports by establishing more value by 


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strengthening production capacities, mineral-driven industrialisation, and increasing 
their exports of value-added products. Moreover, investment incentives can be used to 
attract investors to develop manufacturing facilities such as battery manufacturing locally. 
Other suggestions include establishing a robust and coherent continental green mineral 
strategy to fast-track development of the region’s green mineral resources to take 
advantage of the economic opportunities associated with the global energy transition 
and investing in research and development. Examples include the uYilo e-mobility 
initiative in South Africa, which is developing facilities including national accredited 
material and battery testing, battery manufacture, second-life usage, recycling and 
vehicle-to-grid technology and developing suitable strategies and policies to enhance 
sustainability across the battery supply chain (Anon., n.d.).
5.12	 Environmental and Social Impacts of Electric Vehicles
The current life cycle of EV batteries could impede the attainment of several SDGs, 
including those related to climate action, health, education, and decent work. For example, 
cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo have been reported to violate human 
rights, with workers both adults and children working in perilous conditions that expose 
them to fatal accidents and long-term health damage (Amnesty International, 2016). 
Cobalt mining generates environmentally damaging by-products, like sulphuric acid, 
which can harm aquatic life (EVBox, 2023). Similarly, lithium extraction involves a water-
intensive process that can contaminate and divert vital water resources, especially in rural 
areas with scarce water supply. 
Research by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) indicates that 
battery production contributes significantly to the environmental impact caused by 
EVs, accounting for between 35% and 41% at the EV manufacturing stage (Guzek, et 
al., 2024). While EVs share many parts with traditional vehicles, their battery recycling is 
less efficient. Only about 5% of lithium batteries are recycled globally, a stark contrast 
to the 99% recycling rate of lead car batteries in the United States (Continental Battery 
System, 2023). Furthermore, compared to lead batteries, lithium batteries come in 
many shapes and sizes, and component ratios vary from one manufacturer to another. 
Each requires a specialised skill to break down given the differences in electric circuitry, 
making the process time-consuming and labour-intensive. Non-recycled batteries pose 
environmental risks when disposed of in landfills.
The EV industry needs to operate in a manner that is both sustainable and ethically 
responsible, contributing to a greener economy while upholding the rights and well-being 
of workers and communities. This can be achieved through adherence to Environmental, 
Social, and Governance (ESG) standards and the principles of the UN Global Compact. 
The UN Global Compact offers detailed guidance to reinforce labour standards in 
business operations, emphasising principles like the freedom of association, recognition 
of collective bargaining rights (Principle 3), elimination of forced and compulsory labour 
(Principle 4), and the abolition of child labour (Principle 6) (United Nations, n.d.). 
African and global governments can enforce UN Global Compact principles in EV 
production by enacting and enforcing legislation aligned with labour and environmental 


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standards, establishing robust monitoring and compliance systems, and fostering public-
private partnerships for best practices. Incentives can be provided for compliance and 
penalties for non-adherence. 
5.13	 Financing Decarbonisation of Road Transport in Africa
One of the foremost challenges for the successful decarbonisation of many sectors, 
including transport, is access to finance. The development of a robust charging 
infrastructure for electric vehicles, for example, requires significant financial resources. 
Infrastructure retrofitting, especially in densely populated urban areas, can be logistically 
complex and time-consuming. Many African countries already struggle with high levels 
of public debt, making it difficult to allocate sufficient resources to decarbonisation 
initiatives. Furthermore, the lack of a well-established regulatory framework and 
policy incentives for clean transportation discourages private sector investment in the 
continent’s decarbonisation. 
Financing decarbonisation of road transport requires a diverse and strategic approach, 
leveraging funds from multiple sources including multilateral institutions, private 
investors, and public sector budgets. These funds can be channelled into a range of 
project from supporting acquisition of EVs and charging infrastructure development 
to re-designing of public transit systems, each with unique social and economic 
returns. By most estimates, the scale of financing channelled towards meeting Paris 
Agreement targets falls significantly short of that required. The IPCC approximates 
that an annual investment of between USD 1.6 to USD 3.8 trillion is needed to meet 
these objectives. However, the current annual climate financing flows are about USD 
600 billion (Guzmán, et al., 2022). Of the 53 African countries that have submitted their 
Nationally Determined Contributions, 51 have provided data on the estimated costs 
associated with implementing these commitments. Collectively, Africa has a GDP of a 
USD 2.4 trillion, indicating that 10% of the continent’s yearly GDP needs to be mobilised 
above and beyond current flows yearly for the next 10 years. Based on these data, it 
will cost approximately USD 2.8 trillion between 2020 and 2030 to implement Africa’s 
NDCs alone. Africa requires support from international public sources and international 
private sectors to implement their NDCs. Even though many African countries have 
expressed high needs (Figure 40), these needs could be underestimated because of 
lack of guidance and capacity to make accurate assessments and inadequate data from 
vulnerable communities and subnational governments. Mitigation efforts account for 
the largest share of reported needs between 2020 and 2030, at 66% of the total finance 
needed (Guzmán, et al., 2022). Mitigation needs are predominantly split across four 
sectors, with transport accounting for the largest share of mitigation funding (58%), 
followed by energy (24%), agriculture and other land use (9%), and industry (7%). 


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5.13.1   Concessional Climate Finance
Concessional climate finance consists of grant and non-grant instruments, which are 
provided with below-market interest rates and target high impact projects that overlap 
across both development and climate such as sustainable transport projects. In Africa, 
concessional climate financing is basically concessional loans or grants sourced from 
major multilateral, bilateral, regional, and national financial institutions. One of the 
currently existing concessional financing instruments that can be leveraged include 
the Multilateral Development Bank (MDB)’s Working Group (WG) on sustainable 
transport funding transport projects in developing countries. As part of the 2012 
Rio+20 commitment for sustainable transport, the WG consisting of eight MDBs had 
a commitment of USD 175 billion in grants and loans targeting sustainable transport 
projects in developing countries (SLOCAT, 2021). 
Moreover, the African Development Bank, through its Sustainable Energy Fund for Africa 
(SEFA), provided a technical assistance grant of USD 1 million to the Green Mobility 
Facility for Africa (GMFA) (AfDB, 2023). The purpose of the grant was to support the 
establishment of a favourable environment for EVs, the applicable business models, 
knowledge sharing, and guidelines for private sector participation in developing 
bankable projects in the EV sector. Some of the countries that benefited from the grant 
include Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and South Sudan 
(AfDB, 2023). 
Equally, the Global Facility to Decarbonise Transport (GFDT), a multi-donor trust, is 
spearheading the development of an investment facility to unlock development and 
climate finance for low-carbon transport projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. The regional facility 
will assist countries in the region to harmonise policies and investment programmes to 
$ 1,200
Public climate finance
committed
Climate finance needs
(from other sources)
Cost of
implementing
NDCs
Other
$ 1,000
$ 800
$ 600
$ 400
$ 20
$ 0
Western Africa
Southern Africa
Central Africa
Northern Africa
Eastern Africa
USD Billion
Figure 40: Cost of implementing Nationally Determined Contributions in Africa (2020-2030), USD billions.
Source: Adapted from Guzmán, et al. (2022)


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enhance electric buses, cars and two- and three-wheelers. By bringing more development 
and climate financing into countries and cities in Sub-Saharan Africa, this new facility will 
make a vital contribution to support decarbonisation of transport across the region. It 
will also help to enhance transport accessibility for some of the region’s most vulnerable 
communities, especially by supporting reforms to modernise public transport.
5.13.2   Grants and Subsidies
Grants and subsidies such as tax incentives can help early-stage business models to 
develop. In East Africa, a few established EV companies have attracted larger investments 
led by either development-finance institutions or strategic partners in their market. Asset 
finance companies, manufacturers looking to expand to Africa, and U.S. technology 
firms have succeeded in their pilot projects and fundraising by focusing on the specific 
aspects of the EV market. Electric vehicle companies that secured funding to scale their 
businesses include Ampersand Company (operating in East Africa but primarily in 
Rwanda) which secured USD 9 million in debt from International Development Finance 
Corporation, and ROAM in Kenya that secured a USD 7.5 million in equity and grants 
from One Ventures, while Zembo in Uganda obtained USD 3.4 million from Toyota, 
DOB Equity, and InfraCo. Moreover, development finance-partner organisations are 
also promoting the scaling up of e-mobility solutions in Africa. For instance, Siemens 
Foundation is providing grant capital on a project-to-project basis, and has supported 
multiple e-mobility enterprises with grants for Research and Development in Ghana, 
Uganda, and Kenya (Siemens, 2023)
5.13.3   Carbon Markets
Carbon markets refer to trading systems in which carbon credits are sold and bought. 
Carbon markets have emerged as significant tools for activating and scaling up the 
uptake of EVs, as they offer a compelling mechanism to accelerate the transition towards 
cleaner transportation by linking financial incentives with the reduction of carbon 
emissions. Individuals or companies can use carbon markets to offset GHG emissions by 
purchasing carbon credits from entities that reduce, remove, or avoid GHG emissions. 
One tradable credit equals one tonne of carbon dioxide or the equivalent amount of 
different GHG avoided, reduced, or sequestered (UNDP
, 2022). When a credit is used 
to avoid, reduce, or sequester emissions, it becomes an offset and is no longer tradable. 
The Africa Carbon Markets Initiative (ACMI) was launched at the 27th UNFCCC Conference 
of Parties (COP27) in Egypt in 2022. The initiative aims to drastically scale VCMs across 
Africa by: (1) unlocking the USD 6 billion in revenue by 2030 and more than USD 120 
billion by 2050; (2) scaling the market to 300 million carbon credits retired yearly by 2030 
and 1.5 billion credits yearly by 2050; (3) supporting 30 million jobs by 2030 and more than 
110 million jobs by 2050; and (4) sharing the revenue transparently and equitably with 
local communities (ACMI, 2022). The launching of the initiative resulted in commitments 
from seven African countries (Burundi, Gabon, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria 
and Togo) to develop country carbon activation plans (Climate, 2023), while USD 200 
million was secured in advanced market commitments from international corporates. In 
2022, Mauto, a leading electric two-wheeler company in Africa, signed a USD 5 million 
transaction agreement in the VCM with Aera and Myclimate. The agreement covers the 


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84
Decarbonisation efforts compete with existing
Governments in Africa should actively foster strategic 
transport and oil industry regimes that benefit from
collaborations,  robust advocacy, and innovation to
the manufacture, sale, maintenance, and
advance sustainable transport across the continent.
deployment of fossil fuel-based vehicles. To
Partnering with industry, academia, and global civil
navigate competing interests, it is essential to actively
society can enable governments to harness the
engage stakeholders from traditional transport and
power of advocacy and strategic collaborations in
fuel industries in crafting a shared vision for the future
amplifying the call for the adoption of low-carbon
of transportation on the continent, while highlighting
transport technologies and practices.
the economic, environmental, and social benefits.
Governments in Africa and other stakeholders should
implement just transition principles to foster a holistic
and socially inclusive decarbonisation of transport. Just
transition principles advocate for a shift towards a
sustainable economy that prioritises equity and
access for all, including vulnerable groups and
marginalised communities such as women, persons
with disabilities and older persons, indigenous
communities, low-income populations, and residents
of rural areas.
Inadequate financial frameworks hinder
Governments in Africa should develop comprehensive
decarbonisation efforts in Africa, limiting
financing and policy instruments to support the
the continent’s ability to leverage transport
upgrade of power grid systems, the construction of
decarbonisation as a catalyst for industrial growth
EV charging networks, and overall improve the public
and innovation. The scarcity of robust financial
transport infrastructure. Innovative climate financing
structures and investment may stem from multiple
instruments can include infrastructure funding,
factors, including African countries’ challenges in
blended finance, and green bonds, alongside
developing comprehensive financial policies and
taxes. This type of financing and policy instruments
removal or reduction of emissions generated by Mauto, which plans to deploy more 
than 2 million e-motor bikes in Africa by 2030. To certify its achievements in social and 
environmental commitments, Mauto intends to obtain the Sustainable Development 
Verified Impact Standard (SD VISta) label by VERRA (Whitlock, 2022)
While carbon credits and carbon markets can be used to raise climate finance which 
can be invested in setting up the charging infrastructure and to subsidise EVs, they 
are practically challenging to implement. There’s a risk that they can enable continued 
emissions through offsets rather than direct reductions, potentially undermining long-
term climate goals. Stringent regulations and oversight are essential to ensure carbon 
credits lead to verifiable, real emission reductions, and not just offsets. Additionally, 
integrating social and environmental justice considerations into carbon market 
mechanisms can help ensure more equitable and effective outcomes.
In addition to carbon credits, governments can also implement a carbon taxation regime 
to finance decarbonisation efforts. During the 2022 Africa Climate Summit, more than 20 
countries adopted the Nairobi Declaration, which called for a global tax on the use and 
trade of fossil fuels in Africa (African Union, 2023).
 
 5.14          Findings   and   Recommendations
Continued on next page


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frameworks such unclear guidelines and incentives
can help attract private investment and mobilise
that encourage private sector participation and
capital for MRT and NMT infrastructure, encourage
innovation to invest in MRT and NMT, incentives
the acquisition of EVs, foreign investment, and
for EV buyers, and the hesitation of investors, who
inclusive business models that foster participation
may not fully recognise the opportunities within
of SMEs and start-ups in the EV business ecosystem.
the continent’s evolving EV market. Therefore,
Governments can also expand policy support
addressing these financial barriers and enhancing
to foster international cooperation, resource
investor confidence is crucial for unlocking the
mobilisation, and the development of sustainable
transformative power of decarbonisation through
business models for electric mobility, leveraging
electrification in Africa.
existing approaches such as the Green Climate Fund.
Progress towards decarbonised and sustainable
Governments in Africa should establish a unified
transportation can be achieved and accelerated
framework for decarbonised and sustainable transport
by adopting a common position on sustainable
aligned with continental aspirations and global climate
transport across Africa. While the African Union’s
change targets. This framework can build on existing
Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy
blueprints, including the African Union’s visionary
and Action Plan (CCRDSAP) 2022–2032 already
policies, and agreements such as the CCRDSAP
provides a comprehensive framework for climate
2022–2032, the 2023 Nairobi Declaration, Agenda
action, including in transport, a distinct strategy or
2063, Programme for Infrastructure Development in
position dedicated to sustainable transport does
Africa (PIDA), the African Renewable Energy Initiative,
not currently exist. Adopting a common position on
the Paris Agreement, and its Nationally Determined
sustainable transport across Africa does not imply a
Contributions and national long-term climate
one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, a common framework
strategies of various African countries. A common
should be based on shared principles that
position on sustainable transport not only aligns
recognises the diversity of national circumstances
with overarching continental and global objectives
and allows for flexibility in implementation.
but also leverages collective bargaining power in
negotiations to secure technology transfers, financial
investments, and international support essential for
the transition


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CONCLUSION
The transportation sector significantly contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, 
accounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also a critical 
enabler of 
Africa’s economic transformation, and is prominently featured in 
Africa’s 
Agenda 
2063. Given the urgent concerns over climate change, decarbonising transportation in 
Africa is crucial, especially as emissions are expected to increase rapidly under current 
trends. This study, conducted collaboratively by the NASAC and the IAP
, assessed the 
current status, challenges, and opportunities for decarbonisation of transport in Africa. 
It reviewed policies, institutional and technical capacities, strategies, technologies, 
financing, social factors, and the necessary legal and regulatory frameworks. Through 
the working group that prepared this report, several recommendations for Governments 
and other stakeholders in Africa have been proposed. The key recommendations in this 
section are intended to be illustrative rather than being exhaustive as comprehensive 
listing and discussion of issue specific recommendations are presented at the end of 
each of the preceding chapters of the report. In summary, the study recommends:
•	
Promote local decarbonisation efforts to accelerate their adoption continent-wide.
•	
Implement the Enable-Avoid-Shift-Improve-Resilience (EASIR) Approach for 
Sustainable Transport.
•	
Provide incentives to industries to promote and support local manufacturing.
•	
Establish research partnerships with industry and academia to investigate energy 
demands and expected impact of electric vehicles (EV) on the grid, and to evaluate 
alternative energy sources and load shifting techniques.
•	
Develop comprehensive financing and policy instruments to support the upgrade 
of power grid systems, the construction of EV charging networks, and overall 
improvement of the public transport infrastructure.
•	
Prioritise the electrification of vehicle segments that provide the most immediate and 
highest decarbonisation benefits.
•	
Implement stricter rules and regulations that support emission reduction during the 
transition to decarbonising the transport sector.
•	
Implement Just Transition principles to foster a holistic and socially inclusive 
decarbonisation of transport.
•	
Improve existing transport systems and adopt sustainable land-use development.
•	
Actively foster strategic collaborations, robust advocacy, and innovation to advance 
sustainable transport across the continent.
•	
Establish a unified framework for decarbonised and sustainable transport aligned 
with continental aspirations and global climate change targets.
CHAPTER SIX


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The expert working group emphasises that adopting a common position on sustainable 
and decarbonised transport in Africa does not imply a one-size-fits-all policy. Instead, 
Africa can adopt a common framework that is based on shared principles that recognises 
the diversity of national circumstances and allows for flexibility in implementation. The 
working group further categorically states that decarbonisation is not synonymous 
to electrification. While electrification can contribute to decarbonisation by replacing 
carbon-intensive energy sources with cleaner electricity, decarbonisation encompasses 
a broader set of strategies aimed at reducing overall carbon emissions across all sectors 
of the economy.
The findings and recommendations presented in this report underscore the need for 
ongoing research to explore more effective strategies and actions that can accelerate 
the transition to a net-zero carbon emission target by 2050, as stipulated in the Paris 
Agreement. Although this study primarily focused on road transport, it has emphasized 
that decarbonising transport in Africa requires a holistic approach. This entails integrating 
various modes of transport including rail, walking and cycling, and considering factors 
such as urban planning, energy sources, technological innovations, policy frameworks, 
and societal behavior. Only through a comprehensive, multi-dimensional strategy that 
addresses these interconnected elements can meaningful progress be made toward 
sustainable and efficient transport systems across the continent.
 


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Appendix A:
National aggregate cost advantage of electric vehicles in 
select African countries by 2030
Countries
Charging 
infrastructure Cost
Advantage (USD)
Capital Cost
Advantage (USD)
Operating Cost 
Advantage (USD)
Subtotal (USD)
Externality (USD)
Cost Advantage 
(Economic
Analysis) (USD)
Net taxes
subsidies (fiscal
wedge) (USD)
Economic Cost 
Advantage plus
fiscal wedge (USD)
Egypt
-4107
-13010
15300
-1817
19019
17202
10165
8348
Ethiopia
-1512
-4692
6920
716
1330
2046
11359
12075
Ghana
-3017
-6241
10846
1588
2494
4082
9346
10934
Nigeria
-4330
-6511
10850
9
1934
1943
-1112
-1103
Rwanda
-2762
-5112
6356
-1518
1760
242
25110
23592
Buses
Egypt
-6036
-12107
27579
9437
38150
47587
8806
18243
Ethiopia
-1545
-3375
6809
1890
1327
3217
10787
12676
Ghana
-3675
-7738
13212
1800
3249
5048
11965
13765
Nigeria
-2668
-6418
5222
-3863
890
-2973
-938
-4801
Rwanda
-3054
-7116
5825
-4346
1790
-2556
24523
20178
Four Wheelers (motor vehicles)
Egypt
-567
-1100
880
-787
1416
629
1256
469
Ethiopia
-142
-1173
376
-939
64
-875
1093
154
Ghana
-232
-290
413
-110
80
-30
332
222
Nigeria
-342
308
1043
1009
198
1206
29
1038
Rwanda
-249
18
246
15
59
74
1268
1283
Two-wheelers
Egypt
0
-202
265
63
203
266
93
156
Ethiopia
0
-172
129
-43
23
-20
223
180
Ghana
0
-71
290
219
56
275
220
439
Nigeria
0
-12
254
243
47
290
-27
216
Rwanda
0
-32
148
115
33
149
425
540
Source: Briceno-Garmendia et al. (2023).
Appendices
 


N
A
S
A
C
•
 
N
E
T
W
O
R
K
 
O
F
 
A
F
R
I
C
A
N
 
S
C
I
E
N
C
E
 
A
C
A
D
E
M
I
E
S
 
•
the interacademy partnership
SCIENCE
HEALTH
RESEARCH
Decarbonisation of Transport in Africa: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
102
Appendix B:
Guest Practitioners at Working Group workshop in Nairobi,
Kenya and list of presentations 
Name
Country
Organisation
Title of Presentation
Prof. Winnie 
Mitullah 
Kenya
The University of 
Nairobi
The role of Non-Motorised Transport 
(NMT) in Decarbonisation of 
Transport in Africa
Mr. Gideon 
Neethling
South 
Africa
Golden Arrow 
Bus Service 
(GABS)
The potential and challenges for 
large scale introduction of electric 
buses in South Africa.
Prof. 
Abubakar S. 
Sambo
Nigeria 
Usmanu 
Danfodiyo 
University 
Sokoto
Sustainable development of EVs in 
Nigeria: Charging stations, research 
and development (R&D) and the way 
forward in a situation of electricity 
inadequacy
Mr. Hilton 
Musk
South 
Africa
Rubicon
EV charging infrastructure: Installing 
& operating an EV charging network 
in South Africa.
Mr. Samuel 
Kamunya
Kenya
BasiGo
The role of e-mobility start-ups and 
innovation in growth of e-mobility 
and accelerating transition towards a 
decarbonisation of road transport in 
Africa.
Giliomee 
Johan
South 
Africa
Stellenbosch 
University 
Provided additional inputs in chapter 
2 and 3 of the report




DECARBONISATION OF 
TRANSPORT IN AFRICA:
Opportunities, Challenges and Policy Options
The transportation sector is a significant contributor of greenhouse gases, 
accounting for nearly a quarter of total emissions globally. Transportation is also 
a critical enabler of Africa’s economic transformation and features prominently 
in the African Union’s Agenda 2063. With growing climate change 
concerns, it is critical to decarbonise transportation because future 
carbon emissions are expected to increase. For this reason, the 
Network of Science Academies (NASAC) and InterAcademy 
Partnership (IAP) appointed an expert working group to 
conduct a study to assess the opportunities, challenges 
and policy options for decarbonisation of transport 
in Africa and prepare this report. This report also 
examines the necessary legal and regulatory 
frameworks, policies, institutional and technical 
capacities, strategies, technologies, financing, 
and social aspects that can contribute to the 
decarbonisation of transport in the continent. 
The report also included pertinent findings 
and recommendations for a holistic transition 
to decarbonised transportation, which African 
governments and other stakeholders should 
take into account.
  
This report can also be found on the NASAC 
website: www.nasaconline.org. 


HUGH BARLOW
Consultant CCS Technology
SHAHRZAD S M SHAHI
Consultant CCS Technology
MATTHEW LOUGHREY
Principal Consultant CCS Technology
TECHNICAL REPORT
STATE OF THE ART: 
CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
2
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS 
FOREWORD	
4
CAPTURE	
6
      AIR LIQUIDE	
8
      AKER CARBON CAPTURE	
18
      AXENS	
22
      B&W	
26
      CAPTURA	
30
      CARBONCAPT	
32
      CARBON CLEAN	
36
      CARBON ENGINEERING	
40
      C-CAPTURE	
44
      CAPSOL TECHNOLOGIES	
48
      CO2CRC	
52
      DELTA CLEAN TECH	
56
      ELESSENT CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES	
58
      FUELCELL ENERGY	
62
      HEIRLOOM	
66
      HUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE (HNCERI)	
68
      HONEYWELL	
72
      K2CO2	
76
      KC8CAPTURE	
78
      LINDE	
82
      NET POWER	
94
      NOVOZYMES	
98
      NUADA (FORMERLY MOF TECHNOLOGIES)	
102
      SHELL AND TECHNIP ENERGIES	
104
      SINOPEC NANJING CHEMICALS RESEARCH INSTITUTE	
108
      SUMITOMO SHI FW	
112
      TOSHIBA	
118
      SVANTE	
122
TRANSPORT	
124
      GHD	
126
      JFE STEEL	
130
      MAXTUBE GROUP	
134
STORAGE	
138
    CMG	
140
    GETECH	
142
    HALLIBURTON	
146
    NSAI-PETRO	
158
    QUORUM SOFTWARE	
160
FULL VALUE CHAIN	
168
     ABB	
170
     ASPENTECH	
172
     BAKER HUGHES	
174
     CHART & HOWDEN	
200
     CHEVRON	
204
     ENI	
208
     JCCS	
212
     NOV	
216
     OPENGOSIM LTD	
220
     RITE	
222
     SAIPEM	
230
     SICK	
236
     SLB	
240


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
4
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 
There is an urgent need for innovative, new technologies 
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to tackle climate 
change and meet net-zero targets.  Carbon Capture and 
Storage (CCS) covers a range of technologies that will be 
crucial in supporting these global efforts. 
The uptake of CCS is growing at an unprecedented 
rate.  While early CCS projects targeted easier to capture 
emissions sources, projects further into the energy 
transition need to address harder to abate emissions 
that are more expensive and challenging to address. 
 
Technological advancements are essential to improving 
the economics and ensuring the successful application of 
CCS to these more challenging emissions sources.
This year’s Technology Compendium expands on the 
inaugural version in all categories with several new 
technologies.  One of the key advancements is the 
development of new and improved methods for capturing 
carbon dioxide, including several new technologies 
utilizing calcium looping and metal organic frameworks 
(MOFs). For transport and storage, new technologies 
focused on robust design and monitoring are supporting 
the need to provide safe and optimized transport and 
storage infrastructure.  This highlights the ongoing work 
to develop technologies to improve energy efficiency, 
reduce costs, and improve infrastructure performance for 
future CCS projects. 
The year’s Technology Compendium continues to 
showcase the breadth and depth of commercially-
available CCS technologies worldwide. We look forward 
to seeing further growth and development of CCS 
technologies in coming years as we continue to fight the 
threat of climate change.
Matt Loughrey 
Principal – CCS Technologies 
Global CCS Institute 
July 2023
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the contributions and support of all the technology companies who have contributed to this 
publication.
Thank you to Hugh Barlow and Shahrzad Shahi for their invaluable editing and coordination of this report.
Special mentions also go to Yi Wu, Yasuo Murakami, Kazuko Miyashita, Erin Billeri, Spencer Schecht, Bruno Gerrits, 
and Sarah Hardman of the Global CCS Institute for their efforts and support.


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
6
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
CAPTURE 


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
8
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
The first industrial deployment of this technology was made 
in Port-Jerome, France (Cryocap™ H2), at the largest SMR 
Hydrogen production unit operated by Air Liquide. Since 
its startup in 2015, the plant has captured 100 ktpa CO2 
from an existing SMR while boosting H2 production. The 
plant has been designed for ease of scalability; wherein all 
equipment in Port Jerome will be purely upscaled to larger 
scale CCS projects. After 8 years of operation, the Port 
Jerome site demonstrated:
•	
Proven robustness of design - no aging of key 
components over time
•	
Very high reliability: No H2 production interruption, CO2 
availability > 99%
•	
Performances confirmed and stable over time
•	
Improvement thanks to continuous capitalization from 
operation to design 
Port Jerome is one of the 4 sites in Europe able to produce 
Hydrogen certified low carbon, and has been integrated as 
a pilot site for the project CertifHy, the first Guarantee of 
Origin (GO) platform for Green and Low-Carbon Hydrogen. 
All Cryocap™ products benefit from 8 years of return of 
operational experience gained in Port Jerome.
Air Liquide has always been committed to innovation 
by improving its vast portfolio of patented technologies 
and customized solutions to meet and exceed customer 
expectations in terms of efficiency, safety, reliability and 
competitiveness to achieve energy transition goals. As a 
top technology provider with a longstanding experience 
in Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC), we 
cover the entire project life-cycle: license engineering 
services / proprietary equipment, high-end engineering 
& design capabilities, project management & execution 
services. In addition, we also offer efficient customer 
services through our worldwide set-up.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
The entire Cryocap™ suite was designed to address the challenges experienced from traditional capture solutions. Our 
customers value the following Cryocap™ features:
•	
Minimizes overall carbon footprint: the technologies are electrically-driven (negligible steam) which maximize the CO2 
avoided by reduced indirect CO2 emissions, with high CO2 recovery (92 - 99%), and can be paired with renewable or 
low-carbon power supply
•	
High intrinsic process efficiency: the technology bricks are used in their optimum range
•	
Safety and no toxicity: solvent-free, and no toxic or flammable gases used
•	
Match the end specifications and high CO2 product purity: all Cryocap™ produce either high pressure gaseous or liquid 
CO2 at marginal extra cost and can meet the most stringent CO2 specifications (>99.9%v)
•	
Favor synergies and optimize space: 1-step capture and liquefaction for any stream containing >15% CO2 (dry basis), 
very compact solutions with flexible layout configuration and simplified infrastructure compared to steam-based 
solutions
•	
Improve productivity: for some applications (H2 and steel), installing our product improves the efficiency of the original 
process or enable the co-production of valuable molecules (e.g. Cryocap™ H2 increase H2 production up to 20%)
CRYOCAPTMW (H2, FG, OXY, STEEL, NG)
Air 
Liquide 
has 
been 
designing 
gas 
separation 
technologies for more than 100 years, and has leveraged 
its industrial demonstration units on power plants, steel 
blast furnaces, and H2 production plants to develop the 
Cryocap™ product line. Cryocap™ is an award-winning 
proprietary technological innovation for CO2 capture that is 
unique in the world, using a cryogenic process (involving 
low temperatures to separate gases). Cryocap™ can be 
adapted to specific applications combining a variety of Air 
Liquide technologies. Customers can reduce their CO₂ 
emissions by up to 99% and have the possibility to valorize 
other molecules contained in the feed gas (e.g. CO, H2, etc). 
Cryocap™ is a robust and pioneering technology available 
to service customers looking to reduce the carbon footprint 
of their production facilities.
To date, Cryocap™ is the only full-scale cryogenic capture 
technology with an industrial reference in operation in the 
world. Driven by innovation and the need to decarbonize 
carbon intensive processes, Cryocap™ reference examples 
date back to 2005 and the product line has since then 
been selected for multiple engineering studies, pre-
Front End Engineering & Design (pre-FEED), FEED, and 
implementation across four continents for a diverse set of 
industries. To further showcase its innovative and efficient 
design in CO2 capture, Cryocap™ has resulted in several 
patent filings. It has also consistently been recognized by 
US and EU experts through several grant awards by EU 
Innovation Fund and US Department of Energy (DOE) in 
2021 and 2022.
Our portfolio of cryogenic technologies includes:
•	
Cryocap™ H2 for hydrogen production: Steam Methane 
Reformer (SMR), AutoThermal Reforming (ATR), or 
Partial Oxidation (POX)
•	
Cryocap™ FG for flue gases (optimal: >15% CO2 dry 
basis)
•	
Cryocap™ Oxy for oxy combustion
•	
Cryocap™ Steel for steel production
•	
Cryocap™ NG for acid natural gas fields
•	
Cryocap™ XLL for large scale liquefaction (in a separate 
section)
CONTACT
Email: 	 cryocap@airliquide.com 
Web: 	
www.airliquide.com
AIR LIQUIDE
DESCRIPTION
CRYOCAP™ H2
Based on its extensive experience in hydrogen production units, Air Liquide has developed a technology capable of 
capturing the CO2 emitted during hydrogen production (by SMR or ATR or POX). This proprietary technology is the subject 
of several patents and allows customers to make significant cost reductions. 


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
10
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
On top of capturing and liquefying the CO2 in one step, 
it is the only technology that can reduce CO2 emissions 
during the production process while boosting hydrogen 
production by 13 to 20%. It has the lowest cost on the 
market for CO2 capture in hydrogen production units 
(especially compared to activated MDEA), and can be 
adapted to existing and future hydrogen production units.
The technology uses cryogenic purification to separate 
the CO2 from Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) offgas, 
containing typically 40-50%v CO2. The PSA offgas is 
compressed, dried and sent to a cryogenic unit, where 
the CO₂ is separated from the other components by a 
combination of partial condensation and distillation. A 
pure and pressurized CO₂ flow is produced from the cold 
process. The non-condensed gases are recycled through 
a membrane system to recover H₂ and CO₂. Residual 
gas is sent to the burners of the H₂ production plant. The 
CO₂ product is compressed up to supercritical pressure 
or liquefied and stored in liquid storage. Liquid CO₂ 
can also be directly withdrawn from the cold process at 
marginal costs. The CO₂ can be then liquefied and purified 
to meet CO₂ specifications of local industrial markets 
(agri-food, water treatment, etc.) or transport systems for 
sequestration. Cryocap™ H₂ can be installed for greenfield 
and brownfield H₂ plants. 
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: from 300 - 10,000 tpd
•	
Hydrogen production: increase of 13 - 20%
•	
Avoided CO2 cost reduction: up to 40% compared to 
MDEA
•	
OPEX + CAPEX:  30-50 €/tCO₂ captured 
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
More than 99% of CO₂ and H₂ recovery from syngas
Main Applications:
•	
H₂ production  (SMR or ATR), POx, any syngas with 
>15% CO2
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2012 - Industrial CCU EPC for 300 tpd in France
•	
2019 - Industrial CCS pre-FEED in EU (Air Liquide SMR)
•	
2020 - Industrial CCS FEED in Belgium (Air Liquide 
SMR)
•	
2021 - Award by Dutch SDE++ for Porthos project and 
by EU Innovation fund for Kairos@C project (both Air 
Liquide SMR)
•	
2022 - Selection by US DOE for FEED in USA (Air 
Liquide SMR)
•	
2022 - Industrial CCU EPC project in Grandpuits, 
France (with TotalEnergies)
CRYOCAP™ FG
Air Liquide developed a dedicated capture technology 
in order to address low-hanging fruits of the high-
concentrated sources: industrial flue gases. Many high 
CO2-emitting industries have concentrated sources of 
CO2 emissions above 15%, such as hydrogen production 
with SMR, cement and lime production, blast furnaces in 
hot metal production, and FCC in refineries. These high-
concentrated sources are estimated to represent around 
50% of the global industrial direct emissions. Additionally, 
Cryocap™ FG can also significantly abate NOx emissions 
from flue gas and to deliver the on-spec liquid CO2 product 
at its battery limits, thereby reducing the number of process 
units and interfaces, and increasing the level of overall 
optimization and reliability.
Cryocap™ FG is a separation process based on the 
combination of adsorption and cryogenic separation. 
The flue gas is first compressed, dried and sent to a PSA 
(Pressure Swing Adsorption). The PSA pre-concentrates 
the CO₂ in the offgas. It is compressed then sent to a cold 
process. There, the CO₂ is recovered by the combination 
of partial condensation and distillation, which allow the 
removal of various elements such as O₂, Ar, N₂, NO and CO. 
The CO₂ product is compressed, condensed and pumped 
up to supercritical pressure or directly produced as liquid. 
The pressurized nitrogen from the PSA is expanded to 
recover energy. 
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: 300 – 10,000 tpd
•	
PSA-assisted CO2 condensation
•	
Compressors, PSA and cryo process can be located in 
two different plots
•	
Smart impurities management (high NOx)
•	
40 to 80 €/tCO₂ captured
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
CO2 capture rate: up to 98%
Main Applications:
•	
Flue gases or off gases with CO2 content >= 15% (SMR, 
cement/lime, steel blast furnace, refineries (FCC), 
waste incineration/biomass power plant, pulp & paper)
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2020 - Industrial CCS Engineering Study for 2,000 tpd 
in EU (FCC)
•	
2021 - Industrial CCS Process Design Package + 
License for 2400 tpd in EU (SMR)
•	
2021 - Selection by US DOE for a FEED on largest 
single kiln for Holcim St. Genevieve plant in US (e.g. 
10,000 tpd CO2)
•	
2022 - Two awards by EU Innovation Fund for FOIK 
cryogenic capture on lime flue gas (Lhoist Réty) and 
cement single line kiln (Lafarge Holcim Kujawy)
•	
2022 - Two selections by US DOE for FEED on Gulf 
Coast SMR and a Direct Reduction Iron (DRI HBI) 
(Arcelormittal, previously Voestalpine)
CRYOCAP™ OXY
Cryocap™ Oxy uses oxy-fuel combustion exhaust as a 
feedstock. Its unique technological bricks include flue gas 
drying, dust filtration, and cryogenic purification. Through 
this technology, a high rate of CO2 recovery is achieved, 
and can reduce atmospheric emissions from power plants 
to almost zero (emissions of NOx, SOx, fine particles and 
Hg). 
The flue gas issued from the cement or lime or power plant 
is first treated in a pre-treatment unit, which aims to cool 
the gas and remove the SOx, HF, HCl, most of the NOx, 
and dust. Then, the gas is compressed and dried before 
entering the cryogenic purification unit. In the cold process, 
CO₂ is recovered by combination of partial condensation 
and distillation, which allows the removal of the heavy 
compounds such as NOx and the light elements such as 
O₂, Ar, N₂, NO and CO. The CO₂ product is compressed, 
condensed and pumped up to supercritical pressure or 
directly produced under liquid state.
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: 1,000 and 15,000 tpd
•	
30 - 50 €/tCO₂ captured
•	
Energy savings through residual gas
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
Enriched flue gas above 60% CO2
•	
Smart impurities management (high NOx)
•	
CO2 capture rate: 90-98%
Main Applications:
•	
Cement/Lime
•	
Power plant
•	
Any applications with CO2 concentration >40%
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2008 - Demo CCS EP for 200 tpd in France (Total - 
oxyfuels)
•	
2010 - Pilot CCS EP for 80 tpd in Australia (Callide)
•	
2012 - Pilot CCS EPC for 200 tpd in Spain (CIUDEN)
•	
2014 - Industrial CCS FEED for 3500 tpd in US 
(Futuregen)
•	
2015 - Industrial CCS FEED for 1500 tpd in France 
(Lafarge - cement)
•	
2021 - Awarded by Innovation Fund for ~1MTPY 
(EQIOM - cement)
CRYOCAP™ STEEL
This solution was designed to specifically capture CO2 from 
steel making plants, with CO2 stream concentrations of 20-
50%. The gas is first compressed, dried and sent to a PSA 
(Pressure Swing Adsorption). The PSA pre-concentrates 
the CO₂ in the offgas while producing a CO rich stream. 
The pre-concentrated CO₂ stream is compressed and 
sent to a cold process. There, the CO₂ is recovered by 
combination of partial condensation and distillation, which 
allows the removal of the light elements such as Ar, N₂, H2 
and CO₂. The CO₂ product can be produced as a gaseous 
or liquid product. The pressurized CO-rich stream is either 
recycled to the blast furnace or used to produce fuels.
Key Figures:
•	
Capacity: from 300 - 5,000+ tpd
•	
Compact and flexible footprint: compressors, PSA and 
cold-box can be located in three different plots
•	
25-60 €/t CO₂ captured
•	
Gaseous or liquid CO2
•	
CO2 capture rate: 80 to 95%
Main Applications:
•	
Iron and Steel Production
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
2005 - Pilot CCS EPC for 40 tpd (pre-concentration 
part) in Sweden (MEFOS)
•	
2012 - Industrial CCS FEED for 3,600 tpd in France 
(ULCOS)
•	
2019 - CCU for 800 tpd (pre-concentration part) in 
Belgium (Steelanol)
2020 - CCU LCO2 Pre-FEED for 350 tpd in Korea
CRYOCAP™ NG
The CO₂ rich natural gas is first dried and sent to a cold 
process where the CO₂ is separated from the other 
components through a combination of partial condensation 
and distillation. High CO₂ partial pressure favors the partial 
condensation of CO₂ and therefore, makes its separation 
from natural gas even easier. The non-condensable gas 
is enriched in methane and sent to a membrane for final 
purification. The CO₂ purity of the product corresponds 
to pipeline specifications, generally 1 - 10 mol%. The CO₂- 
enriched permeate stream of the membrane is sent back 
to the cold process. The CO₂ and heavy hydrocarbons 
condense in the cold process and are collected at 
high pressure. NGL recovery is possible with almost no 
additional cost. Cryocap™ NG is tolerant to some content of 
H₂S. Cryocap™ NG also allows for bulk removal of H₂S from 
NG.
Key Figures:
•	
Up to 1,000,000 Nm3/h
•	
Separation cost: less than 1 USD/MMBTU
•	
Capex savings: > 50% vs. amine absorption (at high 
CO₂ content)
Main Applications:
•	
Natural gas with high CO2 content (>35%)


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
12
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Fully referenced in all applicable scales and different applications
•	
Process uses inexpensive, available and chemically stable solvent 
•	
Technology provides low operating costs and high availability  
•	
Process configuration can be tailored to optimize CAPEX and OPEX figures
AMINE SOLUTIONS, RECTISOL
TM, AND RECTICAPTM
Air Liquide engineers solvent based technologies such 
as amine to capture CO2 from synthesis gas or flue gas. 
Through long term partnerships with the key amine license 
providers, Air Liquide has installed 80+ units and benefits 
from its long-term operational experience of amine units.
Considered as the industrial base case, amine technology 
can deliver high purity gaseous CO2 (99+%) at low 
pressure, which can be combined with CryocapTM XLL. 
For CO2 capture on flue gases with low CO2 concentration 
(below 10%), amine technology remains the most 
competitive solution, provided the availability of large 
amounts of excess steam or high grade heat. Air Liquide is 
also offering proprietary technologies for CO2 capture from 
synthesis gas (RectisolTM, RecticapTM).
CONTACT
Email: 	 gas-treatment@airliquide.com
	
(for Amine Wash)
	
hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
	
(for Rectisol and Recticap)
AIR LIQUIDE
DESCRIPTION
ACID GAS REMOVAL – AMINE WASH
The process configuration and solvent selection will be 
tailored according to feedstock and sweet gas application. 
Air Liquide can offer very energy-efficient processes 
such as the BASF OASE® purple or OASE® yellow as well 
as other proprietary or generic amines for pipeline or 
liquefied natural gas specifications. This process presents 
the advantage of very low hydrocarbon co-absorption. 
With selective processes, deep H2S removal with low to 
moderate CO2 co-absorption can be achieved for pipeline 
specifications. Capacity is up to 1,500,000 Nm³/h per train.
CO2 REMOVAL FROM FLUE GAS (3-25% CO2) - AMINE 
WASH
Air Liquide offers energy efficient solutions with highly 
stable, low maintenance solvents based on proprietary 
second generation amines. CO2 capture rates of up to 97% 
can be reached irrespective of the feed’s CO2 content, and 
CO2 product specifications of up to >99.9%. Capacity Up 
to 1,500,000 Nm³/h feed per train, up to 4,000 tpd CO2 
per train. Trace components such as particles and SOx are 
handled in the upstream pretreatment. 
Key Figures:
•	
99.7% availability
•	
Max 16% O2 in flue gas
•	
Range: min 150 tpd CO2 - max 4000 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate: 85 to 97%
•	
CO2 up to 2.5 bara w/o compression
•	
CO2  purity up to 99.9%
•	
Particles & SOx handled upstream of amine wash
•	
Low electrical power consumption 
Main Applications:
•	
Flue gases or off gasses from industrial sources with 
CO2 content 3% to 25% - (SMR, cement/lime, steel 
blast furnace, refineries (FCC), biomass power plant, 
pulp & paper)
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
5 units in operation, 6 OASE Blue references from 
BASF
CO2 REMOVAL FROM SYNGAS - AMINE WASH
Air Liquide offers highly energy-efficient processes such 
as BASF OASE® white. The process configuration will 
be tailored according to treated gas requirements and 
CO2 product specification as well as optimized CAPEX 
and OPEX. The process can be heat-integrated with the 
upstream gas generation. CO2 specifications in the treated 
gas < 20 ppm are achievable, making this process ideal 
for CO2 removal upstream of any coldbox or ammonia 
process. CO2 capture rates from syngas of >99% can be 
achieved to produce a decarbonized hydrogen product. 
Since the process has a very low co-absorption even at 
higher feed gas pressures, CO2 product specifications with 
CO2 > 99% are achievable.
Key Figures:
•	
99.7% availability
•	
Capacity: from 100 - 3500 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate up to 99.9% on feed gas
•	
Spec: up to 50ppm CO2 in treated gas
•	
CO2 at ~1.2 bara, purity of up to 99.3%
•	
Low electrical power consumption
•	
Solvent regeneration is done using heat, with possible 
heat integration with existing hydrogen plant 
Main Applications:
•	
H2 production (SMR, POX, ATR)
•	
Syngas with~15% to 20% CO2. Oxo-syngas with 5% to 
15% CO2
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
30 OASE references, 80 amine wash units in total


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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RECTISOL
™ 
Harmful acid gases contained in raw gases from any gasification are removed by absorption with a physical solvent (cold 
methanol). Rectisol™ is the leading process when it comes to the purification of gasification-based syngas for catalytic 
applications (production of syngas, methanol, ammonia, or Fischer-Tropsch) as well as hydrogen and syngas for power 
production. Using inexpensive solvent in combination with optimized heat integration, the Rectisol™ process has extremely 
low operating costs and high availability.
Key Figures
•	
50,000 - 1,000,000 Nm³/hr per train (feed gas)
•	
H2S + COS removal rate < 0.08 ppm
•	
CO2 removal rate up to 5-50 ppm
•	
Special setups for removal of mercaptans, metal 
carbonyls and BTX available
•	
Accumulation of all harmful contaminants within the 
acid gas to be safely processed in a SRU
•	
An additional compressor can be added to increase 
capture rate
Main Applications:
•	
H2, Methanol production, Sustainable Aviation Fuels
Reference / Project Examples:
•	
+ 30 References
RECTICAP™
Recticap™ is an optimized Rectisol™ concept tailored for 
energy transition projects focused on ATR based low-
carbon H2 to produce low cost low-carbon hydrogen in 
large capacities (>300,000 kNm³/hr) at moderate to high 
pressures (>25 bar). In contrast to a Rectisol™, Recticap™ 
removes only CO₂ from the raw hydrogen/ syngas and 
has hence a simplified process setup with reduced capital 
expenditures. The solution allows up to 98% CO2 capture 
from syngas. Dry CO2 capture-ready at >98.5% purity is 
achievable.
Recticap Benefits
•	
Optimized solution for sulfur-free syngases
•	
Targeting large single train ATR based H2 application in 
energy transition projects
•	
Process simplification due to clean syngas and CO2 
capture only 
•	
Up to 50% lower CAPEX and 25% lower OPEX for 
same syngas volumes than RectisolTM
•	
Know-how from AL´s own operated plants and 
RectisolTM demonstration unit


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
HSE-Friendly
•	
Custom plant: flexible design
•	
Moisture and other light compounds (O2, N2…) removal
•	
High compactness
•	
Low specific energy
•	
Cost efficiency
CRYOCAPTM XLL (LARGE CO2 LIQUEFACTION)
Air Liquide has developed Cryocap
TM XLL, specifically 
designed to liquefy large volumes of CO2. The solution 
allows aggregation of CO2 from various emitters utilizing 
possibly different types of carbon capture technologies. 
On top of liquefying CO2, Cryocap
TM XLL also allows the 
removal of moisture and other compounds (such as O2) 
to meet CO2 sink specifications. The technology has been 
developed for large scale and is able to reduce specific 
power for CO2 liquefaction by 40% compared to existing 
small scale CO2 liquefier used for industrial merchant 
applications. 
The technology is especially suited for CO2 industrial 
hubs and basins where the CO2 needs to be transported 
via ships, trucks, or trains. Cryocap
TM XLL is a HSE-friendly 
solution that does not involve the use of any toxic or 
flammable external refrigerant (such as propane). As a 
single compressor is used for both the feed and the cycle, 
it is also a very compact and cost effective solution.
CONTACT
Email: 	 cryocap@airliquide.com  
Web: 	
www.airliquide.com
AIR LIQUIDE
DESCRIPTION
The CryocapTM XLL process is proposed as an industrial 
solution to compress, liquefy, and purify the raw CO₂ 
stream resulting from upstream units. The CO₂ feed gas 
is compressed in the feed/recycle compressor, dried at an 
intermediate pressure and then compressed again. The 
compressed gas is cooled down and then routed to the 
cold process. In the cold process, the high-pressure, dry 
CO₂ is cooled down and split into various streams. One 
of these streams is purified by distillation in the Stripping 
Column to produce the liquid CO₂ product, which is routed 
to the unit’s battery limits. The remaining streams are 
expanded to different levels and vaporized in the main heat 
exchanger, providing the refrigeration load required for the 
liquefaction of the CO₂. Once vaporized, these streams 
are recycled at ambient temperature to the feed/recycle 
compressor. This configuration makes it possible to handle 
the compression of the feed gas and the refrigeration with 
a single compressor (so called self-refrigerated cycle).
Key Figures:
•	
800 to 10,000+ tpd
•	
Custom plant: flexible design
•	
Liquefies CO2 at ambient temperature
•	
5-25€/tonne CO₂ liquefied
•	
Very low OPEX: 30-130 kWh/tonne CO2
•	
HSE-friendly (CO2 cycle)
Reference Examples:
•	
Design for 4 x 7000 tpd in Belgium (Antwerp@C)
•	
FEED in Dunkirk, France (DARTAGNAN) - Awarded 
CEF Funding
LONGSTANDING EXPERIENCE IN CO2 MANAGEMENT
Air Liquide has a longstanding experience in CO2 management, from capture, purification and liquefaction to storage and 
transport from various sources. Air Liquide can also upgrade the recovered CO2 and provide it to various markets, such as 
the agri-food industry (carbonation, preservation, and refrigerated transport), water treatment, chemicals…
Longstanding experience 
in CO2 management
Air Liquide has a longstanding experience in CO2 management, from capture, 
purification and liquefaction to storage and transport from various sources.  
Air Liquide can also upgrade the recovered CO2 and provide it to various markets, 
such as the  agri-food industry (carbonation, preservation, and refrigerated 
transport), water treatment, chemicals…
1
2
CO2 EMISSIONS
CARBON CAPTURE
•  
Industrial processes (metallurgy, cement 
manufacturing, ammonia and hydrogen 
production, methanization, fermentation,...)
•  
Hydrocarbons combustion
•  
Biomass combustion
•  
Waste incineration
Complexity and energy balance of carbon 
capture operations mainly depend on:
•  
Electricity and steam costs 
and carbon footprint
•  
Inlet CO2 stream characteristics
•  
Expected outlet CO2 conditions (P,T) 
and purity
CO2
CO2 
recovery
Purification 
& liquefaction
3
UTILISATION & SEQUESTRATION
•  
Sequestration in deep salineaquifers, 
in depleted oil fields or in coal seams
• Mineralization in basaltic underground rocks
•  
Synthetic hydrocarbons
•  
Chemicals, polymers
•  
Building materials
•  
Gas for industrial uses
•  
Agri food
•  
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Liquid or 
gaseous CO2
Utilisation
Geological 
sequestration


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
PROPRIETARY AND PROVEN TECHNOLOGY
The technology behind the company’s business has robust 
patent protection and offers best-in-class Health, Safety 
and Environment (HSE) characteristics, along with high 
energy efficiency. It can be applied to both existing and 
new build plants, and has extensive real-world validation, 
with 60,000 hours of operation to date across a range of 
carbon emitting industries. Aker Carbon Capture considers 
research, innovation, and technology development to be 
key drivers of competitive advantage. The company has an 
active program focused on reducing costs, developing and 
qualifying new carbon capture technologies, and improving 
carbon capture project economics. This includes capture 
efficiency, further modularization, and the implementation 
of digital capabilities.
The ACC™ proprietary solvents were developed in an 
eight-year comprehensive R&D program (SOLVit) together 
with industry players and Norwegian research partners. 
Numerous solvent mixtures were tested and compared 
regarding energy consumption, robustness, toxicity, 
material compatibility, and – most importantly – HSE 
performance. The SOLVit program resulted in energy-
efficient solvents, with no negative environmental impact 
or occupational hazards. This results in reduced solvent 
consumption, meaning reduced OPEX. Compared to 
traditional amines our proprietary amines also minimize 
degradation products, which can have a significant impact 
on corrosion and the need for maintenance”.
The ACC™ capture technology including the ACC™ solvents 
and ACC™ Emission System has been tested and verified 
on flue gases from gas-fired and coal-fired power plants, 
cement kilns, waste-to-energy plants, hydrogen production 
plants, char manufacture and smelting, with 60,000 hours 
of operating experience from the US, Germany, Scotland, 
Sweden, Poland, and Norway. Based on the extensive 
testing, the ACC™ capture technology is qualified by DNV 
GL according to DNV-RP-A203 Qualification Procedures 
for New Technology and DNV-RP-J201 Qualification 
Procedures for CO2 Capture Technology.
Energy 
optimization 
is 
critical 
for 
the 
successful 
implementation of carbon capture as it significantly reduces 
the energy consumption of the process. At Aker Carbon 
Capture, energy optimization, heat integration, and waste 
heat recovery are prioritized focus areas. Aker Carbon 
Capture offers several highly effective solutions for energy 
optimization, tailored to specific industrial applications 
and site-specific conditions. The recommended solution 
is based on the overall energy performance of the parent 
and the capture plants. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Highly energy-efficient capture process with innovative heat integration solutions. 
•	
Includes proprietary ACC™ advanced emission control system to prevent the formation of amine mist, which nearly 
eliminates the emissions of amine and amine degradation products. 
•	
Verified via 60,000 hours of data for operating on flue gas from cement kilns, waste-to-energy plants, gas power 
plants, hydrogen production, char production, smelting and refinery applications, through campaigns with our Mobile 
Test Unit and at Technology Centre Mongstad. 
ADVANCED AKER CARBON CAPTURE (ACC™) 
Aker Carbon Capture is a pure-play carbon capture 
company with solutions, services and technologies serving 
a range of industries. The company has proprietary and 
field-proven technology to enable carbon emission 
reduction and removal in sectors such as cement, gas-to-
power, biomass and waste-to-energy, blue hydrogen, and 
other hard-to-abate industries. Aker Carbon Capture’s 
Advanced Carbon Capture (ACC™) technology has 
been continuously developed since 2005 and offered 
commercially since 2009. 
The company’s business model covers the sale of 
complete carbon capture units, license models including 
supply of key equipment, aftermarket services and, 
together with industrial partners, a full value chain Carbon 
Capture as a Service model. In general, Aker Carbon 
Capture’s plants include a high degree of modularity in 
their designs, which is an important driver to reduce costs 
and shorten delivery times. 
We deeply believe partnerships are crucial to grow the 
CCUS industry, such as the unique partnership we have 
with Microsoft to pursue joint innovation and services to 
accelerate the deployment of carbon capture. Aker Carbon 
Capture’s overall purpose is to accelerate planet positive 
by enabling carbon reduction and removal from industries 
and energy solutions.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@akercarboncapture.com
Web: 	
www.akercarboncapture.com
AKER CARBON CAPTURE
•	
Aker Carbon Capture’s ACC™ CO2 capture process, including CO2 liquefaction, intermediate storage and CO2 
export has been qualified by DNV-GL according to DNV-RP-A203 Qualification Procedures for New Technology and 
DNVRP-J201 Qualification Procedures for CO2 Capture Technology.
•	
Includes extremely robust solvents for environmentally friendly operations. The proprietary ACC™ solvents are 
characterized by low solvent degradation, which is associated with a low corrosion rate in the plant, low amine makeup 
requirement, low emissions of amine degradation products, low demand for amine reclamation, and thereby, resulting 
in low production of reclaimer waste. 
Aker Carbon Capture’s Just Catch™


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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Aker Carbon Capture’s Advanced Carbon Capture (ACC™)"
Twence CCU (Copyright)
The main unit operations of the ACC™ process include 
the Direct Contact Cooler (DCC), the absorber, and the 
desorber columns, the reboiler, the reclaimer, the energy 
saver, the flue gas fan, and a liquefaction unit with an 
optional proprietary advance heat integration. 
Flue gas from the client’s plant is extracted downstream 
of any existing flue gas emission control units through the 
flue gas fan. The flue gas is pre-treated in the DCC. The 
purpose of the DCC is to cool the flue gas and to remove 
any acid gases, such as SO2, HCl, and HF. Condensed 
water from the flue gas will exit the DCC as a bleed stream. 
Flue gas from the DCC is routed to the CO2 absorber 
downstream of the booster fan. The CO2 absorber consists 
of a CO2 absorption section in the lower part of the 
column and a water wash section with an emission control 
system in the upper part of the column. In the absorption 
section, flue gas contacts the lean amine solvent in a 
countercurrent flow regime, absorbing CO2 from the 
flue gas. Continuing to the upper part of the column, the 
emission control system including the ACC™ Anti-Mist 
design cools and cleans the CO2-lean flue gas of traces 
of amines and potential amine degradation products, thus 
effectively preventing emissions of amine and potential 
amine-degradation products in the form of aerosols. CO2-
lean flue gas is either emitted from the absorber stack or 
returned to the existing flue gas stack downstream of the 
flue gas extraction point. 
CO2-rich amine is drained from the absorber sump. The 
rich amine solvent is regenerated using steam. The steam 
is condensed in a reboiler and returned to the battery limits 
as hot condensate. The increase in temperature during the 
indirect heating of rich solvent with steam strips the CO2 
out of the solvent. The resulting lean amine is returned to 
the absorber for reuse in the CO2 capture process, while 
the CO2 exits the top of the desorber. The energy saver 
consists of a proprietary process that reduces the steam 
consumption in the reboiler.
CO2 may be compressed and e.g., fed into a regional 
CO2 pipeline to be transported to permanent storage, or 
compressed and liquified for transport by ship or truck. The 
ACC proprietary technology solution enables internal heat 
recovery from compression that also reduces the overall 
steam requirement for the carbon capture plant. 
To maintain high solvent performance, a reclaimer 
is included to intermittently remove impurities and 
degradation products from the amine solvent. A small 
amount of concentrated liquid waste is generated in the 
reclaimer. This reclaimer waste needs to be disposed of 
batch-wise as chemical waste. Due to the low degradation 
rate of the ACC™ solvents, along with a properly designed 
DCC, the amount of reclaimer waste from the ACC™ 
process is very low compared to standard plants operating 
with generic solvents such as MEA.
REFERENCE PROJECTS
Technology Center Mongstad (TCM) 
Aker Carbon Capture designed and was awarded the EPC 
delivery of the carbon capture test facility plant at TCM. 
This full-scale CO2 capture plant captures CO2 from the 
gas-fired combined heat and power plant and the catalytic 
cracker at the Mongstad refinery in Norway. Different from 
competitors, Aker Carbon Capture has not only tested our 
ACC™ technology at the TCM facility but designed and 
delivered the actual plant, which has been in continuous 
operations since 2012. 
Customer: Statoil (now Equinor). 
Twence CCU 
This first-of-a-kind project will enable the removal of CO2 
from flue gases at Twence’s waste-to-energy installation 
facility located at Hengelo, the Netherlands. The captured 
and liquefied CO2 will be used primarily by greenhouses in 
the horticultural sector, where it will enhance crop growth. 
The delivery is planned to take place at the end of 2023. 
CO2 capture capacity: 0.1 Mtpa 
Brevik CCS
Aker Carbon Capture has been working together with 
Heidelberg Materials Sement Norge and partners 
in developing a full-scale CO2 capture, conditioning, 
compression, heat integration, intermediate storage and 
loading facility for their cement plant at Brevik in Norway. 
CO2 is being captured from the flue gases of the cement 
kiln using waste heat recovered from the cement plant 
and the CO2 compression plant through a proprietary heat 
integration technology. The ACC™ capture plant will be 
the world’s first large-scale CO2 capture plant at a cement 
plant, and is planned to be delivered in 2024. Brevik CCS 
is part of the Norwegian Longship Project.
CO2 capture capacity: 0.4 Mtpa
Ørsted Kalundborg Hub
Aker Carbon Capture will deliver five Just Catch™ units, 
which will be delivered to Ørsted’s wood chip-fired Asnæs 
Power Station and the Avedøre Power Station’s straw-fired 
boiler. Combined, these facilities will have an installed 
design capture capacity of 500,000 tonnes CO2 per year. 
Expected delivery will be in 2025.


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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BENEFITS
CO2 removal using amine scrubbing is a well-known 
process used since 1920 in natural gas treatment. Axens 
and IFPEN have acquired over 60 years of experience 
in CO2 removal from natural gas through the licencing of 
Advamine™ processes. 
Although CO2 can be easily recovered from pressurized 
gases with currently available technologies, its recovery 
from low-pressure or flue gases leads to a significant 
energy penalty. Furthermore, most solvents currently used 
in the oil and gas or chemical industries, will be severely 
degraded by the oxygen present in the flue gases. More 
suited technologies are therefore required for most CCS 
applications. 
To address these challenges, Axens and IFPEN have been 
involved in several R&D programs over the past years to 
develop enhanced CO2 capture technologies. The DMX™ 
process is an outcome of these developments.
The DMX™ process is a CO2 capture process based on 
absorption using a demixing solvent. The DMX™ solvent 
consists of a mixture of two organic compounds in aqueous 
solution, which is demixing under certain conditions of 
temperature and CO2 partial pressure.
The DMX™ solvent has a high cyclic capacity (4 times 
more than the MEA benchmark), whereas only the CO2-
rich phase needs to be regenerated. As it is very stable, 
it may be regenerated at higher temperature than amine 
solvents such as MEA, which allows producing CO2 at 
higher pressure (up to 5 barg). Thanks to the properties of 
DMX™ solvent, the DMX™ process has a great potential for 
reducing the energy penalty and the cost of CO2 capture. 
Compared to the first-generation absorption process using 
30 wt.% MEA, the DMX™ process allows a 30% reduction 
in energy penalty and the subsequent cost of the CO2 
capture (main results from Octavius (ENEL) and Valorco 
(coordinated by Arcelor Mittal and founded by ADEME) 
projects). The DMX™ solvent is also less corrosive than 
MEA, and therefore, carbon steel may be used as the 
principal material, which reduces the CapEx, as compared 
to the first-generation solvents.
Main Benefits of Axens’ DMX™ process are the following. 
•	
Versatile process applicable to multiple types of flue gases (for example: coal power stations, steel mill gas, FCC unit, 
Steam Methane Reformer, waste incinerator, cement plant, district heating and also electricity from biomass). The 
DMX™ process is well-adapted to CO2 capture on industrial smoke or industrial gas when the CO2 partial pressures are 
low to medium, typically below 1 bara.
•	
Low steam energy consumption
•	
Thermally stable solvent with low degradation rate 
•	
CO2 produced readily under pressure up to 5 bars for significant compression cost-savings 
•	
High capture rate achievable (> 95%) and high purity of produced CO2 (> 99%)
•	
- 30% of CO2 capture cost compared to 1st generation amines
CONTACT
Nadège Guernalec
Email: 	 nadege.guernalec@axens.net
Web: 	
www.axens.net
SUMMARY
DMX™ PROCESS 
AXENS


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DESCRIPTION
The DMX™ process can be broken down into four main 
sections.   
A CO2 absorption section (absorber): the conditioned gas 
is washed in a counter-current absorber with the DMX™ 
solvent. The absorber is equipped with an intercooling 
stage to enhance the absorption capacities of the solvent 
and reduce the solvent circulation to its minimum. A water 
wash section is installed at the top of absorber to limit the 
solvent losses with the treated flue gas. A DMX™ solvent 
demixing and settling section (decanter): the CO2-rich 
solvent recovered at the bottom of the absorber is pumped 
and heated in the rich/lean solvent exchanger, leading to 
demixing of the latter. After decantation, three phases are 
obtained:
•	
A liquid phase low in CO2 can be returned directly to 
the absorption section.
•	
A liquid phase rich in CO2 is directed to the 
regeneration section.
•	
A gas phase rich in CO2
A regeneration section (regenerator): the CO2-rich phase 
coming from the settling section is thermally regenerated 
by steam stripping effect (generated in situ with a reboiler 
operating with medium-pressure steam) producing a 
gaseous effluent rich in CO2 at the top of the column. The 
regenerated heavy phase is sent to a regenerated solvent 
hold up drum, before being recombined with the low CO2 
light phase (from the settling section). It is then cooled 
down through rich/lean solvent exchanger and lean solvent 
cooler before being returned to the absorption section. 
The gaseous CO2 streams recovered at the decanter 
and regenerator overhead are cooled down to recover 
condensed water before being mixed and routed at battery 
limit under pressure.
After more than 10 years of development from laboratory 
scale to global optimisation in the power and steel 
industries, the DMX™ process has passed a new milestone 
with its current demonstration at industrial scale, final 
step before commercialization end of 2023 by Axens. 
Operational since April 2023 at ArcelorMittal's steel mill in 
Dunkirk, the unit is capturing the CO2 from blast furnace 
gas at a capacity of 0.5t CO2/h. The first results obtained 
are in line with the promises of the technology and 
already confirm the efficiency and energy performance 
of DMX™ technology. A whole series of operational 
tests are conducted with 24/7 operation of the unit. The 
capture rates obtained are greater than 90%. The pilot 
also produces very pure CO2 (> 99.5%) while energy 
consumption remains remarkably low.
The demonstration unit was built and is operated as part 
of the European H2020 "3D" project bringing together 11 
European partners including ArcelorMittal, Axens, IFPEN 
and TotalEnergies. This project also studies the full-
scale CO₂ capture, conditioning, transport and storage 
of 1 Mtpa CO₂ from blast furnace gas contributing to 
the development of a CO₂ hub located in  Dunkirk and 
connected with the storage facilities like  those foreseen 
with the Northern Lights (or Longship).
Additional information is available at the following web 
address: https://3d-ccus.com


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
BRIGHTLOOP™ CHEMICAL LOOPING
Babcock & Wilcox partnered with The Ohio State University 
to develop our BrightLoop chemical looping technology, 
which can use a variety of fuel stocks to produce 
hydrogen, syngas, steam, liquid fuel or methanol, and/or 
power while also producing a stream of concentrated CO2 
for sequestration and storage or other uses. 
The patented BrightLoop process is based on the oxidation 
and reduction of an iron-based oxygen carrier particle 
and has the ability to capture a pure stream of hydrogen 
and CO2 from gas and solid fuels – including biomass, 
coal, waste fuels, natural gas, biogas, petroleum coke 
(petcoke) or others. In this process, fuel reacts with the 
oxygen-carrier particles in a reducer reactor (fuel reactor), 
forming combustion byproducts, predominantly CO2, while 
reducing the oxygen-carrier particles. The reduced oxygen-
carrier particles then move to a partial oxidizer (hydrogen 
reactor) where they react with steam to partially oxidize the 
particles and generate a stream of hydrogen.
The oxygen-carrier particles are then transported to a 
combustor reactor (air reactor) where they are regenerated 
with air back to their original state. The fuel and hydrogen 
reactors use moving bed technology while the air 
reactor uses fluidized-bed technology, both well-proven 
technologies with which B&W has extensive experience. 
Other emissions can be controlled using B&W’s complete 
suite of environmental control technologies.
We are confident our BrightLoop technology will play 
a major role in helping the world transition to a more 
sustainable future, supporting the international goal of net-
zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.
SOLVEBRIGHT™ POST-COMBUSTION CO2 SCRUBBING  
B&W’s 
SolveBright 
regenerable 
solvent 
absorption 
technology scrubbing process came from decades 
of decarbonization research and development. The 
SolveBright carbon dioxide scrubbing system is a post-
combustion carbon capture technology that captures 
CO2 directly from flue gas in an absorber using a 
regenerable solvent. The CO2-laden solvent is sent to a 
regenerator where it is heated, and the CO2 is released 
as a concentrated stream for compression and storage 
or beneficial uses. The solvent is then recycled to the 
absorber for reuse.
While B&W’s solvent demonstrated superior performance 
compared to more than 100 competing solvents during 
our extensive testing procedures at the National Carbon 
Capture Center, a major advantage of the SolveBright 
process is solvent flexibility, which allows customization of 
an optimal CAPEX and OPEX solution for each application. 
SolveBright can be used with a variety of solvents and 
we have the expertise and ability to use a wide range of 
potential solvents. 
B&W has extensive knowledge of combustion processes 
– including many decades of experience with waste-
to-energy and biomass-to-energy plants – and thermal 
management associated with combined heat and power 
systems and can effectively integrate the carbon capture 
system into an existing facility. This experience gives us the 
ability to optimally integrate the SolveBright solution with 
virtually any new or existing facility.
B&W’s solvent-based CO2 capture experience spans a 
wide range of industries with various fuels and we can 
offer total solution support -- from feasibility studies, pre-
FEED and pilot unit definition, to full-scale plants -- tailored 
to the customer’s specific needs.
SUMMARY
CLIMATEBRIGHT™ DECARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGIES
The ClimateBright™ suite of revolutionary hydrogen and 
decarbonization technologies from Babcock & Wilcox 
(B&W) is designed to help customers in energy and 
industrial sectors aggressively combat greenhouse gas 
emissions and climate change. ClimateBright technologies 
further strengthen B&W’s commitment to clean energy 
progress and to helping customers worldwide address 
the most significant environmental challenges in industrial 
processes and energy generation.
ClimateBright has a wide range of clean energy solutions 
to drive the energy transition through capture carbon and 
production of hydrogen for industries including energy 
production, food manufacturing, steel, cement, oil and gas, 
pharmaceutical, petrochemical, carbon black, and pulp 
and paper. Our technologies build on B&W’s core talents in 
steam generation, combustion, and flue gas treatment, and 
each addresses the emissions of CO2 from the combustion 
of carbon-based fuels in a unique way:  
1.	
BrightLoop™ uses a chemical looping process around 
a ferrous oxygen carrier to separate the products 
of combustion of a carbon-based fuel into separate 
streams of CO2 and oxygen depleted air, allowing for 
the capture of CO2.
2.	 SolveBright™ is a post combustion capture process 
using regenerable solvents.
3.	 OxyBright™ purifies the flue gas stream to near pure 
CO2, simplifying its capture.
4.	 BrightGen™ eliminates the generation of CO2 by 
switching to a non-carbon-based fuel.
5.	 Flue gas pre-treatment for post-combustion CO2 
capture.
CONTACT
Email: 	 marketing@babcock.com 
Web: 	
www.babcock.com
BABCOCK & WILCOX


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OXYBRIGHT™ OXY-FUEL COMBUSTION - ADVANCED 
CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY FOR STEAM 
GENERATION
B&W’s oxy-combustion process can be used to generate 
steam and power using a variety of fuels, including 
coal, natural gas, biomass, oil and others. In the oxy-fuel 
process, combustion air is replaced with nearly pure 
oxygen and recirculated CO2. Nitrogen that would normally 
be conveyed with the air through conventional air-fuel 
firing is excluded and the resulting flue gas consists of 
nearly pure CO2. The non-recirculated flue gas leaving the 
boiler is cleaned using conventional particulate and sulfur 
removal systems and sent to the compression purification 
unit (CPU) where a high-purity CO2 stream is produced that 
is suitable for transportation or other uses.
B&W provided oxy-fuel technology for use with coal 
on the U.S. Department of Energy’s FutureGen 2.0 
demonstration project in Illinois, which was to be a retrofit 
of a 167-megawatt coal-fired power plant. Although 
construction began in 2014, the project was canceled in 
2016 due to redirection of DOE funding support. B&W has 
continued to develop oxy-fuel technology and it is ready 
for full-scale commercialization and deployment.
In March 2022, B&W announced its OxyBright and 
biomass boiler-fired technologies would be part of the 
world’s largest net-negative CO2 biomass-to-energy facility 
to be developed by Fidelis New Energy at the Port of 
Great Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Using B&W’s proprietary 
BrightLoop™ technology, the plant will be designed to 
turn biomass into low-carbon intensity hydrogen more 
efficiently and affordably than any other processes, 
spurring the production of 15 tons of it every day.
BRIGHTGEN™ HYDROGEN COMBUSTION
B&W’s BrightGen hydrogen combustion solution is 
currently in operation at multiple refineries and industrial 
facilities around the world and is available to customers 
seeking a powerful hydrogen combustion solution for utility 
and industrial applications where efficient, zero-carbon 
dioxide-emissions energy generation is a goal.
Our highly reliable utility, industrial and FM package 
boilers can be manufactured or retrofitted with BrightGen 
technology to safely burn hydrogen or hydrogen-blended 
fuels for virtually any need, including power, heating and 
steam generation, and for industrial applications such as 
refineries and petrochemical facilities.
When considering the potential for fuel switching from a 
solid or gaseous fuel, and integrating hydrogen into the 
combustion process, B&W conducts a complete evaluation 
of the entire boiler system. This includes all combustion 
equipment such as burners, ignitors, flame scanners and 
fuel trains.
Our BrightGen technology is currently in use in more than 
60 industrial boilers around the world.
FLUE GAS PRE-TREATMENT FOR POST-COMBUSTION 
CO2 CAPTURE
Acid gases degrade the solvents used in a post-
combustion carbon capture system. B&W offers a 
complete suite of environmental control technologies to 
control sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur trioxide (SO3) – which 
can form aerosols and cause loss of CO2 capture solvents 
- hydrogen chloride (HCl), and hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the 
pre-capture flue gas stream, as well as technologies for 
other pollutants such as metals and particulates.  Nitrogen 
oxides (NOx) are also detrimental for CO2 capture solvents 
and can lead to hazardous degradation products in the 
process. CO2 scrubbing may also improve when particulate 
matter is removed from the flue gas prior to the scrubbing 
process.
B&W has many decades of experience in emissions control 
solutions, pioneering technologies that have helped 
customers comply with stringent emissions regulations for 
more than 50 years.
Our solutions include:
•	
Wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) scrubbers
•	
Wet gas scrubbers (WGS)
•	
Spray dryer absorbers (SDA)
•	
Circulating dry scrubbers (CDS)
•	
Dry sorbent injection (DSI)
•	
Wet and dry electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
•	
Fabric filter baghouses
•	
Direct contact coolers (DCC)
SUMMARY
B&W has a broad range of unique and innovative 
technologies and processes for carbon capture, hydrogen 
generation and hydrogen combustion, including:
•	
CO2 Removal – Capture (OxyBright, SolveBright, 
BrightLoop) Direct Carbon Removal CDR (DAC) 
•	
CO2 Reduction – Efficiency improvements and fuel 
mixing (CH4 + H2 – coal + biomass)
•	
CO2 Avoidance – Replacing carbon-intensive power 
generation with renewables (green steam, LDES, 
solar) or fuel switching and combustion of hydrogen or 
ammonia – (BrightGen, electrolyzers, BrighLoop) 
•	
CO2 Reuse – Capture carbon for beneficial use – 
P2X (biogenic CO2), food & beverage use (OxyBright, 
SolveBright, BrightLoop) 
•	
CO2 Storage – Capture and store (OxyBright, 
SolveBright, BrightLoop)  
•	
Low Carbon Intensity Hydrogen Generation – 
(BrightLoop, electrolyzers)
•	
Hydrogen Combustion (BrightGen)
•	
Flue 
Gas 
Pre-Treatment 
(full 
suite 
of 
B&W 
environmental technologies)
More information on B&W’s ClimateBright suite of products 
is available at www.babcock.com.


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DESCRIPTION
Captura’s approach is to remove CO2 from the ocean to 
effectively ‘make room’ for the ocean to then draw down 
additional CO2 from the atmosphere. The technology 
features a flow of seawater passing through the plant, 
which is treated to remove its CO2 content before it is 
returned to the ocean. 
When the decarbonized seawater is released back into 
the ocean, an equivalent quantity of atmospheric CO2 will 
be drawn down as the surface ocean and atmosphere re-
equilibrates. As wind and wave patterns facilitate mixing of 
the surface layer of the ocean, when plants are optimally 
located, atmospheric CO2 is pulled down into the ocean to 
replace the same amount of CO2 that the Captura system 
originally removed. In this way, for every ton of CO2 Captura 
systems remove from seawater, the ocean removes a ton 
of CO2 from the atmosphere. 
The Captura process begins by pulling a stream of filtered 
seawater into the system. Around 0.5% of this water is 
diverted and pre-processed to purify it into brine. Captura’s 
proprietary electrodialysis technology then dissociates the 
salt and water in the brine into an acid and alkali base. This 
acid is added to the original flow of seawater, triggering 
a chemical reaction that draws the CO2 out. The process 
is accelerated using a gas-liquid contactor and vacuum 
pump. The CO2 is captured as a gas stream, ready for 
subsequent sequestration or utilization. This leaves a flow 
of acidic, decarbonized seawater in the system. The alkali 
base is re-introduced to neutralize the acidic seawater, 
after which it is returned to the ocean to subsequently 
draw down an equivalent quantity of atmospheric CO2.
Captura is currently undergoing a rigorous piloting 
program to prove out the technology, which consists 
of three separate systems. The first one, an end-to-end 
demonstration capable of removing 1 ton of CO2/year, 
is fully operational off the coast of Newport Beach, CA 
at Caltech’s research hub, Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory. 
The next pilot, a 100-ton CO2/year system, has been 
successfully operating end-to-end in Captura’s labs and will 
be installed at AltaSea at the Port of Los Angeles to begin 
ocean field trials in summer of 2023. Lastly, a ~1,000-ton 
CO2/year pilot is planned for 2024.  
Captura’s technology has been third-party validated by 
several prominent expert entities in the climate space, 
including XPRIZE, U.S. Department of Energy’s APRA-E, 
and Frontier Climate. In January 2023, Captura announced 
its Series A financing, led by Equinor Ventures.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Low Cost: Captura’s technology provides savings in capital and operation compared to many other carbon removal 
technologies. No purpose-built air contactors or absorbents, lower energy requirement, widespread use of standard 
industrial equipment, lack of by-products requiring disposal and the ability to leverage off-peak renewable electricity 
inherently lowers costs. 
•	
Scalability: Captura’s use of the ocean, which covers ~70% of the planet, means the technology is deployable 
virtually anywhere there is ocean globally. Captura does not require any precious or rare-Earth elements as inputs, 
avoiding supply chain constraints that affect a broad range of clean energy technologies. Large increases in scale of 
our process only require minimal adjustments to our system rather than replications of multiple parts (as in modular 
approaches), making capacity growth highly accessible.  
•	
Ocean Health: Captura’s approach does not add anything, such as alkaline substances, to the ocean. Our process 
returns CO2-depleted seawater with a slightly lower acidity to the ocean, which is quickly dispersed. Both this effluent 
and the placement of our technology in semi-enclosed areas, such as bays and coral reefs, can help to address ocean 
acidification.
•	
Utilization: The Captura process produces a measurable and verifiable stream of CO2 to generate high-quality carbon 
credits. The CO2 can also be used in the production of low-carbon products. 
DIRECT OCEAN CAPTURE
The planet’s oceans are carbon removal powerhouses 
working hard to combat climate change, absorbing ~30% 
of all emissions we release into the air. However, this 
comes at the cost of ocean acidification. As the added 
CO2 concentration grows, seawater becomes increasingly 
acidic, threatening the health of ocean life and marine 
ecosystems. 
Captura has developed a Direct Ocean Capture approach 
that harnesses the carbon removal powers of oceans 
without contributing to ocean acidification. 
Captura offers safe, scalable, and verifiable low-cost 
atmospheric carbon removal by leveraging the world’s 
largest, existing, natural and no-cost atmospheric CO2 
absorber – the ocean. With minimal to no impacts on the 
environment and using only renewable electricity and 
seawater as inputs, Captura’s technology generates a 
stream of CO2 that can then be sequestered or utilized to 
make low-carbon products.  
With no purpose-built air contactors, no absorbents, and no 
by-products, Captura’s solution enables large-scale carbon 
removal at a lower cost. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@capturacorp.com
Web: 	
www.capturacorp.com
CAPTURA


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DESCRIPTION
CARBONCAPT process of CO2 capture is one of the Post 
Combustion CCUS technologies.   
 After dust precipitation in ESP or Bag Filter the flue gases 
come to CARBONCAPT plant for further treatment.
CARBONCAPT process involves chemical absorption of 
gaseous CO2 by highly selective amine-based solvent and 
executed in three principal stages:
1.	
First stage – COOLING of the flue gases by water. 
After leaving the ESP flue gases are drawn up through 
the COOLING COLUMN (CC) for cooling it from 350-
370°C down to 65-70°C by water injection. The 
diameter and height of the CC as well as the amount 
of nozzles depends upon the volume and temperature 
of the flue gases, drawn through the CC.  
2.	 Second stage - ABSORBING of CO2 by highly selective 
absorbing solvent. The cooled down flue gases are 
drawn up through ABSORBER COLUMN (AC). In the 
AC the flue gases react with FLEXOL-CacboStrip 
absorbing solvent, thus the chemical absorption of CO2 
is taking place and the CO2-rich solvent is obtained. 
The diameter and height of AC and the amount of trays 
depends mostly upon the reactivity of the absorbing 
solvent, partial pressure of CO2 to be absorbed, and 
the solvent circulation factor.	 There is a thumb rule: 
the lower the temperature of CO2 and the higher the 
pressure in the AC, the more effective process of CO2 
stripping is taking place, but in certain cases this rule 
is not the case at all: the basic engineering should 
be developed and individual project calculation to be 
done for every CO2 capture unit.
3.	 Third stage – DESORBING of CO2 from the CO2-rich 
absorbing solvent. The extraction of carbon dioxide 
from the CO2-rich FLEXOL-CarboStrip solvent occurs 
by increasing the solvent temperature. As a result 
the 95% gaseous CO2 returns to gaseous state and is 
drawn to a liquefaction station. The FLEXOL-CarboStrip 
solvent is cooled, regenerated and pumped back 
to the top of the ABSORBING COLUMN for further 
circulation. 
Today we offer two versions of CarbonCapt technology:
CarbonCapt HP (High Pressure) process with FLEXOL-
CarboStrip A4 (Advanced Amine Activated Absorbent) as a 
solvent, as well as CarbonCapt LP (Low Pressure) process, 
where FLEXOL-CarboStrip A5 (Advanced Amino-Acid 
Activated Absorbent) is used. Both versions are cost and 
energy effective and provide for low CAPEX and OPEX. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Process is well-proven in durable operation in multiple plants
•	
Scalable and extremely cost effective at big capture projects
•	
Easy and predictable maintenance
•	
Low CAPEX and OPEX
•	
Provides for a very little impact on the environment
CARBONCAPT CHEMICAL ABSORPTION TECHNOLOGY
The existing technologies of Carbon Capture are 
characterized by high power and thermal energy 
consumption, but the selective chemical absorption of 
gaseous CO2 prevail over the other technologies due to its 
well proven efficiency in a number of long-term operation 
at the US and Canada power plants and today all the CCUS 
community, focused on chemical absorption processes 
have a challenge to make this technology less expensive, 
and more accessible to the CO2 intensive sectors of the 
global economy.
The expected higher demand for cement and concrete 
after Covid19 Pandemic will evidently lead to a sharp 
growth of CO2 emissions from the cement industry in 
the upcoming years. Today the urgent need for sufficient 
reduction of CO2 emissions all around the world makes this 
technology vital, if we want to provide green planet Earth 
for the next generations.
Here we present benefits and a brief description of 
CARBONCAPT process, the Post combustion Carbon 
dioxide Capture technology.
CONTACT
Web: 	
www.carboncapt.com
CARBONCAPT TECHNOLOGIES CO. LTD.


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
In the EDM the anions and cations are separated from 
the amine solution and concentrated in an aqueous 
“brine” stream for disposal. Anion and cation selective 
membranes, divided by spacers, are installed between 
anode and cathode end plates and operated in a “sheet 
flow” order. 
The spacers designation is to ease the flow distribution 
between the membranes and to direct amine and brine 
to the relevant channels. The membranes are sequenced 
in such a way, that the amine solution enters the channel 
between an anion and cation permeable membrane, 
the anions move towards the anode through the anion 
permeable membrane, and the cations move towards the 
cathode through the cation permeable membrane.
On the opposite side of the selective membranes the 
ions migrating from brine to the respective electrodes are 
precluded by alternating sequence of the membranes: the 
anion, passing through the anion selective membrane into 
brine is also prevented from a solvent channel, the next 
installed is a cation selective membrane, which will never 
allow the intrusion of the anion. 
Our Mobile ElectroDialysis Module is installed in a 40” 
container and can be easily transported for “Heat Stable 
Salts withdrawal as a Service” function. For this purpose 
we use the following algorithm: our specialists will send 
you the questionnaire to be filled out with the detailed 
description of the problem, process flowsheet, main 
process parameters and type of the solvent, used at the 
amine CO2 capture unit. 
We will also request a sample of regenerated solvent 
in order to analyze the approximate improvement of 
operation. After the basic calculations are performed and 
scope of works is defined we submit a price proposal to 
the Customer. After the offer is accepted we come to the 
site and connect our Mobile EDM module to the existing 
amine carbon capture plant as follows:
1.	
The EDM module to be installed in the bypass line 
of the regenerated solvent, pumped to the top of 
Absorber column,
2.	 Solvent temperature at the EDM module inlet should 
not exceed 80°C
3.	 Pressure is 2-5 kg/cm2
4.	 Power supply and water source to be provided
5.	 Needed plot of land is 60 m2
i.e. for 2 pcs 40” containers allocation.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
High efficiency of HSS, SO2 and carboxylic acids removal,
•	
Modular design guarantees easy scaling up,
•	
Minimal environment friendly wastes,
•	
Reasnable cost of «HSS Withdrawal as a Service»,
•	
Duration of amine solvent lifetime is prolonged.
CARBONCAPT MOBILE ELECTRODIALYSIS MODULE (EDM)
The existing technologies of Post Combustion chemical 
Carbon Capture widely use the different types of amine-
based solvents.  These are various formulations, based 
on different types of amines, i.e. Monoethanolamine 
(MEA), 
Diethanolamine 
(DEA), 
Methyldiethanolamine 
(MDEA) as a basic component and Piperazine (PP), used 
as reaction activator. All these amine-based solvents are 
doomed to degrade, be lost and contaminated during the 
circulation and the most important problem here is Heat 
Stable Salts (HSS) formation. HSS usually exist as amine 
salts of ionic nature, such as acetate, chloride, formate, 
oxalate, thiosulphate, thiocyanate and similar. All of 
them are thermally stable and not dissociated during the 
regeneration process. The HSS presence in the solvent 
results in the following:
•	
Excessive consumption of amine and loss of its activity 
towards CO2
•	
Increased corrosion of equipment steel surfaces - HSS 
act as corrosion accelerators
•	
Fouling, due to salts deposition
CONTACT
Web: 	
www.carboncapt.com
CARBONCAPT TECHNOLOGIES CO. LTD.


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
Carbon Clean has amassed a deep understanding of 
industrial carbon capture technologies since its inception in 
2009, working with commercial and academic partners to 
test and validate its solutions. Its proven technologies are 
delivering for industrial partners around the world and it 
has technology references across 49 sites.
Carbon Clean delivered the world’s first subsidy-free, fully 
commercial, industrial-scale carbon capture and utilization 
plant at Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited in 
India in October 2016. The plant is installed on a coal-fired 
boiler, and is designed to capture 60,000 tonnes of CO2 
per year, which is then converted into soda ash (sodium 
carbonate) – an ingredient used in household products, 
glass manufacturing, and paper production.
In 2023, Carbon Clean announced its 50th commercial 
project – to deliver carbon capture equipment capable 
of capturing 70,000 tonnes of biogenic CO2 per year for 
Ørsted’s FlagshipONE facility in Sweden, Europe’s largest 
green methanol project. FlagshipONE will supply 50,000 
tonnes of eMethanol per year to the shipping industry, 
which today accounts for around 3% of global carbon 
emissions. 
Carbon Clean is fully focused on making carbon capture 
more accessible to hard-to-abate industries. Its next 
generation of standardized, fully modular carbon capture 
technology, CycloneCC will be crucial to accelerating the 
global deployment of CCUS. 
CycloneCC will be pre-fabricated, enabling an on-site 
installation period of eight weeks and so reducing costly 
operational disruptions. Additionally, as a fully modular 
solution, units can be added in line with a company’s 
decarbonization ambitions and investment capacity, either 
solo or alongside other decarbonization solutions.
Carbon Clean is also working towards a Carbon Capture as 
a Service (CCaaS) offering, where customers pay a cost per 
tonne of carbon. This will further de-risk the investment for 
companies and ensure performance is optimized over the 
lifetime of the technology, by drawing on Carbon Clean’s 
operational expertize. 
CYCLONECC 
Carbon Clean has developed a fully modular technology, 
CycloneCC, that is vital for scaling industrial carbon capture 
deployment to achieve global net zero targets. 
CycloneCC addresses two major concerns from industries 
considering carbon capture – cost and space. As a 
modular, pre-fabricated and skid-mounted carbon capture 
solution, CycloneCC reduces the overall cost of carbon 
capture by up to 50% and has a physical footprint that is 
up to 50% smaller than conventional carbon capture units.
CycloneCC intensifies the traditional solvent capture 
process through the combination of two process 
intensification technologies:
•	
Rotating packed beds (RPBs) process equipment 
technology
•	
Carbon Clean’s proprietary amine-promoted buffer salt 
solvent technology (APBS-CDRMax®)
The APBS-CDRMax® solvent is extremely effective in 
capturing CO2, and the RPBs provide a highly efficient 
environment for the absorption of CO2 and solvent 
regeneration.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
CycloneCC is a modular, pre-fabricated and skid-mounted carbon capture solution that will radically impact the economics 
of carbon capture and industrial decarbonization. 
CycloneCC’s benefits include:
•	
Compact and cost-effective: Process intensification delivers a reduction in the size of the mass transfer equipment by 
10 times and up to a 50% reduction in the overall unit footprint, compared to conventional carbon capture units. The 
overall cost of carbon capture is reduced by up to 50%, with no loss in performance.
•	
Easily scaled: CycloneCC is delivered in modular units that can be added over time to increase carbon capture 
capacity in line with a company’s decarbonization strategy.
•	
Standardized designs: Off-the-shelf, ready-made engineering designs for standard capacities and specifications 
deliver cost and delivery efficiencies. 
•	
Minimal disruption: By using modular designs and shop-fabricated skids, site infrastructure requirements are 
reduced, resulting in easier integration with existing industrial operations for minimal disruption and maximum cost-
effectiveness, and simpler plant maintenance. 
•	
Proven technology: Carbon Clean has over a decade of experience in designing, building, and operating industrial 
carbon capture systems and has technology references across 49 sites around the world. Its engineering excellence 
and proven results are at the heart of CycloneCC.
CYCLONECC
Carbon Clean is a global leader in carbon capture solutions 
for essential hard-to-abate industries. The company’s 
technology, significantly reduces the costs of carbon 
capture when compared to existing solutions.
Carbon Clean is an innovation leader in the carbon capture 
sector, with over 80 active patent assets across 15 patent 
families covering over 30 countries. The company’s 
standardized, fully modular carbon capture technology, 
CycloneCC will accelerate the global adoption of carbon 
capture in key industries that have few other available 
options to decarbonize.
The size and cost of carbon capture technology have 
historically 
been 
significant 
barriers 
to 
adoption. 
CycloneCC overcomes these barriers; its overall footprint 
is up to 50% smaller than a conventional plant and it can 
capture CO2 at a cost that is up to 50% less per tonne 
than conventional carbon capture systems. It achieves 
this through a combination of two proven process 
intensification technologies – Carbon Clean’s advanced, 
proprietary amine-promoted buffer salt solvent (APBS-
CDRMax®) and rotating packed beds (RPBs). 
CycloneCC will be pre-fabricated in fully engineered 
modules and available in standard capacities. It has already 
been fully tested at 1 tpd at Altrad Babcock’s Emissions 
Reduction Test Facility in Scotland and a number of 10 tpd 
demonstration units will be commissioned shortly with 
select industrial partners in the Middle East and North 
America. Commercialization of CycloneCC at 100 tpd is 
also underway in North America and Europe.
As a compact and modular solution, CycloneCC is 
particularly suited for use with small to mid-size emission 
point sources and can be installed at multiple locations 
across a site.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@carbonclean.com
Web: 	
www.carbonclean.com 
CARBON CLEAN
 
2 
re technologies and 
ve their net zero 
operating industrial 
anies globally to 
ng solutions that will 
se the sector – 
cerns from industries 
fication technologies: 
APBS-CDRMax®) and 
ventional carbon capture. 
arbon capture down to 
 ready to install and with 
and 
 
 
GCCSI - State of the Art: CCS Technologies 2022 


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
38
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RPBs have been used in commercial applications since 
the 1960s, however, their use in the post-combustion CO₂ 
capture process is a new application. 
The RPB contains a disk of packing material which rotates 
about its axis. The centrifugal force generated through 
the rotational motion of the packed bed in an RPB is 
significantly greater than the gravitational force seen in 
conventional packed columns, making RPBs much more 
effective in mass transfer operations.
The liquid films and droplets created in the packing 
material are remarkably thinner, which increases the 
surface area to volume ratio of the liquid. This results in 
faster and higher mass transfer efficiency between the gas 
and liquid phases.
The mass transfer improvement allows the RPB to be up 
to 10 times smaller than traditional columns to accomplish 
the same results. The combination of RPBs and APBS-
CDRMax® provides: 
•	
Smaller equipment sizes at equivalent performance 
– using RPBs in the absorber/stripper results in more 
than one order of magnitude reduction in equipment 
size 
•	
Better mass and heat transfer between the liquid and 
gas phases through thinner liquid films produced by a 
centrifugal force
•	
More intense turbulent flow relative to conventional 
columns
The APBS-CDRMax® solvent in the stripper RPB also 
reduces heat requirements and improves efficiency of 
heat transfer, collectively reducing the cost to regenerate 
solvents. Additionally, there are lower degradation and 
corrosion rates, improving solvent make-up and waste 
disposal, and a lower pump and cooling water duty.
Further optimizations will be achieved through the use 
of a digital twin solution, enabling CycloneCC units to be 
operated remotely to deliver improved plant and energy 
efficiency, as well as potentially reducing project execution 
time by 20-40%.
Carbon Clean’s CycloneCC technology development 
process includes rigorous assessment of the technology 
with academic partners, as well as scaling and adapting 
the technology to industrial processes with commercial 
partners.
CycloneCC has been successfully pilot tested at 1 tpd 
at Altrad Babcock’s Emissions Reduction Test Facility in 
Scotland, and 10 tpd demonstration units will be operational 
with select industrial partners in the Middle East and North 
America in the coming months. Commercialization of 
CycloneCC at 100 tpd is also underway in North America 
and Europe.
The radically smaller size and cost of CycloneCC offers 
the potential for industries to achieve far greater emission 
reductions. Deployment of this technology can also grow 
in line with a company’s decarbonization strategy. Lower 
overall costs make it possible to incorporate CCUS into 
existing and future operations, enabling businesses to 
scale over time to meet their targets and allowing them 
to participate in the global reduction of carbon emissions 
sooner.
APBS-CDRMAX® SOLVENT
Carbon Clean’s APBS-CDRMax® solvent has been 
formulated to optimize carbon capture performance. Its 
innovative, patented formulation of amines and salts – 
amine-promoted buffer salts – offers both the high kinetic 
reactivity of an amine and the low regeneration energy of a 
buffer salt. The result is a unique, fast-acting, high-capacity 
carbon capture solvent that delivers higher performance in 
any existing solvent-based carbon capture system.
The solvent chemistry allows for rapid removal of carbon 
dioxide from flue gases with CO₂ concentrations ranging 
between 2.5-25 vol.% and produces CO₂ with a purity of 
≥99.5 vol% on a dry basis, reducing regeneration energy 
requirements as well as greater stability and lower 
corrosivity. Comprehensive testing has validated the 
benefits that APBS-CDRMax® delivers including: 
•	
20x less corrosion and 10x less degradation
•	
10-25% lower energy demand for the capture and 
regeneration process
•	
5x longer solvent life and 86% less solvent make-up
•	
A higher performance efficiency with less foaming, 
leading to 50% reduction in ongoing chemical 
requirement and waste disposal costs, reducing amine 
carryover and the need for anti-foaming additives
•	
A reduction in solvent emissions to parts per billions 
(ppb) levels, which meets environmental regulatory 
requirements and facilitates approvals 
 
 
GCCSI - State of the Art: CCS Technologies 2022 
CycloneCC 10 TPD RPB
CycloneCC 100 TPD visualisation showing its relative size compared to a conventional carbon capture plant


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
DAC technology captures CO2 by pulling in atmospheric 
air. Then, through a series of chemical reactions, CO2 is 
extracted from the air while returning the rest of the air to 
the environment. DAC is a different, and complementary, 
technology to point-source carbon capture and storage 
which removes CO2 from industrial flue gas instead of the 
atmosphere. Within hub or cluster CO2 storage projects, 
DAC can bring important value by delivering CO2 capacity 
with relatively stable purity and supply.
CE’s DAC technology approach is focused on achieving 
large, industrial scale at low-cost. To help achieve this, CE’s 
solution borrows existing and widely used equipment and 
processes from other industries, innovating and integrating 
them to deliver a DAC system based on largely known 
supply chains, and reliable equipment costs. 
Our process begins with an air contactor that is adapted 
from industrial cooling towers to bring in high volumes 
of air, which passes across thin plastic surfaces that 
have potassium hydroxide solution flowing over them. 
This commodity chemical binds with the carbon dioxide 
molecules, removing them from the air and trapping them 
in the solution in the form of a potassium carbonate salt. 
The carbonate is then precipitated out of solution in the 
form of calcium carbonate pellets in a pellet reactor.
In the last major step of the process, the carbon dioxide-
carrying pellets are moved from the pellet reactor to a 
calciner where they are heated to high temperatures 
causing them to break down and release the CO2 as 
a concentrated gas. To close the second loop in CE’s 
process, the calcium oxide left from the calcination process 
is mixed with water in the slaker to rehydrate it, and then 
it is fed back into the pellet reactor, beginning the cycle 
again.
To help minimize waste and consumables across CE’s 
process, the DAC technology uses chemical reactions and 
this closed loop system to absorb CO2 from the air (see 
below). 
There are a number of applications for atmospheric CO2 
captured through DAC, but CE is focused on delivering two 
types of industrial solutions: 
1.	
When paired with secure geologic storage, DAC can 
deliver the permanent and verifiable removal of CO2 
from the atmosphere. This provides a mechanism 
to help difficult-to-decarbonize sectors, like aviation, 
address their emissions faster and at a lower cost 
than many existing mitigation solutions. In the future, 
in a post net-zero world, these same facilities could 
be used to address legacy emissions, creating an 
opportunity for climate restoration. 
2.	 AIR TO FUELSTM solutions can enable captured 
atmospheric CO2 to be combined with hydrogen 
to produce low carbon intensity fuel that is drop-in 
compatible with existing vehicles and infrastructure. 
DEPLOYMENT APPROACH
To enable rapid and widespread deployment of DAC 
solutions, CE licenses its technology to development 
partners around the globe so multiple plants can be 
built in parallel. Alongside regional partners, CE and our 
global deployment partner 1PointFive – a subsidiary of 
Occidental’s Low Carbon Ventures - bring a standardized 
‘design one, build many’ approach to deployment. 
This approach combines the partners’ DAC technology, 
large-scale 
carbon 
dioxide 
management, 
project 
experience and extensive storage infrastructure. CE will 
provide the DAC technology and market support, while 
1PointFive builds and deploys the DAC plants, leveraging 
Occidental’s strong project engineering and delivery 
expertise. This helps support the rapid build-out of large-
scale facilities, as we work to duplicate near identical plants 
adjusted for location specific considerations. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Key features of CE’s DAC technology: 
•	
Scalable – Industrial facilities that use CE’s DAC technology can be built in one or more trains, each capable of 
capturing a megatonne of CO2 annually using known equipment with industrial precedent. 
•	
Standardized design - Alongside partners, we bring a standardized ‘design one, build many’ approach to deployment, 
working to duplicate near identical plants adjusted for location specific considerations. This helps support the rapid 
build-out of large-scale facilities.
•	
Industrial precedent - At CE, we’ve built our DAC technology around industrial precedent by utilizing known equipment 
and suppliers, and then innovating, adapting and integrating them to create our DAC system. This means our system 
can be built at industrial scales largely with existing supply chains. 
•	
Closed chemical cycle - Our DAC technology captures CO2 from the air in a closed “chemical loop” that re-uses the 
same capture chemicals with minimal waste.
DIRECT AIR CAPTURE 
Direct Air Capture (DAC) is a technology that captures 
carbon dioxide (CO2) directly from the atmosphere with 
an engineered system. This is similar to how trees absorb 
CO2 for photosynthesis, except DAC does it much faster, 
with a much smaller land footprint, and delivers the 
CO2 in a concentrated, compressed form. The captured 
atmospheric CO2 can then be permanently and safely 
stored in geologic reservoirs to deliver negative emissions, 
or used to produce low carbon intensity products, such as 
diesel and aviation fuel that work in existing aircraft and 
infrastructure. 
For more than a decade, Carbon Engineering (CE) has 
pioneered a liquid sorbent-based DAC system, optimized 
for scale. Today, CE is working with partners to deploy 
large-scale commercial facilities globally. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@carbonengineering.com 
Web: 	
www.carbonengineering.com 
CARBON ENGINEERING LTD. 


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CARBON ENGINEERING’S INNOVATION CENTRE
Built in 2021, CE’s Innovation Centre in Squamish, B.C. 
provides an environment where our engineers and 
technicians conduct ongoing technology development, 
testing, and analysis. This center enables CE to continue 
optimizing our DAC solution to drive down the cost of 
capture per tonne.
The facility contains all the major components of large-
scale, commercial DAC facilities so engineers can test 
and validate technology enhancements in an integrated 
system. It includes an air contactor, pellet reactor, calciner, 
and slaker, alongside an extensive laboratory facility. The 
next generation technologies developed here in Squamish 
will then be introduced to commercial facilities worldwide 
to help drive down emissions and achieve net zero targets.
COMMERCIAL FACILITIES UNDERWAY
The first commercial facility to use CE’s DAC technology – 
being developed by 1PointFive – is under construction in 
the United States. This first-of-its-kind facility is expected to 
be capable of extracting 500,000 tonnes of atmospheric 
CO2 annually once complete. 
Last year, CE announced front-end planning and 
engineering had begun for DAC facilities at a second site 
in the U.S., in Kleberg County, Texas. Using the design 
one, build many approach, the site is expected to provide 
access for the potential construction of multiple DAC 
facilities that would be capable of collectively removing up 
to 30 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere 
annually for dedicated sequestration.
This work provides a blueprint for global projects, 
supporting the design of additional facilities already 
progressing in multiple markets around the world. Please 
contact CE if you are interested in licensing our technology 
to build new, clean-infrastructure projects in your 
jurisdiction.
Carbon Engineering’s Innovation Centre and Research & Development Headquarters located in Squamish, Canada.
Artist rendering of the design of the first large-scale plant to use CE’s technology.


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DESCRIPTION
NEXT-GENERATION INNOVATION
An innovative UK cleantech company, we’ve been at the 
forefront of developing carbon capture technology for over 
a decade. Our foundations are rooted in innovation, bright 
ideas, ingenuity, and dedicated people. 
We were founded in 2009 as a spin-out company from 
the University of Leeds when our Founder, Professor Chris 
Rayner, and his research team were working with CO2 to 
find new solutions to the carbon capture problem, building 
on his 20 years’ experience in the field. Their progressive 
work attracted investment and C-Capture was born.
Our proprietary, next generation technology is based 
on fundamentally different chemistry that is amine free. 
C-Capture’s patented solvent-based technology captures 
carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial emissions to help 
combat climate change.  It has distinct chemical properties 
which mean it uses significantly less energy, has lower 
costs and environmental risks, and has a wider range 
of industrial applications than traditional carbon capture 
technologies.  
The low cost of capture using C-Capture’s technology is 
derived from the reduced energy demand of our process. 
C-Capture’s solvent components are all highly thermally 
stable, meaning that higher desorber temperatures can be 
achieved, creating far greater CO2 pressures on its release, 
and reducing the compression energy to prepare CO2 
product for transport and storage.
The robust nature of C-Capture’s solvent makes it highly 
resistant to oxidation and aging, making it suitable for 
industrial applications that traditional amine-based solvents 
cannot address (without significant additional capital 
investment, complexity, and risk), such as steel, cement, 
waste-to-energy, and refinery catalytic cracker off-gases. 
This resistance also leads to longer solvent life, further 
reducing costs.
The advantages of C-Capture’s patented technology 
mean it has the potential to break through the barriers 
that are currently preventing the widespread adoption of 
carbon capture technology which in turn make a globally 
significant contribution to mitigate the impacts of climate 
change.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Our proprietary technology uses less energy and is lower cost than other commercially available technologies. It is 
environmentally benign and extremely robust.
•	
A novel approach that is amine free, our solvent is inherently biodegradable, non-hazardous, and environmentally 
benign.
•	
Our process releases CO2 more readily than amine-based systems, resulting in a significantly lower parasitic energy 
demand. 
NEXT GENERATION CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY
C-Capture’s proprietary next generation carbon capture 
technology is a true innovation in the sector, and a potential 
gamechanger for industries looking to decarbonize their 
processes.
Our 
patented 
solvent-based 
technology 
selectively 
removes carbon dioxide (CO2) from a mixed gas stream. 
Our mission is to deploy it on industrial emissions using a 
post-combustion capture approach.
Based on fundamentally different chemistry to other 
commercially available solutions, C-Capture’s carbon 
capture technology is amine free and environmentally 
benign. It also uses less energy and is lower cost.
Well suited to the large-scale capture of carbon dioxide 
and extremely robust, C-Capture’s carbon capture 
technology can be deployed on most processes requiring 
CO2 separation from other gases. It is robust enough to 
withstand even the very challenging flue gases emitted by 
difficult-to-decarbonize industries including cement, steel, 
glass, energy from waste, hydrogen production facilities, 
and power stations.
The advantages of our solution creates the potential for 
our solvent to break through the barriers that are currently 
preventing the widespread adoption of carbon capture and 
storage (CCS) technology to mitigate the impacts of climate 
change.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@c-capture.co.uk
Web: 	
www.c-capture.co.uk
C-CAPTURE
•	
Significantly reduced process energy requirements (~1.8 GJ/tonne CO2) due to low steam requirements and reduced 
costs of compression due to higher CO2 release pressure.
•	
Suitable for use in difficult-to-decarbonize industries with a proven high tolerance to flue gas impurities, including O2, 
particulates, and acid gases such as NOx and SOx.
•	
High tolerance to impurities reduces the need for feed-gas pre-cleaning.
•	
Significantly less corrosive than amine-based equivalents, reducing operations and maintenance costs.
•	
Reduced solvent management costs due to high thermal, chemical, and oxidative stability, and low volatility, which 
minimizes solvent losses per tonne of CO2 captured.


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INTERNATIONAL AWARD-WINNING CARBON CAPTURE 
TECHNOLOGY
C-Capture’s next generation carbon capture technology 
was awarded the trophy in the ‘Energy’ category of the 
2022 IChemE Global Awards. 
The international honours are widely considered as the 
world’s most prestigious chemical engineering awards and 
a global celebration of excellence in the field. The Energy 
award recognizes excellence in efficient energy use or the 
development of energy production methods that reduce 
energy intensity. Our technology was also a finalist in the 
Sustainability category which recognizes excellence in 
sourcing and consuming materials, reducing waste, and/or 
optimising the product life cycles.
BECCS – A WORLD FIRST
C-Capture’s technology was deployed to pilot the first 
bioenergy carbon capture storage (BECCS) project of its 
kind in Europe, at Drax Power Station, in North Yorkshire, 
UK.
The plant successfully proved that our proprietary solvent 
can isolate CO2 from the flue gases that are released when 
biomass is used to generate electricity. A major milestone 
in carbon capture, this pilot was the first time in the world 
that CO2 had been captured from the combustion of a 
100% biomass feedstock, and a major milestone on the 
road to achieving negative emissions through BECCS, 
which is an important part of the raft of solutions required 
to combat climate change.
DEMONSTRATING OUR TECHNOLOGY
C-Capture’s technology is already at Technology Readiness 
Level (TRL) of 7 and expected to reach 8 by the end of 
2023.
Our work continues at the UK’s largest biomass power 
station 
to 
continue 
our 
commercialization 
journey. 
C-Capture’s fully integrated pilot plant at Drax Power 
Station was successfully commissioned at the end of 2022 
and builds on the experience gained from our previous 
prototyping and pilots. 
The plant incorporates every unit operation and control 
mechanism that will be present in a full commercial unit. It 
has been designed to capture between 1 and 5 tonnes of 
CO2 a day. 
Currently operating on synthetic flue gas (air/CO2) each 
element of the process is being explored and tested in a 
highly controlled environment. This enables us to map 
out a clearly defined operating envelope and provide the 
highest-quality data to customers on how our technology 
will work within their industry. These data also provide proof 
of our key capture performance metrics, so we can deliver 
technoeconomic evaluations of our technology for specific 
industry applications and projects.
When this scope testing is completed, the unit will be 
moved to Drax’s CCUS Innovation Area and operated on 
biomass-derived flue gas.
By the end 2023 C-Capture will have one year of operation 
on the pilot unit at Drax along with extensive real-world flue 
gas trials across key hard-to-abate industries. On the back 
of this success, we are working to identify the location of 
our first commercial demonstration unit which will showcase 
our unique technology at an industrially relevant scale (50-
200 tonnes CO2 capture per day). 
PROOF OF THE ROBUSTNESS OF OUR TECHNOLOGY
Alongside the current pilot unit at Drax, C-Capture is 
building and installing smaller test units – Carbon Capture 
Solvent Compatibility Units (CCSCUs) – across several 
hard-to-abate industries. The objective for these is to 
demonstrate the robustness of our technology within 
specific applications and provide proof of the exceptionally 
long lifetime of our solvent.
A fully automated and containerized, small scale carbon 
capture plant that runs on real flue gas, each CCSCU 
replicates the temperatures, pressures, and solvent 
composition changes that would be found in full-scale 
capture cycle. By replicating the real-world process 
conditions, but in a low resource intensity manner, we can 
rapidly gather high quality data to quantify online solvent 
loss and degradation rates within specific applications. 
Since September 2022, the first of our CCSCUs has been 
carrying out a lifetime test on the biomass-derived flue gas 
from Drax’s boilers. The results to date, combined with 
data previously gathered from laboratory testing, indicate 
that C-Capture’s innovative solvent technology is highly 
compatible with biomass flue gas. 
ACCELERATING 
THE 
DEPLOYMENT 
OF 
CARBON 
CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY 
We will demonstrate the compatibility of our technology 
within several hard-to-abate industries as part of our 
pioneering XLR8 CCS project.
During 2023, C-Capture will deploy three more CCSCUs 
to trial and assess the compatibility of our solvent with real-
world flue gas across the cement, glass and energy from 
waste sectors.
This multi-industry, multi-million-pound project, XLR8 CCS 
– Accelerating the Deployment of a Low-Cost Carbon 
Capture Solution for Hard-to-Abate Industries, is supported 
by £1.7m in funding from the UK Government’s Net Zero 
Innovation Portfolio (NZIP). The funding is part of the 
£20 million Carbon Capture, Usage and Storage (CCUS) 
Innovation 2.0 programme which is aimed at accelerating 
the deployment of next-generation CCUS technology in the 
UK. 
C-Capture’s XLR8 CCS project will demonstrate that a 
low-cost carbon capture solution is a reality for difficult-to-
decarbonize industries in the race to net zero. A critical step 
in the fight against climate change to de-risk future CCS 
projects and investments at commercial scale and deliver 
the cost reductions required to decarbonize all industry 
sectors.
The project will prove that C-Capture’s next generation 
carbon capture solvent is compatible with a wide variety 
of harsh, real-world industrial emissions, which are major 
contributors to global carbon levels.


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DESCRIPTION
CAPSOLEOP® - SAFE, ENERGY EFFICIENT AND COST 
COMPETITIVE END-OF-PIPE CO2 CAPTURE
A simplified overview of the CapsolEoP® process is 
presented in Figure 1. The CO2 rich flue gas is compressed 
to around 5-8 bar (to achieve a partial CO2 pressure of 0.7 
bar) before it enters the bottom of the absorber, where the 
pressurized flue gas reacts with the downwards flowing 
HPC solvent. The CO2 lean flue gas leaves the absorber 
column at the top. The CO2 rich solvent leaves the 
absorber at the bottom, is depressurized, and led to the 
top of the desorber, where the partial CO2 pressure is low, 
forcing the solvent to release its high CO2 content to the 
steam flow. The pure CO2 leaves the top of the desorber, 
from where it can be liquified and further processed. The 
lean solvent is led back to the top section of the absorber, 
and the cycle continues.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Cost competitive: The patented energy recirculation enables lowest carbon capture costs and flexibility to monetize 
heat and/or electricity from the capture unit.
•	
Safe solvent, free of harmful emissions: The use of Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-
carcinogenic and environmentally friendly.
•	
Low solvent degradation minimizes cost of solvent makeup.
•	
Flexible and scalable: A single CapsolEoP® unit can process flue gas from plants with emissions of up to maximum 2.5 
million tonnes of CO2 per year (with flue gas CO2 concentration of 20%). 
CAPSOLEOP® AND CAPSOLGT®
Capsol Technologies has developed and offers safe, 
environmentally friendly, energy-efficient and affordable 
carbon capture technologies for large scale emitters 
like Energy-from-Waste (EfW), biomass plants, cement 
producers, gas power stations, and other CO2 emitting 
industrial facilities utilising the safe and proven Hot 
Potassium Carbonate (HPC) solvent.
HPC as an absorption solvent for CO2 is well-documented 
and used in thousands of plants globally in multiple 
industries. However, until recently, the use of HPC for post-
combustion capture of CO2 from flue gases was discarded 
as a viable option due to the high energy demand (and 
hence cost) required to pressurize the flue gas. To solve 
this, Capsol Technologies has developed the CapsolEoP® 
(end-of-pipe) technology – a standalone, retrofit unit, with 
a patented energy recirculation process, which offers 
low capture cost and the flexibility to monetize heat and 
electricity in the capture process. 
Building 
on 
the 
CapsolEoP® 
technology, 
Capsol 
Technologies has recently developed an optimized carbon 
capture process for gas turbines - CapsolGT® - which 
generate additional electricity while capturing 95%+ of the 
CO2 from the exhaust gases of open cycle gas turbines, 
introducing carbon capture as a revenue source.
CONTACT
Email: 	 tone.bekkestad@capsoltechnologies.com
Web: 	
www.capsoltechnologies.com
CAPSOL TECHNOLOGIES
•	
Two or more units will operate in parallel for facilities with emissions of more than 2.5 Mtpa CO2
•	
CapsolGT® is optimized for 4-100 MWe turbines
•	
Minimal plant impact: The system can be run on electricity only. There is no external steam required. No modification 
of the host plant is needed
•	
Experienced team: Technical and commercial experts from the Energy, Chemical and Oil & Gas industry, with 25+ 
years’ experience
Figure 1
Figure 2


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CapsolEoP® can be run on electricity only or use excess 
steam from the host plant, if available. Thus, a costly 
investment in external steam production, or reconstruction 
and balance of the host plant, is not required. 
CapsolEoP® offers great flexibility – optimizing either for 
minimum electricity consumption, or for maximum internal 
heat generation, for example for district heating.
The CapsolEoP® heat recirculation can efficiently produce 
1.3 bar steam from water at 75° to 90 °C by heat pumping. In 
addition, process waste heat (at temperatures above 75 °C) 
from the host plant may be used in the CapsolEoP® process 
to decrease the energy demand of the overall system 
(when optimized for minimum electricity consumption). 
Alternatively, the capture plant can be optimized to add 
valuable energy in the form of heat to a district heating 
network, with a minimal increase in electricity consumption. 
The CapsolEoP® solution can also commercially make 
use of the energy from the CO2 compressor intercoolers 
(in the liquefaction plant) by integration into the energy 
recirculation. In addition, depending on the temperature, 
the energy in the flue gas entering the CapsolEoP® unit 
can also be used in the heat recirculation process. Whether 
to optimize for lowest electricity consumption or maximum 
heat into the district heating system is reviewed for each 
specific plant based on close dialogue with the plant 
owner.
CAPSOLGT® - INTEGRATED CARBON CAPTURE FOR 
GAS TURBINES
CapsolGT® - Capsol Technologies’ carbon capture solution 
for open cycle gas turbines, capturing 95%+ of the carbon 
dioxide while enabling additional electricity generation, is 
a solution optimized for 4-100 MWe gas turbines that do 
not require turbine modifications, in addition to introducing 
carbon capture as a revenue source.
Highly efficient gas turbines provide low CO2 concentrated, 
hot flue gas streams with temperatures typically around 
500-600 °C. Before entering the core of the capture cycle, 
the flue gas heat is recovered, utilising the pressurized 
clean gas absorber stream, to generate an overall surplus 
of electricity. In comparison with a typical combined cycle 
gas turbine plant (CCGT) with end-of-pipe carbon capture, 
CapsolGT® provides a low cost, less complex and high 
capture rate alternative. The overall cooling demand is also 
lower, and the plant is able to provide valuable heat 30 – 
105 °C, if required.
The solution can be applied to a variety of applications, 
such as gas engines, diesel generators and other industrial 
facilities where hot waste heat streams could be utilized.
The steam required for the process is exclusively 
generated within the capture system, by the means of 
electricity. CapsolGT® avoids the costly investment into a 
separate steam boiler and additional end-of-pipe carbon 
capture system. With less equipment, lower external 
cooling requirements and water neutrality, CapsolGT® 
achieves higher overall plant efficiencies. CapsolGT® can 
operate without additional supply of water, in fact, there is 
the possibility to accumulate significant amount of water 
and waste heats, which can be utilized, for example for 
external steam production or water supply. 
CAPSOLGO® – EFFECTIVE DEMONSTRATION 
CAMPAIGN TO ACCELERATE YOUR CARBON CAPTURE 
PROJECT 
CapsolGo® is the answer to the many challenges of 
industrial emitters, who consider investing into a full-scale 
carbon capture plant. CapsolGo® is a small-scale carbon 
capture demonstration unit for industrial facilities such as 
Energy-from-Waste and biomass power plants, as well 
as cement factories. CapsolGo® consists of two, easily 
deployable shipping containers, stacked on top of each 
other to minimize footprint, which are easy to install. The 
only infrastructure required is electricity, compressed 
air, demineralized water, and of course, the flue gas. The 
captured CO2 can be fed back to the flue gas stack, or it 
can be liquefied to demonstrate utilization options. 
CapsolGo® is provided with an all-inclusive package: 
transport, 
installation, 
deinstallation, 
operation, 
and 
reporting by an independent party. CapsolGo® offers many 
advantages for industrial emitters, including:
1.	
The opportunity to experience Capsol Technologies’ 
energy-efficient technology to verify the effectiveness 
of our carbon capture technology before investing in a 
full-scale plant
2.	 Experience the safe and environmentally friendly 
carbon capture solvent potassium carbonate (HPC). 
An increasing number of industrial facilities have heard 
about potassium carbonate and understand the many 
advantages of it, like lower capture and material costs, 
in addition to being widely available and no risk of 
harmful emissions. CapsolGo® provides a powerful tool 
to demonstrate safe carbon capture to stakeholders
3.	 During a CapsolGo® campaign, the plant’s specific 
flue gas and operation is tested to define an optimal 
solvent blend for the full-scale carbon capture plant.
4.	 Operation and maintenance teams can get familiar 
with Capsol’s technology and prepare for the full-
scale operation. The public, such as residents, can 
experience the environmentally friendly carbon 
capture solution live, in person.
With an independent test report, plant owners will be able 
to accelerate their decision processes towards the full-
scale plant and enhance the quality of their soft funding 
applications.
With a capture capacity of several hundred tonnes of CO2 
per year, CapsolGo® enables maximum insights about the 
technology, while at the same time making it affordable.
CapsolGo® unit 1 at Filbornaverket, Helsingborg, Sweden.
CapsolGo® unit 2 at German EfW (Energy-from-Waste) plant.
Figure 3


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DESCRIPTION
HyCaps is a hybrid technology that combines mature solvent technology with membrane technology to overcome inherent 
limitations while retaining or enhancing their advantages – as shown in Figure 1. 
Figure 1 - Combining two technologies efficiently in HyCaps.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
HyCaps is a hybrid technology that takes advantage of both the highly selective nature of solvent absorption technology 
and the controlled flow regime of membrane technology. HyCaps provides the following benefits over conventional 
solvent absorption technology.
•	
HyCaps modules provide very high surface area to volume ratios. Consequently, the equipment size for carbon 
capture is significantly reduced compared to conventional solvent absorption columns.
•	
The separation of the solvent and flue gas streams by the membrane, eliminates solvent foaming, flooding and 
reduces liquid channeling, the major operating issues in solvent absorption in packed columns. Also, there is no need 
for solvent redistribution. 
•	
The HyCaps modules can be oriented in any direction without impacting the performance. Lower footprint, flexibility in 
orientation and its modular design enables HyCaps’ capture process to be easily accommodated into limited spaces, 
making the technology ideally suited for retrofit applications as well as incorporation into new build designs. 
•	
Solvent regeneration does not require reboiling/phase change, significantly reducing the solvent regeneration energy 
as compared to the conventional absorption technology.
•	
Ultimately, HyCaps is a very cost competitive technology with potential to reduce CO2 emissions in hard-to-abate 
sector, oil & gas, onshore and offshore oil and gas platforms, ship-based processes, biogas upgradation and many 
more. 
HYCAPS- HYBRID CAPTURE SOLUTION
Operating since 2003, CO2CRC is a world leader in carbon 
capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) research. CO2CRC 
works with national and international discipline leaders, 
manages interdisciplinary and inter-institutional research 
projects, has well-established, decade-long relationships, 
strong international brand recognition, and an outstanding 
health and safety record. CO2CRC develops and trials next 
generation low-emission technologies in commercially 
relevant, first-of-a-kind demonstrations.
CO2CRC Ltd. in collaboration with its research partners in 
Australia has developed a hybrid CO2 capture technology, 
HyCaps. HyCaps combines solvent absorption and 
membrane separation in a single process, which exploits 
the advantages of both technologies to achieve efficient 
carbon capture. The HyCaps process has proven its ability 
to be highly efficient at carbon capture with reduced 
energy requirements. HyCaps is modular, scalable and its 
footprint is substantially lower than the conventional amine 
solvent process for CO2 absorption, making it suitable 
for retrofitting existing plants thereby promoting faster 
implementation of carbon capture utilisation and storage 
(CCUS).
CONTACT
Email: 	 Jaikant.pandit@CO2crc.com.au 
Web: 	
www.CO2crc.com.au
CO2CRC LTD.


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COST EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Initial technoeconomic analysis done for the CO2 
capture with 18% CO2 in the flue gas   indicates the cost 
effectiveness of HyCaps technology. HyCaps modules 
has 5000-6000 m2 surface area per m3 of the volume 
as compared to 500-800 m2/m3 for the conventional 
packed columns. As a result, HyCaps modules have a 
reduced equipment footprint by 70%. Significant reduction 
in equipment size is also a factor in reduced CAPEX for 
HyCaps. The avoidance of solvent boiling and lower 
operating temperature results in a low energy demand for 
regeneration, and the low quality heat/waste heat from the 
plant can be utilized within the system, making the whole 
regeneration a low OPEX process. When compared to 
conventional solvent process the operating cost of HyCaps 
is about 60% lower as shown in Figure 3. 
The development of the hybrid HyCaps represents a new 
approach in carbon capture that has clear advantages in 
terms of energy requirement and footprint, compared 
to conventional technology. Critically, the technology, 
proven at three different industrial pilot plants in Australia, 
has demonstrated the deployment readiness of HyCaps 
to address carbon emissions from industrial sources 
including the hard-to-abate sector. HyCaps is a modular, 
compact, and scalable technology that can be applied to 
post combustion as well as pre combustion CO2 capture 
processes. Due to its compact design, flexible orientation 
and ease of installation, it is suitable to be retrofitted to any 
industry with limited space but not limited to hard-to-abate 
sector, mobile process platforms like FPSO, and ship-based 
processes.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
CO2CRC Ltd and its research partners have successfully 
demonstrated the potential of HyCaps technology for 
both post-combustion and pre-combustion carbon capture 
scenarios. This novel technology represents over a decade 
of laboratory research and three pilot plant industrial 
trials: The 30 wt% monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent was 
chosen for pilot testing because of its well characterized 
performance and the industry standard for CO2 solvent 
absorption. Hence, the performance of the HyCaps pilot 
plant could be directly correlated with conventional solvent 
absorption processes, with improvements in carbon 
capture efficiency and energy penalty directly correlated 
to the HyCaps technology. In this process, the solvent 
regeneration operating temperature ranged between 90 
to 102 °C, well below the solvent vaporization temperature 
of 105 °C. Hence, the pilot plant proved that carbon capture 
and solvent regeneration could occur without a bulk 
solvent phase change. 
To ensure rapid scale-up of HyCaps technology, the 
membrane based HyCaps modules chosen were based 
on commercially available membranes, which were 
originally developed for other gas separation applications. 
Therefore, the technology can be rapidly adopted by 
industry and expanded without the need for membrane 
material development or the construction of sophisticated 
membrane fabrication facilities.
It is also important to note that ongoing developments on 
either the solvent or membrane systems can be transferred 
seamlessly to the HyCaps module – a further benefit of the 
system that will ensure its future relevance to the industry. 
NEXT STEPS
With three successful pilot demonstrations in different industrial environments, HyCaps has achieved a technology 
readiness level (TRL) 6. HyCaps is a cost competitive CO2 capture technology and is ready for scale up and large-scale 
demonstration. As a next step, CO2CRC is working on a scaled up design for the equipment and is looking for potential 
funding and collaboration opportunities to test and showcase HyCaps technology in different industrial applications and 
environmental conditions.
Figure 3- Cost effectiveness of HyCaps compared to conventional solvent process for CO2 capture from flue gas having 18% CO2.
Figure 2 is a typical flow sheet of the HyCaps process. The 
flowsheet is similar to that of conventional solvent CO2 
capture systems but with the HyCaps module replacing the 
conventional packed columns for absorption and solvent 
regeneration. The process involves the transfer of CO2 from 
the gas mix through a hollow-fiber membrane, where it is 
chemically absorbed into a solvent. In solvent regeneration 
with HyCaps, the physical separation of the solvent and 
gas phases by the membrane enables carbon dioxide to 
be drawn from the enriched solvent phase into the gas 
phase. This enables solvent regeneration to be achieved 
at temperatures lower than conventional packed columns 
and the solvent regeneration can be achieved without 
vaporisation of the solvent. By avoiding vaporisation of the 
solvent, the HyCaps process reduces the energy demand 
of the solvent regeneration significantly. 
Figure 2 - HyCaps process undertaking carbon capture and solvent regeneration.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Simplicity: LCDesign® process configuration is simplified compared to both the traditional amine system and advanced 
technologies.
•	
Scalability: LCDesign® can be scaled from 1 to 7,000 tpd or more. 
•	
Affordability: LCDesign® is truly the most affordable carbon capture system in the market with the lowest CAPEX & 
OPEX.
•	
Integrability: LCdesign® can be fitted with a new or existing Pre-/Post- Combustion process. 
•	
Suitability: LCDesign® can capture CO2 from any gas stream at wide CO2 content (from 2.5 to 70 volume %)
•	
Performability: LCDesign® can be designed to capture CO2 at any recovery ratio (up to 99%) lower energy compared 
to conventional solvent-based techniques. 
•	
Solvent Availability: DeltaSolv® solvents are commercially available with no royalty fees.  
•	
Emission Reduction: LCDesign® reduces emissions to atmosphere to the minimum with DeltaWash™ technology. 
•	
Operation Philosophy: LCDesign® requires a minimum operation attention and can be designed to be automated (no 
need for site staff 24/7) 
•	
Operation flexibility: LCDesign® can be operated in a wide range of gas and liquid loads (30 to 120% design load) 
•	
Team Expertise: Delta Team are professionally trained and skilled carbon capture designers with experience in 
Construction, Commissioning, Operating and Troubleshooting Plant Operations.
•	
Project Execution: DELTA can work alongside the EPC Firms of your choice.
•	
Maturity: LCDesign® Technology Readiness Level (TRL) is 9 and it is Build Ready!
LCDESIGN®, DELTA RECLAIMER®, DELTSOLV® 
DELTA CleanTech is globally recognized as a leading 
provider of technology for Pre- / Post- Combustion Carbon 
Capture from industrial sources, enabling significant 
and economical reduction of greenhouse gas emissions 
since 2004. DELTA’s goal is to deliver practical solutions 
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help solve the 
challenges of energy security.
Through its commercial relationships, DELTA implements 
the Best Commercial Technologies (BCT) in carbon capture 
and utilization with leading EPC’s and Fabricators around 
the world. 
Delta has developed its own proprietary technologies as 
follows;  
•	
Low-Cost Design Carbon Capture System, LCDesign®
•	
Solvent Purification & Recycling System, Delta 
Reclaimer®
The collective experiences from over 100 Carbon Capture 
Projects worldwide provides Delta a distinct advantage. 
Delta has successfully designed carbon capture plants with 
capacity from 1 to 7,000 metric tonne of CO2 per day (tpd). 
CONTACT
Email: 	 jallison@deltacleantech.com
Web: 	
www.deltacleantech.com
DELTA CLEANTECH


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DESCRIPTION
BELCO® WET SCRUBBING
BELCO® scrubbing is the leading technology used in 
oil refineries for cleaning flue gas from FCCUs that are 
typically operated uninterrupted for 5–7 year periods. 
Particulate Matter (PM) (including mist and aerosols), SOx 
and NOx are controlled in a single up-flow tower with a 
staged cleaning approach that supports optimizing system 
configurations to meet specific application needs, while 
minimizing flue gas pressure drop and system costs. 
Common acid gas buffering reagents (NaOH, NaCO3 and 
Mg(OH)2) are typically used for FCCU and other oil refinery 
applications (fluid cokers, power boilers and fired heaters). 
The use of other reagents is also supported.
With BELCO® scrubbing, hot-dirty flue gas is quenched/ 
saturated flowing into a horizontal inlet in the lower portion 
of an up-flow tower. When NOx control is required, gas 
that is rich in ozone is injected into oxidized NOx for easily 
scrubbed HNO3. Acid gases and coarser PM are removed 
with buffered water sprays as gas flows up through 
the vertical tower. Finer PM is removed with a unique 
particulate growth and buffered water spray filtration stage. 
Liquid droplets are removed in a final stage at the top of 
the tower.
SUMMARY
HIGHLIGHTS
•	
Proven scrubbing performance for severe service hot dirty flue gas applications
•	
500+ scrubbing installations with unique BELCO® and DynaWave® technologies
•	
Refinery FCCUs, boilers, heaters, fluid cokers and SRUs installations
•	
Sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, cement kilns, power plants, and incinerator installations
•	
Capable of meeting extremely low particulate matter, SOx and NOx concentrations 
•	
Robust non-plugging scrubbing designs using open towers
•	
Compact plot space requirements 
•	
Minimal energy and water usage
•	
Brink® brownian diffusion mist eliminators for clean flue gas applications and amine emissions reduction
ELESSENT FLUE GAS PRE-CLEANING FOR CARBON CAPTURE UNITS (CCUS)
Elessent Clean Technologies (Elessent) provides wet gas 
cleaning systems for pre-cleaning and cooling hot dirty 
flue gas streams ahead of carbon capture units (CCUs) for 
CO2 reduction. Elessent’s BELCO® scrubbing technology 
is in widespread use on refinery fluid catalytic cracking 
units (FCCUs), fluid cokers, boilers, and process heaters. 
Our DynaWave® scrubbing technology is in use on many 
applications that include refinery sulfur recovery units 
(SRUs), sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, cement 
kilns, power plants, incinerators and other applications 
requiring robust flue gas cleaning. Originally developed 
and used to minimize flue gas atmospheric emissions, our 
wet scrubbing technologies can meet the extremely low 
flue gas contaminant concentrations specified by CCU 
suppliers for particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxides (SOx), 
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and aerosols. Flue gas cooling to 
meet low moisture (H2O) content and low temperature 
requirements for some CCU technologies can also be 
provided. Where additional control of acid mists, aerosols 
and/or fine particulate is required, for more meeting more 
stringent cleaning requirements, Elessent can incorporate 
the use of wet electrostatic precipitators (WESPs) for dirty 
flue gases or Brink® brownian diffusion fiber bed mist 
eliminators. Elessent’s Brink® mist eliminators are also well 
suited for controlling amine mist downstream of amine-
based CO2 absorption units.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ernie.levinski@elessentctcom
Web: 	
www.elessentct.com
ELESSENT CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES


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DYNAWAVE® WET SCRUBBING
DynaWave® scrubbing is widely used for gas cleaning on 
refinery SRUs, sulfuric acid plants, metallurgical plants, 
cement kilns, power plants, and incinerators. Cleaning 
is provided using a unique reverse-jet technology within 
a single vessel. Systems are customized for specific 
application requirements for removal of PM, acid gases 
(SOx, HCl, HBr, H2S, HCN, Br2, Cl2, I2, F2), NH3 and/or 
NOx. The technology supports the use of a wide variety 
of common acid gas buffering reagents, as well as 
specialized reagents that include caustic, soda ash, lime, 
limestone, zinc oxide, magnesium hydroxide, ammonia, 
and hydrogen peroxide. Other reagents can be used in 
special applications like Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) in cement 
plants and Black Powder in zinc plants.
Hot dirty gas flows down into the inlet barrel while buffered 
liquid is sprayed upward into the barrel. Liquid collides with 
the down-flowing gas to create the “froth zone”, a region of 
extreme turbulence with a high rate of mass transfer. Clean, 
water-saturated gas continues through the scrubber vessel 
to mist removal devices. The liquid reverses direction and 
returns to the vessel sump for recycling back to the reverse 
jet nozzle.
BRINK® FIBER BED MIST ELIMINATORS
Used in 5000+ facilities around the world, Brink® mist 
eliminators provide effective elimination of fine aerosol 
mists, submicron oil smoke and soluble solids from a wide 
range of gas streams. Originally developed for use in 
phosphoric acid plants, custom engineered systems are 
used for a broad range of industries including everything 
from sulfuric acid to asphalt manufacturing, plastic 
extrusion, metalworking and many more. For CCUs, Brink® 
mist eliminators may be used as part of our BELCO® and 
DynaWave® wet scrubbing systems, or as a separate 
system ahead of or after a CCU. 
Using Brownian diffusion principles, Brink® mist eliminators 
consist of thick layers of very fine fibers placed between 
two concentric cylindrical screens or cages. Fiber beds 
are placed within a collection vessel to allow for gas to be 
conveyed through the devices. Mist and aerosols collect 
on the fiber bed and coalesce to form liquid films that drain 
down through and out of the filter by gravity. These devices 
offer exceptional collection efficiency for meeting stringent 
emission guarantees, and in cases where insoluble 
particulate content in the gas is low, they can achieve many 
years of trouble-free operation.


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DESCRIPTION
A key advantage of fuel cell power generation over 
combustion heat engine systems is that fuel is converted 
to power more directly through an electrochemical non-
combustion reaction. This direct conversion is more 
efficient and avoids the production of pollutants such as 
NOX and particulates associated with combustion based 
power generation. Fuel cells are electrochemical devices 
comprised of negative and positive electrodes that can 
be connected in a variety of series or parallel electrical 
configurations to get the desired system voltage. The 
negative electrodes produce electrons, and the positive 
electrodes consume electrons, producing the electrical 
current. Chemical reactions at the electrodes drive the 
electron production and consumption. An electrolyte 
layer between the electrodes supports ion transfer from 
positive to negative electrodes to maintain charge balance 
as electrons are produced and consumed. In fuel cells the 
chemicals that drive the power reaction are continuously 
fed into the cells during power production. Typically, a 
fuel flows through the negative electrodes (anodes) and 
air flows through the positive electrodes (cathodes). The 
fuel is often hydrogen, but in the case of carbonate fuel 
cells methane (from natural gas or biogas) is used and 
converted to hydrogen inside the fuel cell.
In carbonate fuel cells the electrochemical reactions are 
supported by an electrolyte layer in which carbonate ions 
serve as the ion bridge that completes the electrical circuit. 
During power generation the carbonate ion transfer results 
in carbon dioxide being produced in the fuel electrodes 
and consumed in the air electrodes. This carbon dioxide 
flux is what is used for carbon capture. The cell and stack 
structure and electrochemical reactions are illustrated 
below:
Carbonate stacks are made up of individual cell packages containing the fuel electrodes, air electrodes, and a porous 
ceramic matrix layer containing the carbonate ion electrolyte. The fuel electrodes in a carbonate stack also support the 
reforming of methane to hydrogen, which is then consumed by the fuel cell reaction to make power. The reforming reaction 
will produce one molecule of carbon dioxide for each molecule of methane fuel. The fuel electrode reaction also produces 
additional carbon dioxide (four more molecules for each methane input), which is recycled back to the air electrodes, where 
the extra four molecules are consumed. The recycle system is part of the mechanical balance of plant of a carbonate fuel 
cell powerplant. Extracting carbon dioxide from this recycle stream and replacing it with external carbon dioxide from a flue 
gas is the key to the carbonate fuel cell carbon capture approach.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Co-production of power during carbon capture, which provides an additional revenue stream to offset the cost of 
carbon capture.
•	
Co-production of clean water from the fuel cell reaction, which can be used to offset water requirements of the coal or 
gas system that CO2 is being captured from.  
•	
NOX destruction. Reactions occurring on the carbonate electrode surfaces destroy NOX, so processing flue gas in 
a carbonate fuel cell system will destroy up to 70% of the NOX in the flue gas, reducing or eliminating capital and 
operating costs for NOX destruction equipment.
FUEL CELL BASED CARBON CAPTURE SOLUTIONS
FuelCell Energy, Inc is a provider of power generation 
and hydrogen solutions based on high temperature 
electrochemical technologies. One of those platforms, the 
molten carbonate fuel cell, offers a unique approach to 
capturing carbon dioxide from power generation or thermal 
sources while simultaneously producing power. The 
company has been offering power generation platforms 
based on the carbonate fuel cell technology commercially 
since 2003, and over 200 MW of systems are in operation 
around the world. Carbonate fuel cells generate power 
in electrochemical reactions that are supported by an 
electrolyte layer in which carbonate ions serve as the ion 
bridge that completes the electrical circuit. A side effect 
of this basic characteristic of the technology is that carbon 
dioxide introduced at the air electrode is transferred 
through the electrolyte layer to the fuel electrode, where 
it is more highly concentrated and easy to remove. This 
means that a carbonate electrochemical cell can be used 
as a carbon purification membrane – transferring CO2 
from a dilute oxidant stream to a more concentrated fuel 
exhaust stream. These cells are not developmental items – 
they are industrial scale components configured into large 
cell-stacks in MW-scale fuel cell powerplant systems that 
are commercially deployed around the world today, and 
an effort is underway to optimize the cell configuration for 
carbon capture.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@fce.com
Web: 	
www.fuelcellenergy.com
FUELCELL ENERGY
•	
Modular, can be deployed incrementally to manage capital outlay and changes in the cost of power, and to address a 
wide scale of application sizes.
•	
Wide range of applications, from industrial thermal sources as well as coal or natural gas power generation systems


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Using carbonate fuel cells for carbon capture involves adding additional process equipment to the powerplant mechanical 
balance of plant, as illustrated below. In a standard carbonate powerplant, CO2 produced at the anode is recycled back 
to the cathode to provide the CO2 needed by the air electrodes. If the concentrated CO2 in the anode exhaust stream 
is extracted from the system and not recycled back to the cathode, an external source of CO2 can support the cathode 
reaction. This external source can be the exhaust from another powerplant or an industrial source. The dilute CO2 in the 
external flue gas will be reacted at the fuel cell cathodes and transferred to the anode stream, from which it can be easily 
separated for sequestration or utilization.
The size of the carbonate powerplant required to capture CO2 from a specific source depends on the size of the source 
and the CO2 emission rate. A 2.8MW carbonate fuel cell powerplant during normal power operation is transferring about 
3200 kg of CO2 per hour from the cathode to anode streams in the stack modules. In carbon capture mode, this system 
could capture and purify up to 2300 kg per hour of external CO2 in addition to the CO2 from the powerplant fuel input. The 
amount of capture at various fuel cell powerplant sizes is shown in this figure:
The modular nature of the fuel cell system allows a wide 
range of system applications. Powerplants rated at single to 
tens of MW output can be used for industrial applications, 
such as capture from boilers, and are particularly attractive 
in industries that use carbon dioxide, where on-site 
combined heat, power, and CO2 production can provide 
cost, sustainability, and resiliency advantages.   Powerplants 
rated at 100’s of MW can be used to capture CO2 from 
petrochemical or large power generation systems. 
These large-scale carbonate carbon capture systems will 
ultimately be specially designed with larger scale balance 
of plant systems than today’s commercial powerplant 
products. In the near term, smaller scale capture systems 
have been configured based on the current generation of 
commercially available 1.4MW stack modules.   Large fuel 
cell systems based on multiple powerplants have become 
common in bulk power generation applications. The largest 
such system so far is a 59 MW system using forty-two 
1.4MW fuel cell modules located in Hwasung City, South 
Korea, shown below.
As FuelCell Energy develops early projects using currently 
available fuel cell equipment, the company is working with 
ExxonMobil in a joint development effort to optimize the 
performance of the fuel cells in carbon capture mode, and 
to develop advanced stack module and system designs to 
address large scale carbon capture applications. 
Standard System
Carbon Capture Modification


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DESCRIPTION
Heirloom was founded in 2020 by Shashank Samala, 
the former co-founder of industrial automation software 
provider Tempo, who grew up in southeast India where he 
saw first-hand how those contributing the least to climate 
change were most impacted by its effects.
Wanting to scale a negative emissions technology that had 
the capability of scaling to sequester billions of tons of CO2 
each year, Shashank co-founded Heirloom in 2020 with Dr 
Noah McQueen, a researcher in the lab of Professor Jen 
Wilcox at the University of Pennsylvania. 
Heirloom’s technology uses the world’s second most 
abundant material, limestone (calcium carbonate - 
CaCO3) to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) directly from the 
atmosphere, and then permanently and safely stores that 
CO2 so that it doesn’t return to the air. The company’s 
mission is to remove 1 billion tons of carbon from the 
atmosphere by 2035, a figure which represents 20% of 
today’s annual U.S. emissions and 10% of global carbon 
removal needed annually by 2050. 
Limestone is made up of calcium oxide (CaO) and CO2. 
When CO2 is removed from the limestone, the calcium 
oxide wants to return to its natural limestone state. It 
becomes “thirsty” for CO2 and acts like a sponge – 
pulling CO2 from the atmosphere. Heirloom’s technology 
accelerates this natural property of limestone, reducing the 
time it takes to absorb CO2 from years to just three days.
The process works by heating limestone mineral powder in 
a renewable-energy powered kiln to remove the CO2. The 
powder is then spread onto vertically-stacked trays where 
well-trained algorithms inform how to treat the limestone to 
optimize its ability to uptake CO2. The limestone powder 
is looped through the system to continuously sponge 
CO2 from the atmosphere - a cyclic process that not only 
reduces costs but also reduces how much mineral must be 
mined.
Heirloom is backed by some of the most well-known 
climate investors in the world, including Breakthrough 
Energy Ventures, Microsoft, Lower Carbon Capital, Prelude, 
Carbon Direct, Ahren Innovation Capital, Marc Benioff’s 
Time Ventures, Alexis Ohanian’s 776 and Breyer Capital. 
The company raised a $53 million Series A in 2022, and is 
currently operating America’s only operational DAC facility. 
Heirloom has sold carbon removal credits to Stripe, Klarna 
and Shopify, and recently signed a deal with Microsoft to 
deliver permanent carbon removal credits in the coming 
years.
In early 2023, Heirloom achieved a milestone by removing 
CO2 from the atmosphere and permanently storing it 
in concrete for the first time ever. This first-of-its-kind 
application is significant because concrete is currently the 
only permanent storage vehicle available for CO2 removed 
from the atmosphere in the United States. Concrete 
storage of atmospheric CO2 will enable companies like 
Heirloom to advance technologies and begin to scale 
without waiting for other storage options – such as 
underground wells – to open up. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Heirloom’s technology is designed to drive down the cost of CO2 removal to achieve gigaton scale quickly. A number of 
features drive this cost reduction, including:
•	
Low-cost inputs – Heirloom uses limestone to capture CO2 from the atmosphere. Making up four percent of the Earth’s 
surface and costing just $10-50 a ton, limestone is more abundant, far less expensive, and easier to source than the 
engineered materials used by other DAC technologies.
•	
Modular design – Heirloom’s carbon removal facilities are built for simple, mass manufacturing and have independent 
components and processes that can be optimized over time. 
•	
	
Powered by data – Heirloom’s technology gathers millions of data points every month on parameters that govern how 
quickly our technology can pull CO2 from the atmosphere.  This data enables us to continually train the algorithms that 
power our automated facilities to optimize their uptake of CO2 – further increasing our output and reducing cost.
HEIRLOOM’S DIRECT AIR CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY 
Heirloom’s Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology rapidly 
accelerates the natural ability of limestone to absorb 
CO2 from the air from a timespan of years to days. The 
technology removes atmospheric CO2 in a way that is 
permanent, low-cost and scalable. Founded in 2020 
by the world’s leading experts in CO2 removal and serial 
deep-tech entrepreneurs, Heirloom is currently operating 
one of a very small number of DAC facilities in the United 
States that is permanently storing CO2, and its customers 
are the world’s biggest buyers of carbon removal including 
Microsoft, Stripe, Klarna, Shopify and more. Heirloom is 
backed by some of the world’s best climate investors 
including Breakthrough Energy Ventures, Microsoft, Lower 
Carbon Capital, Prelude, Carbon Direct, Ahren Innovation 
Capital, Marc Benioff’s Time Ventures, Alexis Ohanian’s 
776 and Breyer Capital.
CONTACT
Email: 	 hello@heirloomcarbon.com
Web: 	
www.heirloomcarbon.com
HEIRLOOM


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DESCRIPTION
CERI’S CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES
CERI has developed a broad spectrum of CO2 capture 
technologies and systems built for the coal and gas-
fired power plants, waste-to-energy plants, steel plants 
and refinery plants. We started R&D and engineering 
demonstration back in 2006. With over 16 years of 
experience, we expertise in providing engineering services 
including the development of high-performance CO2 
solvents, solvent recovery and purification technology, 
carbon capture process design and optimization, high-
efficiency equipment design, power plant integrated 
design optimization, engineering design, construction, 
commissioning and operation. Those are not limited 
to post-combustion CO2 capture, but can also apply to 
pre-combustion CO2 capture, CO2 utilization and CO2 
sequestration. 
The followings are CERI’s cutting edge commercial CO2 
capture technologies:
•	
Advanced Amine Absorbent. CERI has developed a 
series of commercial blended amines solvents named 
HNC-1~HNC-5. The advanced amine, HNC-5 solvent 
has been validated for more than 20,000 hours in 
Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 tonne/annum CO2 
capture facility, with the solvent loss rate of 40% of 
conventional amine and regeneration energy below 
2.8 GJ/tCO2, reducing 20% CO2 capture cost.
•	
Next-generation 
Amine 
Absorbent. 
CERI 
is 
developing the next generation HNC-6 solvent 
technology incorporating higher cyclic loading faster 
reaction kinetics, low energy consumption, low solvent 
degradation, low corrosivity with attractive technical 
feasibility (viscosity, wettability) and environmentally 
benign benefits in terms of low toxicity and volatility.
•	
Slurry-based CO2 Absorbent. CERI has developed 
potassium carbonate slurry-based CO2 capture 
absorbent and process which is validated in the lab-
scale pilot plant. The regeneration energy is 2.6GJ/
tCO2, absorbent cost is 20% that of conventional 
amine and solvent loss cost is 22%~50% that of MEA. 
•	
Next-generation Phase Change CO2 Absorbent. 
CERI has developed phase-change CO2 absorbent 
that can realize the automatic phase separation of 
rich liquid after CO2 absorption. The phase-change 
CO2 absorbent was tested at the 1,000 tonne/annum 
phase-change carbon capture industrial device in 
Huaneng Changchun Thermal Power Plant. After 
CO2 absorption, the self-concentrated biphasic CO2 
absorbent can split into two liquid/liquid phase by itself. 
Almost all absorbed CO2 transfer into the rich phase 
(more than 95%). Only the rich phase is transferred to 
the regeneration system for CO2 desorption. Results 
show a regeneration energy reduction up to 40% than 
the conventional amine MEA. 
CERI is currently the leading CO2 capture technology 
provider in China, and has accumulated a wealth of 
intellectual property achievements such as patents, 
standards, research and industrial papers through over 
16 years of R&D and technology demonstration. We have 
been awarded with top-tier prizes in China’s Electric 
Power Science and Technology Award, National Energy 
Science and Technology Award, Outstanding Contribution 
Award in US CCUS Technology Award, United Nations 
Environmental-Friendly Demonstration Project Award, etc.
We have built a number of international and domestic 
CO2 capture facilities, spanning from Beijing Gaobeidian 
coal-fired power 3,000 tonne/annum CO2 capture facility, 
Shanghai Shidongkou coal-fired power 120,000 tonne/
annum post combustion CO2 capture facility, Tianjin 
GreenGen IGCC 100,000 tonne/annum pre-combustion 
CO2 capture facility, Taiyuan steel plant 45,000 tonne/
annum industrial CO2 capture project, Zhejiang Pinghu 
waste-to-energy plant CO2 capture facility, to the future 
Australia Glencore’s Surat Basin 110,000 tonne/annum CCS 
Project and Huaneng Longdong 1.5 million tonne/annum 
CCUS project. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Built up on R&D, we can realize the seamless connection from research, to engineering demonstration, and to 
commercial operation
•	
Broad spectrum of engineering capabilities from technology engineering design, equipment procurement, 
construction, commissioning and operation 
•	
Extensive experience and skills in commercial carbon capture technology, from the Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 
tonne/annum CO2 capture demonstration facility built in 2009, to the scale-up project of 1,500,000 tonne/ annum CCS 
project which is in construction in the Huaneng Zhengning Energy Base in west of China
•	
Leading the development of the international standard ISO/WD27927 “Key performance parameters and 
characterization methods of absorption liquids for post-combustion CO2 capture”
•	
We have established close collaboration with overseas academics and industries, from “China US Clean Energy 
Research Center”, “China Europe CCUS Technology Cooperation”, and “China Italy CCS Technology Cooperation”, 
and “International Carbon Capture Testing Center Network Platform (ITCN)”
HUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 
China Huaneng Clean Energy Research Institute (CERI) 
has developed a variety of high-performance carbon 
capture technologies such as the advanced amine 
absorbent, slurry-based CO2 capture absorbent, and 
next-generation phase change CO2 capture absorbent. 
We have established independent intellectual property 
rights and a complete set of technology system for CO2 
capture in coal/gas power plants, and technologies have 
been demonstrated in multiple international and domestic 
carbon capture plants. CERI has built up the first-tier 
research and development platforms, such as the “National 
Key Laboratory of High-Efficiency Flexible Coal Power 
Generation and Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage”, 
“Beijing Key Laboratory for Carbon Dioxide Capture and 
Treatment” and the partner of “International Carbon 
Capture Testing Center Network Platform (ITCN)”.
CERI has demonstrated its carbon capture technologies in 
over 16 coal or gas fired power plants. We have validated 
our commercial advanced amine technology for over 
20,000 hours operation in the 120,000 tonne/annum post-
combustion CO2 capture facility in Shanghai Shidongkou 
coal-fired power plant. We are constructing the world’s 
largest post-combustion CO2 capture and storage project 
1,500,000 tonne/annum CO2 from Huaneng Zhengning 
Energy Base, a 10 GW multi-energy infrastructure in 
the west of China. We are exporting our CO2 capture 
technology overseas to build the 110,000 tonne/annum 
CO2 capture project retrofitting to Millmerran coal-fired 
power plant in Queensland in Australia.
CERI can provide a broad spectrum of engineering services 
including collaboration in R&D for CO2 capture solvent 
development, process engineering design, high-efficiency 
equipment design and procurement, plant debugging 
and commissioning, catalyst design and synthesis for 
CO2 utilization, engineering design for desulphurization 
(deSOx), denitrification (deNOx), and CO2 storage in saline 
aquifers.
CONTACT
Email: 	 hm_liu@qny.chng.com.cn
Web: 	
www.chng.com.cn/en
HUANENG CLEAN ENERGY RESEARCH 
INSTITUTE 


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HIGHLIGHTED CO2 CAPTURE PROJECTS DEVELOPED 
BY CERI
CERI has been actively exploring high-efficiency, cost-
effective carbon capture technologies, and built a number 
of projects, both in China and overseas. The timeline of 
CERI carbon capture project development is shown in the 
diagram on the previous page. 
In July 2008, China’s first post-combustion CO2 capture 
facility, capturing 3,000 tonne/year CO2, commenced 
operation in Huaneng Beijing Gaobeidian Power Plant. 
The facility is independently designed and constructed by 
CERI. This project marks the first pilot test of CO2 capture 
technology in coal-fired power in China.
In 2009, CERI scaled up its engineering expertise to build 
a 120,000 CO2 capturing facility in Shanghai Shidongkou 
No.2 ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant. It is well 
known as a pioneer CCUS project in China, and it was 
the world’s largest post-combustion CO2 capture project 
retrofitted to a coal-fired power plant at that time. The 
energy consumption of this CO2 capture facility was <2.8 
GJ/tonne CO2 at the capture ratio over 90%, a significant 
improvement over the first-generation amine solvent using 
MEA. Today, Shidongkou Post-combustion Carbon Capture 
Project has achieved over 22,000 operation hours, the 
world’s longest operating post-combustion capture plant.
The project was the first one to show that the cost of post-
combustion CO2 capture can be far below $100 back 
in 2009. The construction was completed in less than 7 
months which showed the China speed of construction, a 
pathway for cost reduction in CAPEX.
In 2013, CERI built China’s first gas-fired carbon capture 
pilot plant in Beijing, capturing 1,000 tonne/annum CO2. 
This facility became the key testing platform for the 
validation of the capture technologies we developed in the 
lab.
In 2016, CERI started operation of the first pre-combustion 
CO2 capture unit in China. This CO2 capture facility is the 
world’s largest and, capable of conducting experiments 
under flexible loads and operating conditions. 
CCS PROJECTS IN DEVELOPMENT
1. Shanghai Shidongkou 120,000 tonne/annum phase-
change CO2 capture project.
This project is to scale up CERI’s phase-change CO2 
capture technology at 120,000 tonne/annum capacity, and 
to complete industrial verification and reach a performance 
target at ≤2.3GJ/tCO2 regenerated energy and ≤1.0kg/tCO2 
solvent loss. The phase change CO2 capture technology 
was successfully demonstrated at the 1,000 tonne/annum 
phase-change carbon capture pilot plant in Huaneng 
Changchun Thermal Power Plant in 2020.
ITEMS
SHANGHAI 
SHIDONGKOU COAL-
FIRED POWER CO2 
CAPTURE FACILITY
IGCC PRE-
COMBUSTION 
CARBON CAPTURE 
FACILITY
HAINAN 
INTERNATIONAL 
CO2 CAPTURE TEST 
PLATFORM
HUANENG LONGDONG 
ENERGY BASE CCS 
PROJECT
Capture 
Process
Post combustion
Pre-Combustion
Post combustion
Post combustion
Feature
Supercritical coal-fired 
power plant, CO2 12-
15% in flue gas
IGCC based full chain 
CCS
NG combustion flue gas, 
CO2 ~4% in flue gas
Advanced ultra-supercritical 
coal-fired power plant, CO2 
10-14% in flue gas
Scale
120,000tpa CO2
100,000tpa CO2 
(30MWth)
2,000tpa CO2
1,500,000tpa CO2
Regeneration 
Energy 
consumption
<2.8GJ/t CO2
<2.3GJ/t CO2
3.0GJ/tCO2
<2.3GJ/t CO2
Capture Ratio
>85%
-
>90%
>90%
CO2 Purity
Food Grade, >99.997%
-
Industrial use
Others
Largest PCC unit then, 
have been operating 
10 years continually
-
Open for international 
collaboration for 
technology testing and 
verification
Will be the world’s largest PCC 
plant when built
Capture cost 
300-400RMB/t CO2
-
Real NGCC flue gas 
condition
Captured CO2 for EOR and 
dedicated geological storage
2. Huaneng international CO2 capture test platform for 
Natural Gas Combined Cycle power plant in Hainan 
Island, China 
The 2,000 tonne/annum international CO2 capture 
testing platform uses real flue gas from the Natural Gas 
Combined Cycle (NGCC) power plant located in Yangpu, 
Hainan Island, China. Hainan has 30-day visa-free access 
for international visitors. This enables international 
collaboration for testing and validating carbon capture 
technologies. Huaneng Clean Energy Research Institute is 
a partner of International Test Center Network, and the only 
one in China.
3. Glencore Surat Basin 110,000 tonne/annum CCS 
Project in Queensland Australia
We are developing the post-combustion CO2 capture 
project retrofitting to the Millmerran coal-fired power plant 
in Queensland, Australia. The project can capture 110,000 
tonne/annum CO2. It will build a demonstration scale but 
also scalable post-combustion CO2 capture plant. Once 
built, it will be the first commercial post-combustion CO2 
capture project in Australia, and first China post combustion 
CO2 capture technology export overseas.
4. Huaneng Longdong 1,500,000 Tonne/Annum CCUS 
Project 
This million-tonne scale CCUS project is in construction. 
Once built by 2024, this project will become China’s first 
million-tonne carbon capture and storage facility in the 
power sector, and the largest post-combustion CO2 capture 
facility in the world. This project deploys China Huaneng’s 
next-generation HNC series CO2 capture technology. CO2 
will be captured from the slipstream of Unit 1 of the 2x1,000 
MW ultra-supercritical coal-fired power plant, at the newly 
build China Huaneng Longdong Energy Base in Northwest 
China. The CCUS project will reduce 1.5 million tonnes per 
annum CO2 emission, at a regeneration heat duty below 
2.3 GJ/tonne CO2, and CO2 capture cost is around RMB 
220 per tonne CO2 captured (<USD $35). The captured 
CO2 will be transported via pipeline in the supercritical 
phase. Around 1 million tonne per annum CO2 will be 
stored via dedicated geological storage in the nearby 
geological sites, and 0.5 million tonnes per annum CO2 will 
be sent to CNPC oil fields for enhanced oil recovery.
The project will present a revolutionary low-cost 
decarbonization option for coal-fired power generation, 
as well as a flexible operation model for the peak-load 
regulating coal-fired power unit and CCS working along 
with the increasing penetration of renewable energy in 
power generation. The Longdong Energy Base itself is a 
multi-energy infrastructure with 8 GW renewables and 2 
GW ultra-supercritical coal fired power.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
DESCRIPTION
•	
Significant track record in Carbon Capture with vast technology portfolio
•	
Honeywell has a vast portfolio of carbon capture technologies that help support industry leaders to move towards a 
lower carbon footprint. Out of experts can work with you to determine the best solution to meeting your CO2 emission 
goals
CHALLENGES FOR INDUSTRY LEADERS
•	
Legal, regulatory, and financial frameworks need to 
continue progressing
•	
Large scale projects remain a significant hurdle due to 
energy requirements
•	
Full ecosystem that embodies all elements of carbon 
capture to support fast-moving
CHEMICAL SOLVENTS
AmineGuard™ & Amine Guard FS Process
MEA based system that is mature, reliable, and easy 
to operate, with >600 units licensed and in operation. 
Removes CO2 from natural gas, syngas, & blast furnace 
gas. 
Benfield™
Inorganic solvent based system for pressurized gas 
streams (natural gas, syngas, ethylene oxide) >650 units in 
operation.
Advanced Solvent for Carbon Capture (ASCC)
Second Generation amine based system targeting hard to 
abate flue gases from power, steel, cement, natural gas, 
industrials, refining & petrochemical industries.
PHYSICAL SOLVENTS
SeparALL
™ Process
Physical Solvent (non toxic & non flammable) for high 
pressure gasification streams selectively removes H2S/CO2 
utilizing Selexol™ solvent.
ADSORBENTS
Polybed™ Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) System
A process that utilizes a series of pressurization and 
depressurization cycles with adsorbents and cycles 
for H2 purification and CO2 rejection (>1150 units, 3 
operating in CO2 application). PSAs are often paired with 
other  separation technologies to optimize CO2 capture 
capabilities.
CRYOGENICS & MEMBRANES
Separex™ Membrane Systems
High, partial-pressure CO₂ capture,  significant  experience 
in onshore & offshore capturing and sequestering (>300 
units) Requires minimal rotating equipment, no chemical 
reagent replacement, and minimal maintenance, Designed 
for operational simplicity.
Ortloff CO₂ Fractionation
Solvent-free option, all-electric process (no steam required) 
with fewer subsystems and a smaller footprint than a 
solvent system, delivers CO₂ as a high purity liquid product.
TECHNOLOGY DELIVERY 
Honeywell can provide technology as initial studies to 
define best path forward, transfers the technology through 
license, engineering, key mechanical equipment, solvent, 
adsorbents, services and modular supply.
PRE COMBUSTION CARBON CAPTURE SOLUTIONS
Honeywell UOP has provided innovative hydrogen 
processing solutions to refineries and other industries for 
five decades. Today, refineries can implement Honeywell 
H2 Solutions at scale and low cost, achieving significant 
sustainability impact. 
Honeywell H2 Solutions include multiple carbon capture 
flow schemes you can tailor to your requirements for 
hydrogen yield, hydrogen purity, CO2 purity, steam use, or 
capital and operating cost needs.
Ready today, Honeywell H2 Solutions is a suite of proven 
carbon capture technologies to help you meet stringent 
emissions goals and gain fast, profitable entry into the 
growing hydrogen economy.
The fact is, hydrogen is a clean-burning fuel that can 
decarbonize hard-to-abate segments as long as it’s 
produced using a low-carbon route. Low-carbon hydrogen 
can be an economical solution for decarbonizing 
petrochemical, 
refining, 
transportation, 
and 
power 
generation businesses.
NAME OF TECHNOLOGY
A PATH TO CARBON NEUTRALITY STARTS TODAY
With a global focus on combatting climate change, industry 
leaders are aggressively seeking technology solutions that 
limit greenhouse gas emissions.
This is especially critical for carbon-intensive industrial 
markets 
such 
as 
power, 
steel, 
cement, 
refining, 
petrochemicals, hydrogen and natural gas processing 
where reducing environmental impact has been difficult.
There are many avenues a company can take to meet 
sustainability goals – and a drive towards carbon 
neutrality is gaining prominence as a key driver of meeting 
commitments. While many companies are taking the first 
steps towards carbon neutrality with more energy-efficient 
machinery and processes, technology supporting these 
initiatives is continuously evolving and improving, and 
companies need to keep up.
CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR ROLE 
IN SUSTAINABLE OPERATIONS
Deciding what sustainability initiatives to implement to 
start your company’s journey towards more environment-
friendly processes can be daunting. From making 
commitments to plant a certain number of trees to 
implementing energy- efficient processes, there are 
multiple pathways leading towards more carbon-neutral 
operations, some of which can be integrated immediately, 
but others require longer-term planning.
Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) is a key 
technology for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 
According to the International Energy Agency, carbon 
capture capacity must increase more than 20 times to 
enable the capture of 840 Mtpa CO2 by 2030 to meet 
global emission goals.
Incorporating carbon capture technologies into production 
is an effective path industrial companies can take to reduce 
their environmental impact and prevent harmful emissions 
from entering the atmosphere. However, carbon capture is 
a broad and complex field, requiring in-depth knowledge 
of both the technology and industry to effectively execute.
CONTACT
Email: 	 nathan.lozanoski@honeywell.com
Web: 	
www.pmt.honeywell.com
HONEYWELL


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PROOF POINTS
Wabash Valley Resources 
•	
Selected to provide integration of modular MOLSIV, 
Modular Ortloff CO2 Fractionation System, & Modular 
PSA
•	
Demonstrates large scale  commercially  viable  clean 
H2 and CCUS  projects  under  current  US  regulatory 
and policy framework
XOM Baytown
•	
Honeywell UOP’s carbon capture technology will be 
integrated into the design of ExxonMobil’s low-carbon 
hydrogen production facility and enable it to capture 
more than 98% (1) of associated CO2 emissions.
•	
ExxonMobil will deploy one of Honeywell’s carbon 
capture technologies – Honeywell’s CO2 Fractionation 
and Hydrogen Purification System - at its integrated 
complex in Baytown, Texas. This technology is 
expected to enable ExxonMobil to capture about 
7 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, the 
equivalent of the emission of 1.5 million of automobiles 
for one year (2).
•	
High purity H2 produced from Pressure Swing 
Adsorption and PolysepTM Membrane Technologies
•	
ExxonMobil’s H2 production project’s goal is to reduce, 
by up to 30%, Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions at their 
Baytown facility (3).
PRECOMBUSTION SOLUTIONS – OPTIMIZED 
THROUGH COMBINED PSA AND CRYOGENIC 
FRACTIONATION TECHNOLOGY POLYBED™
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) System
•	
Selectively separates high purity Hydrogen from 
syngas streams to minimize carbon slip into the 
product and maximize production rate.  PSAs selective 
for CO2 are also used within the optimized Pre-
combustion flow scheme to minimize CO2 emissions 
from the process
•	
Field performance tests prove the performance of 
PSA systems with an on-stream factor of 99.8+% and 
specified adsorbent life of more than 20 years.
•	
PSAs product streams from a Hydrogen Production 
Unit can deliver Hydrogen with minimal pressure drop 
and at a Hydrogen purity of up to 99.99% with the 
ability to provide lower concentrations as needed
Ortloff CO₂ Fractionation 
•	
A solvent-free option, all-electric process (no steam 
required) with fewer subsystems and a smaller 
footprint than a solvent system for
•	
Proprietary Mixed Refrigerant and design minimizes 
equipment count and size of this Cryogenic 
Fractionation system
•	
Ability to manage temperature at point of separation 
within a tight range enables very effective first-pass 
CO2 recovery
POST-COMBUSTION ADVANCED SOLVENT 
TECHNOLOGY UNLOCKS POTENTIAL
In collaboration with the University of Texas, Honeywell is 
proud to offer a new advanced solvent technology to lower 
CO₂ emissions generated from combustion flue gases 
in hard-to-abate industries, such as power, steel, cement, 
refining, petrochemical and other industrial plants.
Utilizing an advanced solvent, this point source CO₂ 
removal technology enables CO₂ to be captured at a lower 
cost through greater efficiency using smaller equipment. 
This creates viable project economics today as countries 
across the globe progress to meet their sustainability 
targets (4). It can be retrofitted within existing plants or 
included as part of a new installation.
PROOF POINTS
•	
Over 20 years of development at the University of 
Texas at Austin
•	
Pilot plant testing since 2006 with CO2 concentrations 
from 4-20 vol%
•	
Flue gas flow rates of 350-600 CFM at pilot plant
DEMONSTRATION AT NATIONAL CARBON CAPTURE 
CENTER
•	
0.5 MW coal fired flue gas, 1500 CFM flow with 8tpd 
CO2 capture
•	
CO2 Concentrations tested @ 12% (2018), 4% (2019), & 
4% (2023)
•	
Solvent performs well with oxygen up to 15 vol%
•	
Three campaigns completed with 8000+ hours of 
testing 
1.	
CO2 equivalent emissions is a calculated value based on the combined carbon compounds emitted from the Hydrogen 
production and Carbon Capture equipment plus the combined carbon compounds in the H2 product.
2.	 Based on the EPA’s GHG equivalency calculator comparing nearly 7 million tons of CO2 per year with gasoline-
powered passenger vehicles on the road.
3.	 Based on press release issued Feb 15, 2023, announcing HON H2 tech in Exxon Baytown facility. 
4.	 Lower cost of CO₂ capture based on comparing estimated capital and operating costs of this solution against other 
conventional amine solvents in same applications. CO₂ pricing considers current policies of $50/ton tax credit (USA 
per IRS Section 45Q for permanent storage) and $60/ton (UK and Europe – approximate averages from August 2021 
through country/regional Emission Trading Systems and as reported by IHS Markit).
Minimum Carbon Intensity 
Advanced Solvent Carbon Capture
Advanced Solvent 
/w high mass transfer rates 
– Shorter Absorber 
– 30% cost savings
High pressure stripper 
delivers CO2 at 5-6 barg, 
reducing Compressor 
Capex & Opex 
-Enabled by low solvent 
degradation
Patented, Low 
energy heat 
exchanger design 
2.1+ GJ/t CO2
CO2 produced to meet project off-take requirements 
and can act as a single unit operation for separation & 
liquefaction Optimized Flow Scheme.
•	
Leverages PSA selectivity to produce Carbon-Free 
Hydrogen product and Hydrogen fuel streams
•	
First-pass CO2 recovery optimized for PSA tail gas 
stream
•	
Exhausts the CO2 at the CO2 Product stream, as any 
carbon molecules not captured in the first pass are 
recycled through the process to extinction
•	
Flexible design provides the ability to trade off Capital 
and Operating costs with expected process emissions


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DESCRIPTION
The K2-CO2 process comprises of a dry section and wet 
section connected in series.
The dry section comprises of the Air Pollution Control 
system and heat recovery stages to meet the heat needs 
required by the carbon capture process. 
This section can utilize existing air pollution control 
equipment (dedusting, deSOx, deNOx) on-site with the 
integration of heat recovery stages or can be provided as 
new equipment. It must be noted that the flue gas can exit 
the system by bypassing the wet section via an exhaust 
stack to maintain continuous emission compliance in the 
event of an emergency or maintenance on the wet system. 
The wet section comprises of a deSOx process, CO2 
absorption, and CO2 cooling and concentration.  
The deSOx process provides further removal of 
contaminants and additional conditioning of the flue gas 
stream to begin the CO2 recovery process. 
The absorption section, utilizing the well-known carbon 
capture technology of Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC), 
absorbs CO2 from the flue gas stream into the HPC 
water solution. The remaining flue gases, which have 
already been treated in the dry section, are emitted to the 
atmosphere.
The CO2-rich HPC solution is then heated to release the 
highly concentrated CO2 product in a stripping process. 
The HPC solution is regenerated and injected into the 
absorber in a loop system, requiring no continuous make-
up of the solution. 
The CO2 is collected, conditioned, and sent for the chosen 
use or storage solution for the process. The captured CO2 
can be sent to the conditioning plant, designed to deliver 
the desired CO2 quality, pressure and temperature for use 
or storage: underground, for enhanced oil recovery or 
mineralization.   
The conditioning technology is adapted to the effective 
needs and can cover from simple storage/delivery in gas 
phase to purification and liquefaction or compression to 
supercritical conditions.
The K2-CO2 HPC process is a classic absorption/stripping 
process but is operated at relatively low pressures (typically 
0.5-5 barg) and integrates all possible heat recovery 
stages. The process is designed to have zero external heat 
needs, making it less energy-intensive than other CCUS 
technologies, including those utilizing a similar solvent or 
amine-based systems. It can be applied to a wide range of 
industrial processes such as glass, steel, biomass/waste 
incineration.
HPC technology has been chosen against amines for 
several reasons. These include that HPC solution is safe 
for people and the environment, non-volatile, stable, 
inexpensive, and based on a readily and worldwide 
available basic component that is not provided by a 
propriety source, manufacturer, or licensor.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
No Upstream Process Modifications: Our systems integrate into existing processes without upstream modification of 
conditions or fuel required and include Use and/or Storage, providing tailored solutions to the unique process and site.
•	
Energy Efficient: Energy demands for heating/cooling and expansion/compression are minimized through energy re-
use throughout the process. 
•	
Cost Effective: Minimal changes to combustion process, waste heat recovery, and solvent regeneration provide a cost-
effective solution for CCUS in small to medium size emitters. 
•	
Continuous Compliance: Highly effective air pollution control technology is integrated for other flue gas pollutants.
INTEGRATION OF CO2 CAPTURE AND SEQUESTRATION OR USE
K2-CO2 delivers fully integrated turnkey Carbon Capture 
Use & Sequestration (CCUS) solutions targeting small and 
medium scale industrial emitters. 
Our portfolio includes turnkey solutions to satisfy from the 
exit of combustion source to the exhaust stack including 
Carbon Capture integrated with flue gas conditioning, 
waste heat recovery, and reuse or sequestration. 
These solutions integrate into an existing process without 
impacting the production, resulting in a reduction of 
environmental emissions, overall energy impact, and CO2 
footprint.
Our team leverages its extensive experience as industrial 
flue gas treatment integrators to offer a safe, energy-
efficient, “bolt-on” carbon capture system utilizing Hot 
Potassium Carbonate (HPC) solvent with the needed 
conditioning for sequestration or reuse.  
The HPC-solvent process for CO2 capture, licensed by 
Giammarco Vetrocoke, is used globally in industries such 
as chemical plants with high CO2 concentrations in the flue 
gas: K2-CO2 has extended the usefulness to lower CO2 
concentrations, making it suitable for most combustion-
derived flue gas.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@k2-CO2.com
Web: 	
www.k2-CO2.com
K2-CO2 
•	
Safe and Environmentally Friendly: Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) is a non-flammable, nontoxic, stable and 
inexpensive solvent, eliminating the need for harmful and corrosive amine-based capture processes.
•	
Tailor-made: CO2 is delivered at conditions defined by the downstream process, easily reaching Food & Beverage 
quality if required
Schematic representation of K2-CO2 typical process with 
indication of the main heat recovery stages; solution is always 
customized in function of the flue gas characteristics.


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DESCRIPTION
The UNO MK 3 process consists of a catalytically enhanced 
precipitating potassium carbonate solvent technology 
engineered to capture 90+ per cent of carbon dioxide (CO2) 
emissions from heavy industry sources such as cement 
plants, power stations (pre- and post-combustion) and 
other large CO2 emitting industries. Following the invention 
of the UNO MK 3 process within the Cooperative Research 
Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC), the 
technology has subsequently been developed over the 
last decade by KC8 Capture Technologies in conjunction 
with the University of Melbourne in Australia. 
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) has been used in solvent 
absorption processes in chemical industries for many 
years (i.e. the Benfield process). The patented UNO MK 
3 process provides a unique update to this established 
technology, making it highly efficient for CO2 capture at low 
pressure. The UNO MK 3 process contains the absorption 
and regeneration stages of a standard solvent absorption 
process. However, unlike a standard liquid-based solvent 
system, a KHCO3 precipitate is allowed to form. Removing 
this constraint allows UNO MK 3 to be operated with 
concentrated solvent and greater solvent loadings. That, in 
turn, allows for greater working capacities, lower circulation 
rates and drives down energy requirements.
To handle solid precipitation in the process, KC8 Capture 
has conducted extensive R&D to identify and adapt existing 
process units to meet the challenging requirements. 
Central to this has been our patented refinement of 
Turbulent Bed Contactor technology to not only facilitate 
suitable solids tolerance in the absorber unit, but also 
provide process intensification, resulting in reduced 
column height relative to conventional amine processes.
A key benefit of potassium carbonate-based solvents is the 
significantly lower volatility compared with amine-based 
solvents. The volatile emissions from amine-based solvents 
can be significant and usually requires an additional water 
wash sections as well as continuous solvent make-up. In 
contrast, the UNO MK 3 process neither requires a water 
wash stage, nor complex reclamation sections to achieve 
economic viability. 
The UNO MK 3 process is capable of handling a wide 
range of applications, including both pre- and post-
combustion electricity generation and other industrial 
CO2 emitting processes. It is unaffected by the impurities 
in a range of fuel source including black coal, brown coal, 
natural gas and emissions from cement, iron and steel and 
other heavy industries. Due to its oxygen tolerance and low 
volatility, it is also highly applicable in capture from natural 
gas turbines in either open or closed cycle flue gases. It 
also has the capacity to be applied either as a new build or 
retrofit application. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Lower cost – achieving up to 50% reduction compared to the best amine equivalent due to major improvements in 
both CAPEX and OPEX expenditure
•	
Lower energy usage - performing up to 15% less than the best amine technology principally due to reboiler energy 
requirements typically under 2.5 GJ/tonne CO2
•	
Oxygen, SOx and NOx tolerant process - allowing diverse application portfolio including difficult to abate sectors such 
as cement, steel and waste-to-energy
•	
Low cost, safe solvent with pre-existing supply capacity – with current potassium carbonate market orders of 
magnitude larger than forecast CO2 capture demand requirements
•	
Small plant footprint - achieved through higher solvent loadings that lead to a process size reduction and patented 
concentric column design for larger operations. 
•	
No toxic by-products and low solvent volatility – eliminating need for toxic waste disposal, complex wash stages and 
solvent reclamation units
•	
Superior environmental performance – particularly benefitting from environmentally benign solvent, lack of toxic by-
products and low solvent volatility
•	
Low impact retrofit integration – design options to provide minimal upstream process impact, or alternatively to 
maximize heat integration with existing systems to optimize process synergies
•	
Option to time shift energy demands – The increased loading capacity and solvent price point makes large scale 
solvent storage for time shifted regeneration economically viable in many situation
UNO MK 3
KC8 Capture Technologies is commercialising industry 
leading carbon capture technology that provides an 
affordable pathway to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 
from the use of fossil fuels and heavy industries around the 
world.
Our revolutionary UNO MK 3 technology utilizes a novel 
precipitating potassium carbonate (K2CO3) solvent, enabled 
through our patented solids tolerant absorber design. The 
formation of potassium bicarbonate solids in the system 
allows for greater solvent loading and lower circulating 
solvent volumes relative to both the Benfield process and 
conventional amine systems.  
Further benefits of the novel solvent include a process size 
reduction, reducing both CAPEX cost and plant footprint, 
and decreased reboiler energy usage. These, along with 
other key advantages, allow for the UNO MK 3 technology 
to be built and operated at up to 50% lower overall costs 
compared to the best existing amine based equivalent.   
Another key advantage of the precipitating potassium 
carbonate solvent is its tolerance of oxygen, SOx and 
NOx in the source flue gas. This opens up the technology 
application range to difficult to abate sectors such as 
cement and steel, as well as energy sectors with additional 
challenges such as waste-to-energy and gas turbine-based 
power generation.  
Major environmental and safety benefits are also realized 
with the UNO MK 3 technology, with its environmentally 
benign and non-volatile solvent alongside the lack of toxic 
by-product production proving to be of particular strategic 
advantage relative to its equivalent amine competitors. 
The solvent stability and non-volatility also reduces solvent 
loss due to degradation and eliminates the need for wash 
stages and reclamation units. 
The UNO MK 3 has already been demonstrated at the pilot 
scale on industrial flue gasses, and two demonstration 
scale facilities are in late stage design, both of which are 
scheduled to begin operation in 2024. These will directly 
demonstrate the UNO MK 3 capabilities in both difficult 
to abate industrial and power sectors in their respective 
projects. Planned FEED studies are also predicted to 
confirm current estimates that the technology can achieve 
carbon capture in the price range of $35-40 / tonne CO2. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 greg.ross@KC8capture.com
Web: 	
www.KC8capture.com
KC8 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES


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Looking ahead, KC8 has created a range of configurations 
in relation to large scale single stream contacting systems. 
This includes a novel patented concentric single stream 
absorption and stripping combined column, which 
uses concrete and/or geopolymers as the material of 
construction. This enables larger column diameters 
and improves CAPEX performance comparative to 
conventional steel arrangements.  Applications in a single 
train are now possible for large emission sources.
Pilot plant testing of UNO MK 3 has been completed under 
real flue gas conditions at Hazelwood Power Station in 
the Latrobe Valley, Australia, and we are currently in the 
process of implementing two demonstration facilities of the 
UNO MK 3 technology.
The first of these is a 10 - 15 tpd CO2 PACER demonstration 
facility being built in partnership with Cement Australia, with 
the plant processing clinker flue gas from a pre-existing 
industrial plant. Operations will be located at a Cement 
Australia facility in Gladstone, Australia, and are forecast to 
begin operations in Q1 2024.
The second demonstration plant has been facilitated by 
our success in the recent US DoE FleCCS project. During 
the first stage of this project, KC8 Capture demonstrated 
that the UNO MK3 in conjunction with pre-existing NGCC 
and/or OCGT turbines can, based on independent 
economic analysis, be widely and profitably deployed in 
future near-zero emission grids. Stage 2 involves a physical 
demonstration of the technology, which will be on a similar 
5 - 10 tpd scale to the PACER project but will focus on 
the lower CO2 concentrations found in gas turbine flue 
gas. This plant will be installed at the NCCC test centre in 
Alabama, USA, with operations forecast to begin Q3 2024.
These two projects will take KC8 Capture through to a 
TRL of 7-8, at which point we will be ready to commence 
construction of commercial scale facilities. Current 
estimates are that typical applications at full scale will be 
able to achieve CO2 capture costs of $35-40 /tonne. 
Figure 1: Conventional dual absorption / stripping column 
configuration
Figure 2: KC8 patented concentric absorption / stripping column
HOW OUR TECHNOLOGY WORKS


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DESCRIPTION
CCUS is a critical component of a circular carbon economy. 
Linde is a forerunner in this area with a portfolio of products 
and solutions that helps its customers fulfill their net-zero 
emission targets. Here are a few examples:
•	
Heidelberg Materials and Linde have established 
a joint venture to build and operate a state-of-the-
art carbon dioxide capture and liquefaction plant at 
Heidelberg Materials’ Lengfurt, Germany, plant. CO2 
will be separated directly from part of the exhaust gas 
stream from the cement clinker kiln using an amine 
scrubbing system specially developed for flue gases. 
Linde will also supply equipment for purification and 
liquefaction, tanks for intermediate storage of the 
product, and loading facilities.
•	
Groundbreaking recently took place for a major 
carbon capture pilot project: the 10-megawatt project 
at City Water, Light and Power (CWLP) in Springfield, 
Illinois. The Linde/BASF Advanced Post-Combustion 
CO2 Capture Technology used in this project is a major 
step in demonstrating how capture technologies can 
be successfully integrated into industrial facilities to 
reduce CO2 emissions.
•	
Linde has signed a long-term agreement with 
ExxonMobil for the off-take of carbon dioxide 
associated 
with 
Linde’s 
new 
clean 
hydrogen 
production in Beaumont, Texas. Under the terms of the 
agreement, ExxonMobil will transport and permanently 
store up to 2.2 million metric tons of carbon dioxide 
each year from Linde’s hydrogen production facility, 
equivalent to the emissions from nearly half a million 
cars per year.
•	
Linde’s engagement in CCUS extends to fostering 
innovation. To this end, Linde has opened its first 
R&D center for CCUS technologies in Saudi Arabia’s 
Dhahran Techno Valley. Aside from developing 
solutions, the center will offer training and education 
for professionals, customers, and universities.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR A LARGE VARIETY OF CARBON 
INTENSITIES AND SOURCES
The projects and innovative activities described above rely 
on our extensive portfolio of technologies and services 
along the whole CO₂ value chain. When deciding which 
solution to select, the company’s engineers first verify 
which CO₂ concentrations need to be addressed – low, 
medium, or high (Figure 1). Linde provides solutions for 
many different CO₂ emitting industries. The technologies 
are further divided into their suitability for the CO₂ source, 
whether it be flue gas, natural gas, syngas, or tail gas.
Figure 1: Overview of Linde’s tecnology portfolio along the CO2 value chain.
1 OASE® is a registered trademark of BASF SE
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Linde’s offering relating to CCUS:
•	
Economical and technical feasibility studies
•	
CO2 capture as a service (build, own, operate)
•	
Full engineering, procurement, construction (EPC) solution
•	
EPC services
•	
Training of operational and maintenance personnel
CARBON MANAGEMENT AS A SERVICE
As efforts to reduce greenhouse gases, such as carbon 
dioxide (CO2), intensify, finding a reliable supplier who 
can navigate the complexity of large-scale, multi-year 
projects is essential for industries such as oil & gas, 
chemicals, steel, cement, and power generation. Linde has 
extensive, proven expertise in the treatment of CO2 along 
its entire value chain, including its separation, purification, 
compression, and liquefaction. Furthermore, the company 
helps its customers explore all their options to store or 
potentially reuse captured carbon in other processes. 
Linde also covers carbon sequestration and collaborates 
with other companies around the globe.
Projects for managing carbon are performed in the 
framework 
of 
an 
EPC 
(engineering, 
procurement, 
construction) or as a BOO (build, own, operate). At the same 
time, Linde invests in own plants and aims to minimize CO2 
emissions in its own production and operations.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@linde.com
Web: 	
www.engineering.linde.com/CO2
LINDE
Linde provides services along the whole value chain
Logistics and 
application
Conditioning
Capture and Processing
CO2 content in sources
<3%
>98%
Medium
High
Low
Power generation
Olefins production
Iron and steel production
Cement and lime production
Steam Methane Reformer (SMR) 
flue gas
SMR syngas
Gasification
Partial Oxidation (POX)
Auto Thermal Reforming (ATR)
Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) process
Oxyfuel processes
Chemicals production
Natural gas sweetening
Linde technologies cover a broad range of CO2 containing gas streams
Sources
Flue gas
Natural gas
Syngas
Tailgas
OASE® blue
Amine wash
HISORP® CC
HISELECT®
Rectisol®
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
CO2 Processing Unit (CPU)
Compression
and dehydration
Liquefaction
Tank farms &
loading stations
Logistics and
distribution
Storage (CCS)
Industrial
Synthesis
Food and 
beverage
Electronics
1


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FOR GAS STREAMS WITH LOW CO₂ CONTENT
OASE® blue technology for Post-Combustion CO2 
Capture (PCC)
Post Combustion CO2 Capture (PCC) is a mature option 
to capture CO2 from flue gas streams and thus ensure 
compliance with increasingly strict emissions thresholds. 
With the OASE® blue technology, CO2 is removed from 
the flue gas through chemical scrubbing with an aqueous 
amine-based solvent (Figure 2). It can be implemented 
downstream 
of 
existing 
assets 
without 
interfering 
with upstream processes. For new assets, advanced 
plant integration concepts and optimized total costs of 
ownership can be accomplished.
The optimal design of turnkey facilities using OASE® blue 
technology has been jointly developed by BASF and Linde. 
It leverages BASF’s capabilities in high-performance gas 
treatment technologies and Linde’s strength and proven 
track record in design and delivery of turnkey industrial 
plants. This results in an optimal interplay of solvent, 
process design, equipment, and plant integration.
The technology can be applied to flue gases from various 
sources, such as different types of power plants, gas 
motors, steam generators, cement plants, and furnaces, 
just to name a few. It easily covers a spectrum from 3 to 
25 vol% CO₂ content in the flue gas. The technology allows 
for CO2 capture rates higher than 95% and generates 
a CO2 product purity of 99.9 vol% (dry). This purity is in 
compliance with the CO2 product specification in most 
cases. Therefore, a further purification step may not be 
necessary.
This high-performance CO2 capture technology in 
combination with our solid track record in large-scale gas 
treatment plants ensure low risk in EPC projects.
Highlights
•	
Compact footprint
•	
High CO2 capture rate even at low CO2 concentrations
•	
20% lower energy consumption and 20% lower 
circulation rate compared to MEA solution
•	
Low solvent degradation rate even at elevated 
oxygen content in flue gas, and therefore low solvent 
consumption rate
•	
Different options for energy and heat integration
•	
Unique emissions control technology for minimum 
environmental impact
•	
> 500 OASE® gas treatment plants in operation for 
different applications
•	
> 65,000 hours of operational experience with OASE® 
blue
•	
Reference plants in Germany and the United States
FOR GAS STREAMS WITH LOW TO MEDIUM CO₂ 
CONTENT 
Amine wash
Amine wash processes are the standard for CO2 removal 
from steam methane reforming (SMR)-based hydrogen, 
syngas, and ammonia plants. CO2 capture from syngas 
(Figure 3) is a proven technology, which achieves a CO2 
recovery rate of 99.9%. Further advantages include a low 
investment and favorable operating costs. Amine wash 
units can be installed in various areas of a plant, from low- 
to high-pressure applications. They are also suitable for 
advanced CO2 removal as well as simultaneous removal 
of CO2 and sulfur. Amine wash units can also be combined 
with other Linde technologies, such as the Linde Ammonia 
Concept (LAC™), or with cryogenic processes for carbon 
monoxide production.
Highlights
•	
State-of-the-art process
•	
Compact design
•	
Favorable design for low-pressure and high-pressure 
applications
•	
Compatible for CO₂ removal and/or sulfur removal
Figure 2: OASE® blue post-combustion CO2 capture (PCC) process
Flue gas
Pre-conditioning
Power generation / SMR /
Production of cement, lime,
iron, steel and olefins
Absorption
Emissions control
Power generation / SMR /
Production of cement, lime,
iron, steel and olefins
Heat
recovery
Regeneration
Reclaiming
product
OASE® is a registered trademark of BASF SE
Figure 3: Amine wash-based CO2 capture process from syngas
CO2 containing 
syngas
Amine-based
CO2 removal system
Gaseous CO2
(wet)
CO2 capture 
rate >99.9%
SMR / ATR / POX
Temperature Swing
Absorption (TSA)
Gaseous (dry)
CO2 product
to sequestration
Lean
syngas


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HISORP® CC 
HISORP® CC is a mature carbon capturing process based 
on adsorption and cryogenic separation technologies. It 
follows a toolbox approach for customizing the process 
setup on a case-to-case basis with the aim to minimize the 
carbon footprint of CO2-emitting industries. 
HISORP® CC can be applied for pre- and post-combustion 
carbon capture from various CO2-emitting sources. One 
application is for blue hydrogen production plants (both 
for new builds and retrofits), such as SMR, autothermal 
reforming (ATR), partial oxidation (POX), and gasification. 
Here, the toolbox approach shows its advantages by 
optimally combining separation technologies to minimize 
carbon intensity and maximize hydrogen production. To 
produce blue hydrogen, HISORP® CC can be applied in 
the syngas or the tail gas route of the hydrogen Pressure 
Swing Adsorption (PSA) of existing SMRs and ATRs. 
Especially for newly built ATR and POX reactors, HISORP® 
CC is used for carbon capture in the tail gas of the H2 PSA 
with advantages regarding reliability of H2 production 
and specific energy consumption for CO2 removal. In 
addition, for existing SMRs, post-combustion CO2 capture 
(PCC) from the flue gas is often the preferred approach to 
minimize carbon intensity. Furthermore, HISORP® CC can 
be applied for PCC from various other flue gases of hard-
to-abate CO2 sources, e.g., cement and lime production, 
steel production, and power generation. 
HISORP® CC achieves overall CO2 capture rates of up to 
99.7% and is flexible in regard to scale (covering all relevant 
industrial sizes), CO2 feed concentration, the state of the 
CO2 export product (in gaseous, liquid, or supercritical 
form), and all purity levels (e.g., industrial grade or high-
purity food & beverage grade).
Highlights
•	
Combines Linde’s inhouse adsorptive and cryogenic 
technologies
•	
Individual HISORP® CC concepts for different feed 
streams by using Linde’s toolbox 
•	
Flexible in size and scale
•	
All individual process units within the HISORP® 
CC process are in operation and have technology 
readiness level 9
•	
HISORP® CC can be adapted to various CO2 product 
requirements (gaseous/liquid/supercritical CO2, purity 
grade for sequestration or utilization)
•	
Packaged unit design (pre-manufactured & workshop 
tested) for minimized on site construction effort
•	
CO2 capture rate >99%
•	
No steam required (only electrical power)
•	
No consumption, handling, makeup, and disposal of 
chemical washing agents
•	
No hydrogen losses when applied for CO2 capture in 
blue hydrogen production
•	
Includes 
smart 
pre-treatment 
for 
trace-impurity 
removal from flue gases  
HISELECT® powered by Evonik membranes
The HISELECT® membrane was originally developed 
with a focus on natural gas and process gas industries. 
For natural gas resources with sour and acid fractions, 
membranes are an excellent alternative to conventional 
amine wash systems for acid gas removal. Driven by partial 
pressure difference, the HISELECT® membrane works like 
a semi-permeable barrier and separates the feed gas into 
a low-pressure permeate, rich in the gas to be removed 
or recovered (such as CO2), and a high-pressure retentate 
with a low content of these components. A typical setup 
of a gas processing unit with membranes is shown in 
Figure 5. HISELECT® membranes efficiently remove CO2 
from natural gas over a wide flow rate and concentration 
range. The membranes demonstrate high selectivity 
for CO2, irrespective of high hydrogen content (HHC) 
and CO2 partial pressure. Additionally, strong resistance 
to unsaturated hydrocarbons, mechanical robustness, 
and high resistance to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) result in 
low maintenance requirements and a rapid return on 
investment. Beside applications in natural gas sweetening, 
HISELECT® membrane technology can also be applied in 
hybrid solutions with pressure-swing or temperature-swing 
adsorption units to efficiently remove CO2 or other gases 
from process gases.
Highlights
•	
Low CAPEX and OPEX with high operational flexibility
•	
High separation capacity and high selectivity for 
maximum recovery rates and high purities
•	
Ability to tailor membrane capacity and selectivity to 
customer requirements
•	
High volume efficiency due to optimized packing of 
hollow fiber membranes
•	
Production flexibility with wide feed stream condition 
range and supporting temperatures up to 100°C and 
pressures up to 200 bar
•	
Resistant to CO2 partial pressure of up to 50 bar
•	
Robust and stable performance over time under harsh 
operating conditions, reducing need for overdesign
•	
Reduced pre-treatment effort due to excellent 
resistance to heavy hydrocarbons and plasticization
•	
Mechanical resistance to process fluctuations during 
operation
Figure 4: HISORP® CC: Mature toolbox approach to reduce CO2 emissions from various industries.
Figure 5: Typical process design of a gas processing unit with HISELECT® for natural gas acid removal
Raw NG
upstream
Membrane
separation II
Membrane pre-treatment
Membrane
separation I
CO2 removal


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Rectisol® wash unit
Linde’s Rectisol® wash unit is able to extract sour gas 
from syngas. The solution uses proven technology that 
is adjusted to the actual needs and requirements of plant 
operators. Its application in syngas is indicated in Figure 6. 
It is flexible with respect to upstream syngas generation as 
well as gas specification for downstream applications.
Rectisol® can either be used for selective removal of 
CO2 and sulfur, or it can be designed for designated 
CO2 capture. In case of selective removal of CO2 and 
sulfur, about 99% of the CO2 can be captured sulfur-free, 
which means that no additional desulfurization units are 
required. Rectisol® can be integrated with other Linde gas 
processing technologies (such as downstream PSA and 
cryogenic processes). Nominal capacities can vary widely, 
from small-scale plants (30,000 Nm3/h feed gas) up to high 
one-train capacity plants (2,000,000 Nm3/h feed gas).
Highlights
•	
State-of-the-art process
•	
Used for the treatment of feed gas containing sulfur 
and CO2
•	
Water- and sulfur-free CO2 product for further 
processing
•	
Enriched H2S fraction can be realized within one 
process
•	
Easy solvent handling (chemically stable, low cost, and 
readily available on the market)
•	
Enhanced trace component handling
•	
Low product losses (H2 and CO)
FOR GAS STREAMS WITH MEDIUM TO HIGH CO₂ 
CONTENT
CO₂ PSA
Linde’s pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system is an 
innovative, efficient, and low CAPEX technology for the 
recovery of CO2 from process gas streams covering a wide 
concentration range, such as from process gases including 
syngas streams and iron and steel production off-gases, as 
shown in Figure 7.
In the case of syngas, PSA technology is used to recover 
CO2 from upstream, high-pressure raw syngas streams 
or low-pressure off-gas streams generated by SMR or 
gasification processes. In many cases, PSA technology is 
a more cost-effective alternative to conventional washing 
systems due to its lower investment and operating costs.
In the iron and steel industry, PSA technology can be 
used to efficiently remove CO2 in direct reduction or 
blast furnace off-gases. The process removes maximum 
amounts of CO2 yet leaves valuable gas components, 
such as H2, CO, and CH4, in the gas stream for further 
processing.
A CO2 PSA unit can achieve a product purity of up to 95 
vol%, with unit capacities ranging from a few thousand 
Nm3/h to around 300,000 Nm3/h.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust purification technology
•	
No electricity consumption
•	
No steam required for regeneration (thereby no 
additional CO₂ generation)
•	
No solvent is applied
•	
No negative environmental impact due to the 
emissions of solvent traces in exhausts or CO₂ product
•	
No extra cost for solvent makeup and handling
•	
Low CAPEX and OPEX 
Figure 6: Typical Rectisol® process design for CO2 capture from syngas
SMR / ATR / POX
CO2 + H2S / COS
containing syngas
Rectisol® wash unit
CO2 removal system
Lean syngas
Gaseous CO2 (dry)
CO2 capture rate >99%
H2S / COS fraction to SRU
Gaseous
CO2 product to
sequestration
Figure 7: Typical CO2 PSA process design for efficient capture of CO2 from process gases
Low / medium / high CO2
concentration source
CO2 PSA
CO2 export


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CO₂ PROCESSING UNIT
Linde’s CO2 Processing Unit (CPU) is applied to purify CO2 
-containing gas streams to provide typical CO2 product 
specifications for a variety of industrial applications. 
Typical CPU feed gas streams are CO2-rich gases 
generated from CO2 capture processes, flue gases from 
oxy-fuel combustion processes, and CO2-rich off-gases 
from chemical plants, such as ammonia, ethylene oxide, 
methanol, or ethanol plants. As shown in Figure 8, an 
extended toolbox of processes and technologies allows for 
the removal of different trace components, such as sulfur- 
or nitrogen-containing compounds, hydrocarbons, heavy 
metals, and air gases.
Linde initially developed and commercialized the CPU 
technology to treat oxy-fuel flue gases at an oxy-fuel lignite-
fired power plant at Schwarze Pumpe, Germany. More 
recently, Linde’s CPU has been considered for oxy-fuel 
projects in the cement industry. Mature CO2 processing 
technologies in combination with Linde’s track record 
in large-scale gas-treatment plants ensure low-risk EPC 
projects for clients.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust purification technology
•	
Reference plant in Schwarze Pumpe, Germany, for 
treatment of oxy-fuel flue gases
•	
Multiple EPC and Linde operation references for 
production of food-, chemical-, and electronics-grade 
CO2
•	
Standardized and skid-mounted modules as well as 
large-scale customized, stick-built solutions available
CO₂ COMPRESSION/DEHYDRATION
CO2 compression and dehydration (see Figure 9) are the 
most common process units in all CO2 plants. If the CO2 
purity already meets specification requirements after the 
CO2 capture process, the downstream CO2 treatment 
usually involves compression and dehydration. It is also a 
typical process unit for CPU and CO2 liquefaction plants.
Depending on the plant capacity, different types of 
compressors can be used, such as piston, screw, and turbo 
compressors. And depending on local costs for utilities, 
electrical or steam-driven compressors can be employed.
The targeted CO2 product pressure is defined by the 
downstream application or distribution concept. Pressures 
of up to a maximum of 215 bar have been realized.
Compressor stations not only compress the main CO2 
feed gas stream, but can also be used to integrate and 
compress boil-off gases from storage tanks and other CO2- 
rich vents from the plant.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust technology
•	
Various options for compressor type
•	
Multiple references for different scales worldwide
Figure 8: Typical CO2 Processing Unit (CPU) design
Oxyfuel plant /
CO2 capture plant / 
Chemical plant
product
Liquefaction and
rectification with
refrigeration unit
Purification
toolbox II
Purification
toolbox I
Compression
Raw CO2
Figure 9: Typical CO2 compression and drying process design
Chemical plant /
CO2 capture plant
Drying
CO2 compression
Raw CO2
product
Vent
Boil-off from
storage
Other
recycles


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CO2 LIQUEFACTION
CO2 liquefaction, as shown in Figure 10, can be an 
additional process step attached to a CO2 capture and 
processing plant. For example, when CO2 is purified 
by means of cryogenic separation (rectification), CO2 
liquefaction is involved. In addition, CO2 liquefaction might 
be required because of the CO2 logistics concept when 
transporting it via road trailers, trains, or ships.
Linde’s largest liquefaction plant, in operation since 2015, 
is producing approximately 1,350 tons of CO2 per day. The 
CO2 is used in enhanced methanol and urea production.
Additional large-scale plant references can be found 
in Norway and the United States for carbon capture 
and storage (CCS) and food applications, respectively. 
Depending on local needs, the integration concept, safety 
considerations, and cost efficiency, different refrigerants 
can be considered for use in the refrigeration unit.
Highlights
•	
Mature and robust technology
•	
Various options for refrigerants available
•	
Extended reference list at various product capacities
•	
Standardized and skid-mounted modules as well as 
large-scale customized, stick-built solutions available
CO₂ TANK FARM AND LOADING STATIONS
Linde offers state-of-the-art tank farms to store liquid CO2. 
A range of configurations are available. For example, 
the storage tanks can be spherical or cylindrical (vertical 
or horizontal). Tank farms can be equipped with boil-off
 
gas re-liquefaction as well as integration of gas return 
lines. Moreover, an essential component of a tank farm 
is a loading station. While most tank farms feature trailer 
loading stations, Linde has also built train and ship loading 
stations (see Figure 11). This covers the whole range of 
potential distribution concepts.
Highlights
•	
Extended reference list at various product capacities
•	
High degree of standardization and skidded packages 
to reduce CAPEX
Figure 10: Typical CO2 liquefaction process design
Chemical plant /
CO2 capture plant /
CO2 processing units
Raw CO2
Rectification
Sub-cooler
Refrigeration unit
Liquefier
Vent gas
Vent gas
treatment
Liquid CO2
to storage
Figure 11: CO2 tank farm and loading station
CO2 liquefier
Liquid CO2
Boil-off
liquefaction
Storage
Distribution
Boil-off to
compression
Gas return
lines
Ship loading
Train loading
Truck loading


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
SECTION 1: TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
NET Power has developed and optimized its technology 
during more than a decade of research, development, 
and operational demonstration. From the very beginning, 
the NET Power Cycle was designed to overcome the 
challenges faced by both conventional and renewable 
energy technologies pursuing grid-scale decarbonization. 
It solves the energy "trilemma" by providing clean, 
affordable, and dispatchable power. By meeting these 
three criteria, NET Power is able to integrate into existing 
grid infrastructure and markets while delivering additional 
benefits, such as capturing nearly all carbon emissions.
NET Power achieves this through its unique combination 
of oxy-combustion of natural gas with a supercritical CO2 
power cycle. In the process, natural gas is burned using a 
mixture of oxygen and CO2. The combustion produces CO2 
and water, which are added to the CO2 process stream 
at high pressure. The high-pressure fluid flows through a 
turboexpander, which produces power and condenses 
water from the process fluid while capturing the CO2. Most 
CO2 returns to the process through compression and 
pumping, while a stream of continuously captured CO2 
is removed from the process at high purity and pressure 
suitable for permanent storage or utilization. The result: 
carbon emissions are contained during the process, so 
there's no need for costly post-combustion capture.
In more detail, The NET Power Cycle can be broken into 
seven steps: 
1.	
Air Separation: The NET Power Cycle begins by 
purifying and compressing atmospheric air into the 
separation systems. An insulated, specially engineered 
“cold box” then separates the air into its component 
gas molecules (including oxygen, argon, and nitrogen).
2.	 Oxy-Combustion: The oxygen filtered out in the air 
separation unit (ASU) is combusted with natural gas 
and recuperated supercritical carbon dioxide in a 
series of parallel, direct-fired combustors feeding 
the turbine-generator. The natural gas is burned in 
99.5% pure oxygen and CO2 resulting in a stream of 
predominantly steam and CO2.
3.	 Turboexpander: The combustion process creates a 
high-pressure CO2 working fluid that expands and 
turns the turboexpander to generate electricity.
4.	 	
Heat Exchanger: The turboexpander reduces the 
pressure of the CO2, which exhausts to a series of 
recuperative heat exchangers to cool.
5.	 Water Separator: The byproducts of the oxy-
combustion process are water and CO2. As the 
working fluid cools, it is routed through a condensed 
water circulation loop that condenses the water vapor 
and separates the low-pressure, high purity CO2.
6.	 Compressor: Some of the high purity CO2 is removed 
and exported via pipeline for sequestration or 
utilization, and the remaining CO2 is re-compressed 
in adiabatic and isothermal processes, where process 
heat and mass are recycled.
7.	
Recirculation: 
Recycled 
CO2 
is 
reheated 
and 
recirculated to be mixed with natural gas and oxygen 
in the combustor, starting the cycle again.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
The utility-scale NET Power system is being designed to achieve the following benefits:
•	
Clean: Average Carbon Intensity (CI) of 58g CO2e/kWh and can capture CO2 at rates >97%, providing for 87% CO2 
emissions reduction in comparison to conventional Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) technology. No risk of NOx, 
SOx, or particulate emissions.
•	
Reliable: Provides 24/7 dispatchable, baseload power with a targeted capacity factor of 92.5%, power ramp rates of 
10% to 15% per minute, and 0% to 100% load following capabilities while capturing all emissions.
•	
Low-Cost: Initial NET Power plants target a levelized cost of energy between $26-$55 $/MWh.
•	
Utilizes Existing Infrastructure: NET Power plants can leverage existing pipeline and electricity transmission networks 
for planning and operations.
“THE ENERGY TRIFECTA” - CLEAN, RELIABLE, & LOW-COST ENERGY FROM NATURAL GAS. 
NET Power delivers the “energy trifecta” – clean, reliable, 
and affordable energy from natural gas. 
NET Power combines a semi-closed loop cycle that 
inherently captures CO2 and produces power. The 
company combines oxy-combustion and a supercritical 
CO2 (sCO2) power cycle to deliver on-demand natural gas 
power while capturing nearly all emissions. The CO2 from 
oxy-combustion is recirculated back to the combustor and 
a portion is exported for utilization or sequestration.
NET Power’s recent momentum is built upon more than 
a decade of milestones, including key investments, 
construction and testing at a 50 MWth demonstration 
facility in La Porte, Texas, a slate of strategic engagements, 
and the announcement of its first commercial facility in 
West Texas. In February 2022, NET Power formed a Joint 
Development Agreement with Baker Hughes to advance 
the design of key turbomachinery and equipment used in 
the NET Power Cycle. In June 2023, NET Power completed 
its business combination with RICE Acquisition Corp II 
(NYSE:RONI), making Net Power a publicly traded company 
(NYSE:NPWR).
CONTACT
Scott Martin, Chief Technology Officer
Email: 	 netpower.media@netpower.com
NET POWER
•	
Compact Footprint: Less than 50% footprint of a similarly sized CCGT facility with post-combustion capture; further 
enables use of brownfields sites.
•	
Value of Carbon: The NET Power Cycle inherently captures high-purity, pressurized CO2 for sequestration or utilization 
in Enhanced Oil Recovery, eFuels, synthetic chemicals, and product integration.
Figure 1: The NET Power Process


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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Figure 2: NET Power’s La Porte Demonstration Facility
NET Power is developing a 300 MW Class utility-scale 
power plant producing clean, dispatchable energy 
alongside 850 Mtpa of high-pressure, high-purity CO2 
and 500 gallons of water per minute at a target net 
efficiency approaching 50% for the first generation of 
plants. Electricity output is designed to be ramped at a 
rate of 10%-15% per minute with full carbon capture across 
the operating spectrum. Meanwhile, criteria pollutants are 
avoided and CO2 emissions are captured as an inherent 
feature of the cycle.
This performance is possible by using pure oxygen 
instead of air in the combustion process; the byproducts 
of combustion are primarily water and CO2. Rather than 
intaking new air with each cycle and releasing emissions 
into the atmosphere like a traditional gas turbine, the cycle 
extracts the remaining heat from the exhausted working 
fluid and reintroduces a substantial portion of CO2 back 
into the turboexpander after removing the water. The 
semi-closed-loop cycle recirculates the vast majority of 
the combustion-derived CO2 as the working fluid used for 
power generation in the turboexpander. In this way, CO2 
is inherently captured at high pressure as a fundamental 
feature of the cycle and not as an add-on process. 
The use of sCO2 as the working fluid offers two main 
advantages. First, CO2 has a higher specific heat than other 
gases (e.g., air) due to its high molecular weight. Second, 
supercritical CO2 has the density and compressibility of 
a liquid while having gas-like viscosity. These physical 
properties enable NET Power facilities to use smaller 
equipment when compared to similarly rated conventional 
power plants. Its high-pressure operation also allows 
for significant power production at the turboexpander. 
In addition, the high density of a CO2 working fluid 
allows pumping to replace centrifugal compression for 
pressurization, which further enhances cycle efficiency. 
Smaller equipment requires a smaller footprint (3.24 to 
5.38 ha for NET Power plant) and, therefore, land use for 
the plant is approximately 40 to 50% less in comparison 
to similar output gas-fired power plants (7.5 to 11 ha for 
combined cycle gas turbine).
SECTION 2: DEMONSTRATION FACILITY
In order to demonstrate the NET Power Cycle at scale, 
the company designed and built a test facility in La Porte, 
Texas. The facility, commissioned in 2018, covers five acres 
and has over 1,500 operational hours as of October 2022. 
During testing, the test cycle underwent start-up, shutdown, 
and transient/excursion tests at key operating points. This 
included building CO2 inventory, shedding CO2 inventory, 
verification of process chemistry, validation of control and 
safety systems, operations of pumps and compressors, 
and testing of process stability and controllability. In late 
2021, the facility achieved synchronization with the Texas 
ERCOT grid. 
During this testing, the facility completed multiple 24-
hour test campaigns while further validating stop/
start sequences, steady state operation, and ramping 
operations, allowing for the refining of the plant control 
system. The facility has also successfully exceeded 
numerous utility-scale plant specifications, including 
turboexpander inlet temperature and balance of plant 
operating pressures. In addition to achieving these 
milestones in technical validation, the plant informs the 
design of NET Power's commercial product - the utility-
scale 300 MW Class plant. The NET Power test facility also 
drives further development of key intellectual property 
and procedures, as well as enabling hands-on training for 
future NET Power technical, operations, and maintenance 
personnel. 
SECTION 3: JOINT DEVELOPMENT AGREEMENT (JDA)
NET Power formed a strategic partnership with Baker 
Hughes in February 2022 through a Joint Development 
Agreement (JDA) supporting the technical and commercial 
deployment of NET Power’s technology. As part of the 
agreement, Baker Hughes has invested cash equity into 
NET Power and is partnering in the global development 
and commercialization of NET Power technology. 
As part of this technical development program, Baker 
Hughes is leveraging its advanced technology capabilities 
to develop supercritical CO2 turboexpanders and other 
critical pumping and compression technology for NET 
Power facilities. Baker Hughes also brings a deep 
experience in systems integration and process knowledge, 
which will help benefit NET Power's design and 
deployment. The structure of the JDA facilitates the sharing 
of best practices and lessons learned, while also aligning 
commercial efforts globally through joint marketing of the 
technology.
The JDA program has entered its development stage in 
2023. Testing on the first industrial-scale combustor and 
turboexpander will begin in 2025 at La Porte in preparation 
for the first utility-scale deployment and commercial 
operation of a full-scale NET Power facility.
SECTION 4: NEXT STEPS
In November 2022, NET Power announced that its first 
utility-scale plant will be built in West Texas. The new plant 
will capture CO2 at unit-wide rates above 97% and utilize 
both currently operating CO2 transport and subsurface 
infrastructure to store captured CO2. The project will be 
supported by a strategic consortium of partners consisting 
of leading developers, power plant operators, CO2 
transportation & storage experts, offtake specialists, and 
technology providers. Additionally, NET Power intends to 
leverage existing tax incentives, such as 45Q, and DOE 
funding opportunities like grants and loans, to support and 
further de-risk the first project. The successful deployment 
of NET Power's first utility-scale plant will pave the way for 
other commercial projects already in development.
NET Power is currently engaged in discussions globally 
with companies and governments pursuing clean, 
reliable, and low-cost power. Many global markets present 
incredible opportunities, and NET Power is actively 
identifying these bright spots to ensure decision-makers 
are aware of the technology’s immediate potential. 
Several use cases present immediate hub opportunities. 
Pairing NET Power with Direct Air Capture (DAC) is one 
exciting application. DAC deployments require significant 
amounts of reliable, low-cost, emissions-free power to 
maximize their negative emissions impact and economics. 
DAC facilities require clean, baseload power generation 
and are unable to quickly ramp in response to variable 
renewable energy (VRE) production. Alternatively, DAC 
projects are forced to rely on grid backup, storage, or grid 
power itself to operate at high capacity factors, driving up 
costs and impacting overall carbon intensity. 
NET Power has emerged as a leader in solving the major 
challenges of large-scale DAC deployment and can 
accelerate the economic case for direct carbon removal. 
NET Power is also exploring integration with chemical 
production facilities that have both on-site power demand 
and a utilization opportunity for the CO2 produced in the 
Cycle.
Another application for NET Power’s technology is in 
replacing retiring baseload plants. Approximately 500 GW 
of natural gas, coal, and nuclear retirement candidates 
in the United States are within 40 miles of CO2 storage. 
This proximity, coupled with NET Power’s unique ability to 
leverage brownfield facilities due to its compact footprint, 
means an extraordinary number of brownfield sites can 
be repowered with clean, dispatchable, and low-cost 
NET Power facilities. NET Power has received significant 
inquiries from independent power producers and electric 
utilities, especially in regions with high VRE production or 
retiring baseload assets.
NET Power is uniquely positioned to deliver the energy 
trifecta of low-cost, reliable, and clean electricity and has 
established the partnerships and pathways to deliver on 
this mission. NET Power has successfully demonstrated its 
technology at the 50 MWth scale and will soon deliver its 
first utility-scale 300 MW Class facility. The company, along 
with its commercial and technical partners, are accelerating 
the energy transition and the CCUS market.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Enzymatic carbon capture is reliable
•	
Requires less equipment, lowering the risk of potential downtime
•	
Involves no prototype equipment – everything is built at scale
•	
Avoids the risk of more stringent regulatory requirements 
Enzymatic carbon capture is efficient
•	
Yields high purity CO2 (≥ 99%)
•	
Can capture > 95% of CO2 in flue gas
•	
Runs on less costly, low-grade residual heat 
•	
Involves less equipment to build, operate and maintain
•	
Tolerates flue gas contaminants (no pre-treatment necessary)
Enzymatic carbon capture is sustainable
•	
Uses a non-toxic, biodegradable solvent
•	
Produces no toxic waste and forms no toxic aerosols
•	
Solvent relies on a renewable resources in the production 
ENZYMATIC CARBON CAPTURE
Amines enable you to capture carbon efficiently. But did 
you know there is an equally efficient solution for carbon 
capture that is truly sustainable? It also can cost less. By 
replacing amines with a powerful biocatalyst – enzymes 
– you not only avoid the risks associated with toxic 
chemicals. You can reap the rewards for decades.
Enzymatic carbon capture is a proven technology that can 
make your process more reliable, efficient and sustainable. 
If your plant – like many – produces waste heat, you have 
an especially compelling reason to use biocatalysts.
Novozymes and Saipem (see separate listing) have joined 
forces to deliver carbon capture solutions based on 
enzyme (biocatalyst) technology. Novozymes is the world 
leader in industrial enzymes and has unmatched expertise 
in solving industrial challenges with biotechnology. Saipem 
is a carbon capture process and equipment expert with 
more than 60 years of demonstrated expertise in EPC. 
Together we are changing the future of carbon capture. 
Together we can improve yours.
CONTACT
Email: 	 KLSL@novozymes.com
Web: 	
www.novozymes.com
NOVOZYMES
DESCRIPTION
ARE AMINES WORTH THE RISK?
The overall process of amine-based carbon capture is 
sound. However, its dependence on toxic chemicals is 
steeped in uncertainty. 
Some of the current risks you face with an amine-based 
system:
•	
The energy-intensive high temperatures required for 
the process are costly. Amines have a parasitic load 
(energy penalty) of 20-30% for CO2 capture; experts 
forecast that amine systems can get only 10-20% more 
efficient.
•	
The toxic degradation products generated need 
additional handling.
•	
More – and more costly – equipment is required than 
with our biotech-enabled alternative. More equipment 
equals higher maintenance costs and greater 
downtime risks.
•	
Worker health issues can arise.
•	
Amines, produced from the hazardous chemicals 
ethylene oxide and ammonia, strain Earth’s limited 
resources. 
Longer term, it also pays to consider these risks:
•	
Regulations are likely to change as the push to achieve 
net-zero emissions intensifies and more plants use 
amine-based carbon capture. 
•	
Meeting the IPCC’s goal of capturing 1,000 million 
tonnes CO2 in 2030 will require doubling amine MEA 
production. What will regulators say to twice as many 
amines based on hazardous chemicals flooding the 
market every year?
•	
Will you be allowed to keep using chemicals in the 
same way? Will you want to? Where will plants displace 
millions of tonnes of amines and other second-
generation solvents?
•	
Pressures on processing and processing equipment 
are likely to increase, putting more limits on your plant, 
wastewater stream and sludge.
BIOTECHNOLOGY IS TRANSFORMING INDUSTRY 
Novozymes already helps more than 30 different industries 
boost efficiency and sustainability with enzymes (biological 
catalysts). Enzymes are proteins found everywhere in 
nature. When one substance needs to be transformed into 
another, nature uses enzymes to speed up and control the 
process.
For example, our industrial enzymes have been enabling 
low-carbon fuel technologies and sustainable biorefining 
for decades. 


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REPLACE AMINES WITH BIOTECHNOLOGY
To minimize the risk and maximize the value of carbon 
capture, forward-thinking businesses are considering 
replacing toxic amines with biocatalysts.
This proven biotechnology, called enzymatic carbon 
capture, is powerful enough to meet the toughest industrial 
challenges. And it’s sustainable enough to stand up to the 
toughest scrutiny. 
BIOCATALYSTS BENEFIT YOUR BUSINESS TODAY AND 
TOMORROW
Enzymatic carbon capture delivers CO2 absorption capacity 
and kinetics on par with amine solutions. It has a capture 
efficiency of above 95% with CO2 purity of >99%.
Biocatalytic enzyme technology can strip CO2 at lower 
temperatures, saving valuable energy. Unlike the amine-
based approach, enzymatic carbon capture does not 
require costly, energy-consuming steam. Instead, it 
consumes a low level of the plant’s energy output, 
translating into up to 20% lower energy costs if waste heat 
is available.
You also have less equipment to build, operate and 
maintain with enzymatic carbon capture and there’s 
no prototype equipment – everything is built at scale, 
simplifying implementation.
There are no worker health issues to handle and no need 
to clean the wastewater when replacing solvent with a 
benign salt solution and biodegradable enzymes. No 
toxic degradation products or aerosols need handling or 
cleaning. Operators face fewer risks.
ONLY NOVOZYMES AND SAIPEM CAN DELIVER A 
BIOLOGICAL SOLUTION THAT STANDS UP TO YOUR 
TOUGHEST CHALLENGES
Our enzymatic carbon capture process is very similar to the 
established post-combustion process – it simply replaces 
toxic amines with biocatalytic enzymes. And, it requires 
less equipment.
The novel catalyzed solvent solution offers strong 
chemical stability, non-toxicity, non-volatility and low-grade 
temperature regeneration. 
The catalyst is an enzyme type used by all living organisms 
to regulate CO2. Called carbonic anhydrase, this biocatalyst 
is used in the absorber, along with carbonate. When the 
flue gas passes through the absorber, the enzyme converts 
the CO2 to bicarbonate, binding it in the bicarbonate. When 
the circulating bicarbonate fluid reaches the stripper, it 
must be heated to only 75°C to release the CO2 – rather 
than the 100°C required for amine-based carbon capture.
Enzymatic CO2 regulation has been evolved by nature over 
millions of years. Highly efficient, the carbonic anhydrase 
enzyme provides 1 million catalytic reactions per second 
per molecule.
Our unique partnership combines Novozymes’ cutting-
edge enzyme expertise with Saipem’s unmatched carbon 
capture processes and equipment know-how. Saipem 
supplies the carbon capture process and equipment; we 
supply the enzymes that optimize the process.
We bring our game-changing catalyzed solvent technology 
and world-class project delivery capabilities. Thanks to our 
global supply chain and technical expertise, we have a 
track record of delivering reliable solutions to industry for 
more than 70 years.
YOU CAN START YOUR CARBON CAPTURE PROJECT 
NOW
Enzymatic carbon capture offers the same level of maturity 
(TRL-8) as advanced amine and other second-generation 
solvents but has much greater potential.
Saipem and Novozymes are offering both “CO2 Solutions 
by Saipem” to the market and “Bluenzyme,” a standardized, 
modular turnkey solution that reduces implementation from 
3 years to 1.5 years (see Saipem listing for details). 
Now you can achieve your decarbonization goals with 
operationally and environmentally sustainable technology. 
Enzymatic carbon capture from Novozymes and Saipem 
minimizes your risks and maximizes value.
Novozymes’ industrial enzymes are used at pulp and paper mills around the world to reduce the use of harsh chemicals such as 
chlorine dioxide in pulp bleaching.


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DESCRIPTION
A STEP-CHANGE IN INNOVATION
Carbon capture is central to any realistic plan for 
decarbonizing 
hard-to-abate 
sectors, 
according 
to 
the International Energy Agency (IEA). However, the 
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states 
that “deployment of carbon capture lags severely behind 
the schedule required to meet global climate mitigation 
targets”. Traditional liquid amine systems are currently the 
go-to method for capturing CO2, however, the extreme 
amount of energy required to regenerate the solvents 
results in a cost barrier that has been prohibitive to the 
technology’s widespread adoption. Nuada has developed 
a 
patented, 
ultra-energy 
efficient 
carbon 
capture 
technology that overcomes these deployment barriers and 
enables end-users in hard-to-abate industries to achieve 
their Net Zero targets whilst minimizing the impact on their 
bottom line.
Nuada is building advanced filtration machines that utilize 
ground-breaking MOF solid sorbent materials and operate 
via vacuum swing adsorption (VPSA) - a mature already 
scaled, gas separation technology. The technology enables 
the efficient separation of CO2 from process emissions via 
a “heatless” and solvent-free process. By using pressure 
rather than heat, the energy requirements for carbon 
capture decrease by up to 80% versus the state-of-the-
art scrubbing solutions. This represents a step change in 
innovation that slash the operating costs that long held 
back the mass adoption of carbon capture in hard-to-abate 
industries.
Nuada’s technology is an end-of-pipe (EoP) solution 
designed for point-source carbon capture. During the 
process, the CO2-rich flue gas is conditioned and routed to 
the carbon capture unit where carbon dioxide is selectively 
captured by the MOF filters. The lean flue gas returns to the 
stack to be released into the atmosphere. Once the MOF 
filters are suitably saturated, they are regenerated by using 
vacuum (instead of heat) and release the captured CO2 into 
a high-purity stream, ready for downstream operations. 
During this regeneration, the CO2-rich feed gas is diverted 
to another parallel column, yielding a continuous removal 
process. 
NUADA SCOUT – TAILORED PILOTING PROGRAMMES 
Nuada is offering tailored pilot programmes through Nuada 
Scout, a service that helps industrial emitters to assure 
their decision-making on carbon capture investments 
with accurate field data. Nuada Scout is an end-to-end 
testing service that allows industrial emitters to experience 
the benefits of Nuada’s advanced carbon capture 
technology through a short demonstration campaign. This 
comprehensive service includes transport, installation, 
operation, testing, and decommissioning of a pilot plant 
configured to site-specific flue gas. Nuada Scout provides 
a prefabricated, containerized plant for quick and accurate 
in-field assessment of Nuada’s carbon capture technology. 
This ISO container carries the core unit operations needed 
to evaluate carbon capture at a 1tpd (one tonne per day) 
scale, with scope to bolt-on post-treatment packages for 
full chain CCUS (carbon capture, utilization, and storage) 
assessments. The installation of this plant-in-a-box requires 
little site preparation and minimal utility usage. All needed 
to get started is the plant’s emissions plus an electrical 
supply. Emitters can benchmark Nuada’s ultra-energy 
efficient technology using real infield data and verify the 
benefits through a short and tailored test programme. This 
resource-efficient testing service provides the benefit to 
gain critical operational insights and de-risk investment 
decisions when selecting the optimal technology for a 
plant. 
CAPTURING THE FUTURE
Nuada has formed partnerships with the Global Cement 
and Concrete Association (GCCA) and leading cement 
companies such as Buzzi Unicem, Cementir Holding, 
and Heidelberg Materials, to pilot test the technology 
in their cement production sites. The first pilot plant 
by Nuada will be operational during the summer of 
2023, with trials starting from Buzzi Unicem’s cement 
plant in Monselice, Italy. Additionally, Nuada is actively 
discussing 
demonstration 
opportunities 
with 
other 
suitable sectors as steelmaking, waste-to-energy, and 
blue hydrogen production, to verify the technology’s in-
field performance and flexibility for treating various off-gas 
streams. Successful demonstrations would help establish 
Nuada’s presence in the CCUS market and expedite the 
technology’s commercial deployment. Compared to other 
next-generation technologies, the scale-up route for Nuada 
is less challenging since the manufacturing capabilities 
and supply chains for VPSA systems are readily available 
to facilitate rapid large-scale deployment. Moreover, 
Nuada has successfully scaled up the in-house sorbent 
production, being already able to meet the material 
requirements of commercial-scale units.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Ultra-Energy Efficient: By using pressure instead of heat to separate CO2, the energy penalty is reduced by up to 80% 
compared to incumbent solutions. 
•	
No Complex Integration:  No steam is required; The machines are powered solely by electricity and can be easily 
integrated into existing processes. 
•	
Mature Process Technology: The manufacturing capabilities and supply chains already exist for rapid large-scale 
deployment, unlike other 2nd generation technologies. VPSA is a mature and proven separation technology that has 
been industrially applied at scale for decades. 
•	
Flexible Applications: The use of very selective MOF sorbents enables to treat a broad spectrum of off-gases and 
capture CO2 from multiple point sources. 
THE NEXT GENERATION OF CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY
Nuada is a vertically integrated carbon capture company 
that strives to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors through 
its 
proprietary 
next-generation 
technology. 
Nuada 
deploys filtration machines by combining advanced solid 
adsorbents (Metal-Organic Frameworks or MOFs) with 
proven vacuum swing technology (VPSA) to vacuum 
CO2 out of industrial emissions through a “heatless” and 
solvent-free process. This represents a step change in 
innovation and yields an ultra-energy efficient system that 
reduces the energy penalty by up to 80% compared to 
incumbent solutions. Nuada has successfully demonstrated 
its advanced CO2 capture technology at bench scale and is 
now piloting the technology to the field with the backing 
of the Global Cement & Concrete Association (GCCA) 
and leading cement companies. The first pilot plant will 
be installed and tested in Buzzi Unicem’s cement plant 
in Monselice (Italy) in the summer of 2023, while Nuada 
is actively discussing demonstration campaigns in other 
suitable sectors such as steel, waste-to-energy, and blue 
hydrogen.
CONTACT
Email: 	 contact@nuadaCO2.com
Web: 	
www.nuadaCO2.com
NUADA
•	
Scalable: The modular nature of the technology provides the flexibility for capturing CO2 at different scales and de-
risking carbon capture investments. 
•	
Minimum environmental impact: The filters consist of stable solid sorbents with minimum environmental impact, 
unlike solvents which can evaporate and release hazardous emissions. 


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
The CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System can capture up to 99% of CO2 from post-combustion streams and is proven for CCS 
at a 1 Mtpa CO2-capture scale. It offers:
•	
a high-purity CO2 stream suitable for sequestration or utilization projects;
•	
a highly adaptable, standalone system suitable for retrofitting and greenfield developments across a wide variety of 
industrial applications, gas flow rates and CO2 concentrations;
•	
low operating costs; 
•	
continuous technological developments to reduce capture costs and energy requirements through extensive research 
and development, targeted piloting and demonstration campaigns;
•	
optimum integration with wider plant energy, space and utilities provisions; 
•	
pilot plant performance verification for in-situ flue gases for every type of emitter;
•	
wide range of unit sizes, from small and mid-sized modular offerings through to large-scale bespoke designs;
•	
project execution and construction management excellence. 
CANSOLV™ CO2 CAPTURE SYSTEM
Shell Catalysts & Technologies, in partnership with Technip 
Energies, offer a leading, amine-based, high-capacity post-
combustion carbon capture technology, CANSOLV™ CO2 
Capture System, that is robust and proven, and has an 
established record of performing cost-effectively in a range 
of industries. Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System 
captures up to 99% of the CO2 from post-combustion 
streams, for example, from power stations, waste-to-
energy units, cement processing, chemical plants and 
other industrial facilities.
As a standalone, low-pressure, CO2 capture technology, 
CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System is well-suited for either 
retrofitting to existing plants or including in greenfield 
developments. It uses a regenerable proprietary amine 
to capture CO2 that is released as a pure stream, which 
makes the technology highly suitable for CCS projects. 
Following technical and economic evaluations, capturing 
CO2 from flue gas using the CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture 
System may emerge as the preferred option because of 
the key features such as:
•	
CO2 purity: The high purity CO2 product enables CCS 
or utilization downstream of the plant.
•	
Adaptability: 
The 
standalone 
system 
is 
highly 
adaptable to retrofit scenarios and greenfield projects, 
a wide variety of industrial applications, gas flow rates 
and CO2 concentrations. Units have been designed for 
CO2 concentrations from 3.5 to 27% and treating gas 
flow rates from 11,000 to 4,500,000 Nm3/h.
•	
Asset integrity: The system has been designed for 
reliability through its high turndown capacity and 
the solvent’s resistance to oxidative and thermal 
degradation.
CONTACT
Justin Swain - justin.swain@shell.com
Julie Cranga - julie.cranga@technipenergies.com
www.shell.com
www.technipenergies.com
SHELL & TECHNIP ENERGIES ALLIANCE
•	
Low waste: The process uses a regenerable solvent, 
so very little waste by-product is generated, which can 
reduce project costs as the effluents are minimal.
•	
Low operating costs: The system offers cutting-edge 
performance. For example, its low parasitic energy 
consumption, fast kinetics and low volatility help to 
reduce the cost of operation and amine consumption.
•	
Track record: The technology is proven in large-scale 
CCS applications, having captured more than 5 Mtpa 
CO2 from a power station flue gas in Canada since its 
start-up in 2014.
Technip Energies support integration of CANSOLV™ 
CO2 Capture System into both new build and existing 
plants. With a strong focus on optimum heat and energy 
integration, intelligent use of space and tie-ins, enhanced 
constructability and construction methodologies and 
project management excellence, Technip Energies ensure 
the best possible application of CANSOLV™ System for 
each facility. 
Shell Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies 
have been working as an alliance since 2012, developing 
continuous 
technology 
improvements 
to 
enhance 
performance and reduce both capital and operational 
expenditure. We have been working in partnership to 
deliver a wide range of carbon capture unit sizes and 
offerings, to meet the needs of every emitter. Our pilot 
plant facilities offer in-situ testing and performance 
verification for all types of flue gas, whereas our small to 
mid-scale modular and containerized units deliver cost 
and schedule enhancements and project execution risk 
reduction in comparison with conventional bespoke 
approaches. Our robust, large-scale bespoke designs have 
been proven to cater to the most complex of projects and 
world first applications.


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DESCRIPTION
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows the CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System. The 
key steps are:
1.	
Feed gas is quenched and saturated in a circulated 
water pre-scrubber.
2.	 Gas contacts the lean amine solution in a counter-
current mass transfer, packed absorption column.
3.	 CO2 is absorbed and the treated gas exits to 
atmosphere.
4.	 Midway along the column, partially loaded amine is 
removed from the tower, cooled and reintroduced 
over a layer of mass-transfer packing.
5.	 CO2-rich amine from the absorption column is pumped 
through a lean–rich amine heat exchanger and then 
on to the regeneration column.
6.	 Rising, low-pressure saturated steam in the column 
regenerates the lean amine solution. CO2 is recovered 
as a pure, water-saturated product.
7.	
Lean amine is pumped from the stripper reboiler to the 
absorption column for reuse in capturing CO2.
8.	 The CO2 is directed to by-product management 
systems.
9.	 Energy is recovered through a system such as a 
mechanical vapour recompression compressor and/
or a condensate flash, which helps to reduce the net 
reboiler duty requirements for amine regeneration.
PROOF POINT: SASKPOWER 1 MTPA CCS PROJECT
Because of tighter regulations, SaskPower needed to 
reduce CO2 and SO2 emissions at its Boundary Dam power 
station in Saskatchewan, Canada, which is a significant 
source of power for the region. After carefully evaluating 
a range of technical options, SaskPower chose to add 
a CANSOLV™ SO2–CO2 Integrated Capture System for 
combined carbon capture and flue-gas desulphurization. 
It opted to do this for a 150-MW unit that was due for 
refurbishment. This involved adding a 55-m-tall CO2 
absorber, a 40-m-tall CO2 stripper, a 31-m tall SO2 absorber 
and a 17-m-tall SO2 stripper. In 2014, the power station 
became the first in the world to successfully use CCS at 
scale. The plant has been in operation now for over 7 years 
with the capacity to capture up to 1 Mtpa CO2, thereby 
helping SaskPower to meet strict Canadian regulations 
on CO2 emissions from coal-fired power stations and 
thus retain its licence to operate. The CO2 is compressed, 
transported through pipelines and permanently stored in 
deep geological formations as part of an enhanced-oil-
recovery operation. The captured SO2 is converted to 60 
t/d of a marketable sulphuric acid that can be used as a 
feedstock for the local fertiliser industry. The learnings from 
this still-operating, first-of-a-kind deployment continue to 
help develop Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 capture system and 
promote and develop CCS projects globally.
PROOF POINT: POLARIS CCS PROJECT
Shell’s CANSOLV™ CO2 Capture System has been selected 
for the proposed Polaris CCS project, one of a series of 
low-carbon opportunities being explored to decarbonize 
the Scotford complex, Alberta, Canada, to create one 
of Shell’s proposed five global energy and chemicals 
parks. The initial phase is expected to start operations in 
about the middle of the current decade, subject to a final 
investment decision by Shell, which is expected in 2023. 
Polaris would have storage capacity of about 300 million 
tonnes of CO2 over the life of the project. When fully built, 
Polaris would contribute to the region becoming a blue 
hydrogen hub.
PROOF 
POINT: 
HAFSLUND 
OSLO 
CELSIO 
CCS 
PROJECT
Shell Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies are 
supporting Hafslund Oslo Celsio to build the world’s first 
carbon capture facility on a waste-to-energy plant as part 
of a full value chain, with transportation and permanent 
storage. The carbon capture plant at the waste to energy 
facility in Oslo will reduce the city of Oslo’s fossil CO2 
emissions by 17%. As their partner from initial concept 
through to construction, Shell Catalysts & Technologies 
and Technip Energies are assisting Hafslund Oslo Celsio 
to turn their ambition into commercial reality. With the 
opening ceremony on site in September 2022 and laying 
the initial groundwork for the commercial plant, Shell 
Catalysts & Technologies and Technip Energies are now 
continuing their joint journey to final project delivery and 
operation by 2026. 


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DESCRIPTION
CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY FOR LOW PARTIAL 
PRESSURE FLUE GAS
NRICI started the research on CO2 capture technology for 
low partial pressure flue gas as early as 1980s. With MEA 
solvent as the main body, in response to the problems of 
corrosion and degradation of flue gas carbon capture 
units in the industry at that time, NRICI has developed the 
corresponding corrosion inhibitor and antioxidant system 
and formed the first generation of flue gas carbon capture 
solvent and technology, which was successfully applied 
in the flue gas CO2 recovery unit of natural gas boiler in 
Guizhou Chitianhua Group in 1999. After that, it has been 
applied in Huaneng Beijing Thermal Power Plant 3000 t/ 
a CO2 recovery unit and Huaneng Shanghai Shidongkou 
Power Plant 120,000 t/ a flue gas carbon capture unit, 
which has promoted the development of CCUS in China.
By 2015, NRICI successfully screened a high-efficiency and 
low-energy capture solvent MA-1 after basic research, lab 
scale test and 5Nm3/h test research. After industrialized 
pilot study on 40,000 t/a CO2 capture unit in Shengli Power 
Plant, it successfully carried out industrialized application 
in Sichuan Vinylon Plant, and the results showed that, 
compared with the original MEA method, the solvent 
circulation volume decreases by 34.7%, the regeneration 
energy consumption decreases by 41.8%, the consumption 
of circulating water is reduced by 200 t/h, and the cost 
is significantly reduced under the condition that the 
production requirements are met.
By 2020, NRICI continued to optimize the solvent and 
technology, and successfully developed a new high-
efficiency and low-energy capture solvent MA-2. According 
to the results of the small-scale and pilot-scale test study, 
the comprehensive performance of this solvent is better 
than other existing absorption systems on the market, and 
finally applied to the largest coal-fired power plant flue gas 
carbon capture unit in operation in China - Guohua Jinjie 
Power Plant 150,000 t/a flue
gas carbon capture unit. The application result s howed 
that under the optimized test conditions, the capture rate 
is 96%, the regeneration energy consumption is <2.4GJ/
tCO2, and the operating loss is ~1.0kg/tCO2, and the overall 
level reaches the international advanced level.
NCMA DECARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGY
NRICI started research on polyamine decarbonisation 
technology 
from 
the 
1980s 
and 
developed 
the 
NCMA decarbonisation technology in 2003. Through 
proprietary decarbonization solvents, flexible process 
flow and precisely matched process parameters, NCMA 
decarbonisation technology is able to achieve customized 
requirements for CO2 content in purified gas, down 
to meeting the requirements for CO2 in the feed gas 
to deep-cooled separation systems such as LNG, and 
outperforms similar products in the industry in terms of 
corrosion and foaming. NRICI’s NCMA decarbonisation 
technology has been successfully applied to more than 
a hundred decarbonisation units from different gas 
sources, extensively proving its fine balance between 
decarbonisation performance and energy saving and 
consumption reduction. Typical applications include the 
natural gas decarbonisation unit at Songnan gas field, 
the synthesis gas decarbonisation unit at Chongqing 
Fuyuan fertiliser plant, the drygas decarbonisation and 
desulphurisation unit at Wuhan Petrochemical refinery, and 
the blast furnace gas decarbonisation unit at Xinjiang Bayi 
Steel.
CATALYTIC HOT CARBONATE DECARBONIZATION 
TECHNOLOGY
Depending on the type of reaction cycle gas, the current 
NRICI catalytichotcarbonate decarbonisation technology 
is mainly applied to two gas sources, the Fischer-Tropsch 
reaction cycle gas and the EOEG cycle gas.
In 
the 
area 
of 
Fischer-Tropsch 
recirculating 
gas 
decarbonisation, NRICI started the development of a pilot 
process package as early as 2005, and has now formed a 
monopoly in the field of recirculating gas decarbonisation 
for coal-to-oil projects in China. Typical application cases 
include Shaanxi Future Energy’s 1 million t/a and Shenhua 
Ningxia Coal’s 2 x 2 million t/a coal-to-oil circulating gas 
decarbonisation plant.
In the field of EOEG recirculating gas decarbonisation, 
NRICI has successfully reduced the CO2 molar fraction 
of the reactor inlet gas from 4.45% to below 2% after 
a domestic modification at Sinopec Tianjin Branch in 
2009. Subsequently, it has been successfully applied in 
PetroChina Xinjiang Dushanzi Petrochemical and Sinopec 
Maoming Branch. The application results show that th 
technology has achieved better performance indicators 
than overseas introduced technologies
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Rich experience in carbon capture engineering, able to skillfully solve various problems encountered during the 
operation of industrial carbon capture units.
•	
Well established testing and analysis facilities, able to carry out various small- scale and pilot- scale test studies in the 
field of carbon capture and utilization 
•	
Continuous R&D capability, able to continuously optimize and improve the existing carbon capture solvents, 
processes and equipment.
•	
Advanced technology user, overall at a domestic leading international advanced level in the field of carbon capture 
technology.
•	
Customised Technology solutions, provide the best technical solutions to obtain the most economical and efficient 
carbon capture products according to customer needs.
NAME OF TECHNOLOGY
SINOPEC Nanjing Research Institute of Chemical Industry 
Co., Ltd. (NRICI) was founded in 1958, formerly known as 
Nanjing Chemical Industrial Institute of the Ministry of 
Chemical Industry, is a technology enterprise specialized in 
the research, development, design and production of the 
chemical products.
NRICI has long been committed to the research and 
development of CO2 capture and utilization technology.
Presently, 3 types of CO2 capture technologies have 
achieved mature industrial applications, including CO2 
capture technology for low partial pressure flue gas, 
NCMA decarbonization technology, catalytic hot carbonate 
decarbonization technology. Besides, NRICI is developing 
new carbon capture and utilization technologies, such 
as new solvents, membrane separation, chemical and 
mineralization utilization, etc.
CONTACT
Email: 	 guobs.nhgs@sinopec.com
Web: 	
www.sinopec.com
SINOPEC NANJING RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF 
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY CO. , LTD


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NEW CO2 CAPTURE SOLVENTS
In addition to traditional amine solvents, NRICI has also 
carried out research and development of new CO2 
capture solvents such as ionic liquids, amino acid salts 
and phase change absorbent. As CO2 capture solvents 
with the potential to replace amine solvents for large-scale 
industrialisation in the future, ionic liquids, amino acid salts 
and phase change absorbent have significant advantages 
in a reas such as loss, stability and energy consumption. At 
present, the ionic liquid flue gas carbon capture technology 
has completed a 50Nm3/h pilot test, while the amino acid 
salt and phase change absorber have completed a 3Nm3/h 
enlarge test, and a pilot test of 50Nm3/h phase change 
absorbent for flue gas CO2 capture is underway. In the 
future, NRICI will continue to optimise and improve the 
formulation and process in order to realise the industrial 
application of the new CO2 capture solvent as soon as 
possible.
ADSORPTION METHOD
The adsorption method of CO2 capture technology can 
effectively overcome the problems of easy volatility, 
high energy consumption and corrosiveness of the 
absorption method, which is one of the main research 
directions of CO2 capture technology at present. NRICI, 
in cooperation with Sichuan University, has jointly 
carried out the development of amine-loaded porous 
adsorbent decarbonisation technology. 1 Nm3/h solid 
amine adsorption for CO2 capture has been completed, 
and the developed adsorbent has an adsorption capacity 
>160mgCO2/g after 50 adsorption and desorption cycles, 
and the total energy consumption is about 2.39 GJ/tCO2. 
In addition, NRICI together with Nanjing Normal University, 
has carried out research on integrated CO adsorption-
catalytic conversion technology. Smallscale test has shown 
that the preferred bifunctional adsorbent has a CO2 capture 
efficiency greater than 90%, a CO2 conversion rate greater 
than 80% and a selectivity greater than 95%.
MEMBRANE SEPARATION METHOD
Membrane separation is a promising method for capturing 
CO2 from flue gas due to its simplicity, low investment 
in equipment, low energy consumption, flexibility in 
operation and small footprint. NRICI, together with Tianjin 
University and Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, 
CAS, based on national key R&D projects, has carried 
out a 30Nm3 /h pilot test and a 50,000Nm3 /d industrial 
demonstration research. Among them, the 50,000Nm3 /d 
industrial demonstration is the first in China for membrane 
separation with independent intellectual property rights. 
The demonstration results showed that the CO2 purity 
is >95% and CO2 recovery rate is >80% after three-stage 
membrane separation, which has reached the international 
advanced level.
Figure 1: 50Nm3/h ionic liquid pilot test
Figure 3: 50000Nm3/d membrane separation demonstration
Figure 2: 3Nm3/h phase change absorber enlarge test


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DESCRIPTION
OXYFUEL
Oxyfuel is a mature and robust technology based on 
commercially proven components. When used in plants 
firing carbon neutral fuels, including biomass, residues, and 
waste, Oxyfuel leads to overall negative carbon emissions 
or the production of biogenic and sustainably sourced CO2 
for further synthesis.
The technology was demonstrated at a 30 MWth facility 
in the Fundacion Ciudad de la Energia (CIUDEN), Spain 
during the 2010s, accumulating thousands of operational 
hours under various conditions.. Subsequently, commercial 
development with partners led to the completion of FEED 
activities and development of a readily available 300 MWe 
Oxyfuel power plant design. SFW’s engineering and R&D 
experts have continued to develop the solution and adapt 
innovations into the delivery of new carbon capture plant 
designs.
Oxyfuel applied in circulating fluidized beds (CFBs) 
allows capturing carbon and taking full advantage of the 
efficient circulation and management of solids and gases. 
Beside the fuel flexibility, CFBs hydrodynamics enable 
different fluidizing gas regimes, switching between air and 
oxyfuel mode or different oxygen enrichment levels while 
maintaining elevated performance of energy generation.
Oxyfuel can be applied as a retrofit in existing CFB plants 
or as part of a new build project. In both scenarios, the 
efficient energy generation leads to lower emissions per 
unit of energy and can increase the gross production of 
energy from the power plant or industrial boiler.
The technology allows sector coupling and industrial 
synergy, whereas by-product oxygen from hydrogen 
electrolysis can be utilized reducing production costs for 
both capturing carbon and the further synthesis of green 
chemicals, fuels and materials.
FEATURED PROJECT: 
30 MWTH OXYFUEL PLANT IN PONFERRADA, SPAIN
SFW realized a carbon capture demonstration plant in 
cooperation with Endesa and CIUDEN during 2009-2017 
(see picture left). SFW’s ongoing project development 
activities in close collaboration with industrial partners aims 
for commercial operation starting from 2026 for Oxyfuel 
fired biomass and energy from waste plants.
•	
No additional OPEX related to solvent procurement 
and waste disposal
•	
Can be applied as part of a post-combustion capture 
solution such as Calcium looping (CaL)
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Wide applicability to solid, gas and liquid fuels 
•	
Increases operational flexibility compared to air-fired units 
•	
More efficient energy generation, higher fuel capacity in similar sized air-fired units
•	
Low energy penalty of 1.7 GJ/tCO2, mainly consumed in oxygen production and CO2 compression
•	
Enables sector coupling and oxygen synergy with green H2 synthesis plants, further reducing the energy penalty
•	
New builds for optimized Oxyfuel performance reduce equipment sizing
OXYFUEL SOLUTIONS
SFW’s Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) technology can 
be operated in an oxygen-rich environment allowing the 
highly efficient recovery of heat and power. This produces 
a concentrated CO2 stream readily available for capture 
purposes rather than the typical flue gas emitted. 
By replacing air in typical energy generation units with 
oxygen and recirculated CO2 rich gas, capturing emissions 
becomes part of the integrated energy production step. 
This leads to significant reduction in energy penalty 
typically required with capturing CO2  from diluted flue gas.
CONTACT
Email: 	 mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com
Web: 	
www.shi-fw.com
SUMITOMO SHI FW 
Schematic of SFW fluidized bed solutions. Source (Sumitomo 
SHI FW)
Gas composition and heat flux ratio in SFW fluidized bed solution 
in both Air fired and Oxyfuel operation. Source (Sumitomo SHI 
FW)


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DESCRIPTION
CALCIUM LOOPING
Calcium looping or CaL utilizes a natural and non-toxic 
sorbent, calcium, to capture and release high purity CO2. 
The energy required to capture CO2 is supplied via the 
oxyfuel calcination of sustainably sourced bio-residues and 
waste. 
CaL creates added value for industrial plant operators in 
the form of circular economy applications, decarbonizing 
energy 
generation 
and 
enabling 
sector 
coupling 
opportunities. In essence, CaL addresses scope 1, 2 
and 3 emissions. CaL is supplied either as a tail-end 
configuration, capturing CO2 and producing energy and 
lime, or as an integrated configuration in which the capture 
system exchanges material and heat streams with existing 
industrial units. 
As such, CaL can be integrated to any industrial emission 
source, especially those with an existing lime cycle in 
operation such as cement, steel, and pulp and paper. The 
sorbent purged from the capture system, a mixture of lime 
and valuable minerals, is a viable feedstock, for the green 
manufacturing of construction materials.
Like oxyfuel, CaL provides synergy with green hydrogen 
plants, whereas cheap and available by-product oxygen 
is utilized for the carbon capture purposes. This leads to 
reductions in capture costs and the efficient synthesis of 
carbon negative fuels and materials.
CaL is a multiproduct technology which drives project 
feasbility due to numerous potential revenue streams, such 
as, excess electricity, high quality heat, waste gate fees, 
carbon removal credits, calcined lime and hydrogen or 
nitrogen from the oxygen production plant.
Calcium Looping has been tested and demonstrated since 
2012 under industrial operating conditions at the La Pareda 
power plant, Spain. Sumitomo SHI FW has supplied the 
demonstration unit and continued to support innovation 
with our technical advisory services
FEATURED PROJECTS: 
1.7 MW CaL demo plant in LaPareda, Spain 
Supplied and commissioned by Sumitomo SHI FW in 
2012, the plant (see picture left) demonstrated a capture 
efficiency of over 90%. The plant has continued to operate 
flexibly for over 5000 hours under different process 
conditions to optimize the technology.
CaLby2030 project for hard to abate sectors
Sumitomo SHI FW will design and engineer three 
integrated CaL pilot plants to be operated in relevant 
industrial environment across Europe. The demonstration 
campaigns will be carried out with the aim of exceeding 
90% CO2 capture rates and even approaching 99% in 
specific configurations. The demonstrated results will be 
then scaled up to generate concepts and basic designs 
for the commercial carbon capture projects for Thomas 
Zement’s integrated cement plant in Karsdorf, Germany, 
Alleima’s Sandviken steelworks plant in Sweden, Hunosa’s 
LaPareda power plant in Spain and IREN’s waste to energy 
plants in Italy.
HERCCULES project for WtE plants
SFW will engineer a CaL carbon capture plant to be 
installed at the Milan Silla-2 waste-to-energy plant, 
owned and managed by a2a Ambiente, a member of the 
a2a group. The plant is one of the largest Italian waste 
management facilities that handles around 550 000 
tons of municipal solid waste and non-hazardous special 
waste per year. The pilot plant will operate for up to 4000 
hours and the project will conclude with the design and 
development of FOAK commercial size facility.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Added value in the form of revenue streams from green electricity and lime
•	
CO2 capture efficiency higher than 90%
•	
Lower energy penalty than from other post combustion capture technologies
•	
Captures other acid gases present in flue gas
•	
Fluidized bed can handle challenging flue gas conditions (higher temperature and level of impurities compared to 
liquid solvent solutions such as amine scrubbing)
•	
Commercially available, scalable, and cost-effective components
•	
Can be integrated to emission source in cement, steel and other carbon intensive industry
•	
Sector coupling and oxygen synergy with green H2 synthesis plants
CALCIUM LOOPING
SFW’s Calcium Looping (CaL) is a scalable and retrofittable 
post combustion CO2 capture technology based on 
Circulating Fluidised Bed reactors (CFBs). The technology 
is built on SFW’s experience of delivering over 500 CFB 
commercial units. 
It is a cost- and environmentally effective and highly 
adaptable solution for capturing carbon emissions from 
multiple industries. With Calcium Looping technology, we 
at SFW serve the energy from waste, cement, steel, pulp & 
paper and metallurgical industries.
CONTACT
Email: 	 mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com
Web: 	
www.shi-fw.com
SUMITOMO SHI FW (SFW)
Sector coupling opportunity and material flows enabled by CaL 
capture system (Source: HERCCULES project)
CaL industrial cases examined in the CaLby2030 project 
(Source: CaLby2030 project)


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DESCRIPTION
HOT POTASSIUM CARBONATE, HPC
SFW’s Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) capture technology 
starts with the cooling and compression of flue gas to 
enhance CO2 absorption. The capture system removes 
CO2 and regenerates the solvent via the following 
reversible reaction:
K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O ↔ 2KHCO3.
Expanding the CO2 depleted flue gases over an expander, 
recovers a large part of the compression energy. The heat 
recuperated from the flue gas and product CO2 streams 
is used internally in the capture system and the remaining 
heat can be exported to an available district heating 
network. 
The SFW HPC plant is aimed at producing biogenic CO2 
from retrofitting biomass and waste to energy plants with 
carbon capture, creating potentially negative emissions or 
providing biogenic carbon for e-fuel synthesis. 
The carbon capture plant can also be delivered as part of 
a new build wasteWOIMA® waste-to-energy plant, or be 
retrofitted to any other CO2 emitting source. 
•	
The HPC process gives a high capture rate over 90% 
and produces a CO2 product and yields a high purity 
CO2 product suitable for compression purposes. 
•	
The HPC process can be powered by electricity, or 
a combination of steam and electricity, giving more 
flexibility. 
•	
The Full Electric Capsol EoP® technology claims for 
a low energy consumption between 0.7 and 1.5 GJ/
ton CO2 captured and minimizes the disturbance of 
existing operations at the site during construction.
•	
The heat recovered from the HPC process can be 
recovered in district heating
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
HPC is a well-proven carbon capture process with hundreds of references and decades of operational experience in 
the chemical and Oil & Gas industries.
•	
Potassium carbonate is a widely and freely available material that is tolerant to oxygen, non-toxic, non-volatile, and 
non-carcinogenic.
•	
This makes the HPC solvent low-cost with low make-up need, reducing the solvent management cost of the carbon 
capture plant. 
•	
It further ensures that the HPC solvent does not pose risks to environment and health, facilitating simpler permitting.
HOT POTASSIUM CARBONATE
SFW’s liquid solvent based carbon capture solution is 
based on the well-proven Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) 
process, enabling capture rates of over 90% from industrial 
stacks. HPC is a widely available, low-cost, safe, and 
environmentally friendly solvent.
The 
SFW 
HPC 
solution 
includes 
the 
proprietary 
Capsol EoP® End-Of-Pipe technology for lower energy 
consumption in the process than comparable post-
combustion capture technologies. The solutions can be 
powered with electricity only or a combination of power 
and steam, giving more flexibility in implementation.
CONTACT
Email: 	 mohamed.magdeldin@shi-g.com
Web: 	
www.shi-fw.com
SUMITOMO SHI FW 
Schematic of HPC solution (Source: Capsol Technologies AS)


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DESCRIPTION
TOSHIBA’S CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION FLOW
Toshiba has focused on continuing research and development activities for post-combustion CO2 capture technology 
and possess its own pilot plant for testing and development of high-performance amine-based solvents, efficient process 
design conditions, degradation evaluations and applied it to various commercial plants.
Toshiba has developed the high-performance amine solvents (TS-1), and most efficient amine emission mitigation 
technology which uses spray type washing system to minimize amine emissions levels which are safe for human and 
aquatic life in surrounding atmosphere. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Significantly low recovery energy demand resulting in low steam consumption
•	
Low solvent degradation and low amine loss resulting in longer service life
•	
Possess extensive experience with integrated utilities, operations and maintenance of carbon capture plant with coal/
biomass /incineration (WtE) plant.
•	
Applicable to both existing and new builds power plants and providing CO2 purity in excess of 99.9%.
•	
Adapting to customer’s demand for both full and partial CO2 capture. 
•	
Possess own pilot plant to carry out in-house research & development activities.
AMINE-BASED POST-COMBUSTION CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY
Amine-based post-combustion CO2 capture is a promising 
technique that can be employed at large scale to various 
flue gases safely in order to ensure a substantial reduction 
in CO2 emissions from man-made sources of CO2 such as 
the power generation industry, cement industry, iron, and 
steel industry and so on. Based on this understanding, 
Toshiba has focused on developing post-combustion CO2 
capture technology since 2007 and has designed and 
constructed a 10- tpd CO2 scale pilot plant at Mikawa city, 
Japan in September 2009 which accomplished more than 
13,000 hours of operation at present with live flue gases 
from biomass/coal-fired thermal power plant. Through the 
long operation of its own pilot plant in Mikawa, Toshiba 
demonstrated high reliability and stable operation under a 
wide range of process conditions which eventually allowed 
Toshiba to deploy its proven CO2 capture technology at a 
commercial scale at Saga Incineration plant (10 tpd CO2 
scale) and Demonstration plant of 600 tpd CO2 scale in 
Japan. Toshiba also developed and employed its own 
proprietary amine-based aqueous solution and efficient 
process techniques in aforesaid commercial projects which 
have shown significant reduction in CO2 recovery energy, 
less degradation of solvent, and lower amine emissions. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 keisuke1.hasegawa@toshiba.co.jp
Web: 	
www.global.toshiba/ww/company/energy.html
TOSHIBA ENERGY SYSTEMS & SOLUTIONS 
CORPORATION
Picture of Mikawa pilot plant


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SAGA CCU PLANT 10  TPD CO2 
•	
World’s first commercial-use CCU system constructed 
in a waste incineration plant.
•	
CO2 offtake primarily used for algae cultivation 
and also used for cucumber cultivation as a smart 
agriculture.
•	
Accomplished long hours of operation (more than 6 
years) of capturing CO2 from live flue gases from waste 
incineration plant having variable CO2 concentrations.
•	
Demonstrated 
easy 
integration 
techniques 
of 
operating CO2 capture plant with waste incineration 
plant.
•	
Possess know-how of stable plant operation and real- 
time performance data including solvent degradation.
•	
Possess experience working as a partner to Saga city 
incineration plant and can act as an important partner 
to guide on integrated plant operation.
Specification
•	
Location: Saga City, Saga City Waste incineration (WtE) 
plant
•	
Commenced Operation: September 2016
•	
Source Gas: Flue gas from Waste incineration (WtE) 
plant
•	
Captured CO2: 10 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate: > 90%
•	
CO2 Purity: > 99.9%
 
CO2 CAPTURE DEMONSTRATION PLANT 600 TPD CO2 
OF MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT, JAPAN
•	
World’s first BECCS ready project integrated with 100% 
Biomass based thermal power plant.
•	
This plant captures 600 tpd CO2 from the flue gas of 
the Mikawa Power Plant (more than 50% of its total 
emissions) and is integrated with this power plant 
with turbine extraction steam feeding the energy for 
desorbing CO2 at the stripper.
•	
CO2 capture plant applied with Toshiba proprietary 
solvent TS-1 with CO2 concentration as 15vol% in dry 
basis 
•	
Demonstrated integrated operation of CO2 capture 
plant with 100% Biomass based thermal power plant.
•	
This Demonstration Plant applied with Toshiba novel 
technology Spray type washing system that has shown 
drastic effect of suppressing total amine emission to 
the atmosphere.
•	
Toshiba is also the Steam turbine system supplier and 
has immense experience of steam turbine operation. 
Thus, we can integrate CO2 capture plant with thermal 
power plant and have experience of integration of 
large size CO2 capture plant in this Ministry of the 
Environment project 
Specification
•	
Location : Omuta City, Fukuoka Inside Mikawa Thermal 
Power Plant
•	
(Property of SIGMA POWER Ariake Co.Ltd.)
•	
Commenced Operation : October 2020
•	
Source Gas : Flue gas from biomass fired thermal 
power plant
•	
Captured CO2 : 600 tpd CO2
•	
Solvent : Toshiba solvent-1 (TS-1)
•	
CO2 in flue gas : 15 vol.% in dry base
•	
Capture rate : > 90%
THE FUTURE OF AMINE SOLVENT TECHNOLOGY 
DEVELOPMENT
Toshiba currently involves in developing the next 
generation of amine solvents that achieves low energy 
levels similar to TS-1, while also having characteristics of 
better stability (resistance to degradation) and low amine 
emission.
After conducting long-term testing, we plan to supply it to 
the market for our customers.
Specifically, regarding lower amine emissions, Toshiba 
intends to offer a pathbreaking technology with very low 
amine emission by combining Toshiba’s proprietary spray 
technology with the low amine emission next-generation 
solvent.
MIKAWA PILOT PLANT 10 TPD CO2 
Tested 
in-house 
developed 
amine 
based 
solvent 
performance (CO2 capture amount, CO2 capture rate, 
CO2 recovery energy, etc.) against CO2 gas concentration 
ranging from 4 to 30 vol %.
•	
Evaluated 
system 
improvement 
with 
various 
components.
•	
Demonstrated more than 13,000 hours of operation 
on a live flue gas of biomass/coal fired thermal power 
plant
•	
Achieved CO2 recovery energy less than 2.4 GJ/ ton-
CO2 (At 90% CO2 Capture, CO2 Conc. approx. 12% vol) 
Specification
•	
Location: Omuta City, Fukuoka Inside Mikawa Thermal 
Power Plant (Property of SIGMA POWER Ariake 
Co.Ltd.)
•	
Commenced Operation: September 2009
•	
Source Gas: Flue gas from biomass/coal fired thermal 
power plant
•	
Captured CO2: 10 tpd CO2
•	
Capture rate: > 90%
Picture of Saga CCU commercial plant
Picture of Demonstration plant of Ministry of the Environment, 
Japan


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DESCRIPTION
CO2 CAPTURE PLANT PROCESS 
The Svante carbon capture process consists of a series of 
steps which include passing flue gas, regenerating steam, 
and conditioning air through structured adsorbent beds in 
a specific order. 
1.	
Adsorption: The first step in the process is the 
introduction of the feed gas into the structured 
adsorbent beds, where CO2 is adsorbed onto the 
surface of the adsorbent, while the remainder of the 
flue gas mainly N2, O2 and H2O is sent to the stack as 
spent/exhaust gas.
2.	 Regeneration: The CO2-rich adsorbent bed then 
rotates to a sector of the process where low pressure 
steam flows through it, requiring only a small amount 
of superheat to overcome heat losses from the 
system. This is the first regeneration step, where 
steam regenerates the adsorbent, releasing a stream 
composed primarily of CO2 and steam.
3.	 Conditioning: After regeneration with steam, the 
bed rotates through a sector of the process where 
heated ambient air is used to condition and cool the 
structured adsorbent. The ambient air stream, termed 
Conditioning Gas, removes most of the water vapor 
from the adsorbent. The adsorption, regeneration, and 
conditioning functions described above are integrated 
and implemented in the RAM, as shown in the figure 
below.
Svante is on the 2023 Global Cleantech 100 and was 
ranked second among private companies in the Corporate 
Knights Future 50 Fastest-Growing Sustainable Companies 
in Canada. Svante was also acknowledged in the 2023 
XB100, the definitive ranking of the world’s top 100 private 
deep tech companies, hosted by XPRIZE and Bessemer 
Venture Partners.
For more information on Svante, visit www.svanteinc.com.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Svante’s technology utilizes a single piece of compact equipment enabling a competitive reduction in capital costs 
compared to first generation approaches.
•	
Capacity is scalable in multiples of individual Rotating Adsorption Machines (RAMs) between 500 and 5000 tpd of 
CO2 captured, depending on the application and product purity requirements.
•	
Svante’s technology is flexible by using different adsorbents and can target low and high concentration industrial flue 
gases.
•	
Inherent ability to load follow and start and stop extremely quickly by easily controlling the rotation speed of the RAM. 
This feature enables CO2 capture from intermittent process such as lime production PFR kilns and electric arc furnaces.
•	
Svante’s proprietary VeloxoTherm™ process is environmentally friendly based on novel Structured Adsorbent Beds 
(SAB), which are not subject to nitrosamine and nitramine emissions.
•	
No process safety associated with new hazardous chemicals being brought onsite.
•	
Svante has built world-class collaborations and partnerships with world-class organizations across the CCUS value 
chain, including project developers, engineering, construction, and procurement companies, as well as utilization, 
transportation, and sequestration entities, which enables Svante’s customers manage their CO2 emissions from source 
to sink.  
CO2 CAPTURE PLANT PROCESS 
Capturing of CO2 from industrial operations using chemical 
solvents is technically proven, but the costs in terms 
of capital and energy use are high and the potential 
for toxic chemical emissions has prompted developers 
to seek other technological approaches. One avenue 
showing promise is the use of solid adsorbents. Svante 
Technologies Inc. (Svante) has developed a novel solution 
to capture large-scale CO2 emissions from hard-to-abate 
industries such as cement, hydrogen, oil & gas, aluminum, 
chemicals, pulp & paper, and more. The CO2 captured can 
be either safely stored deep underground or used to make 
other products in a closed loop. Svante’s post-combustion 
capture technology is currently being deployed in the field 
at pilot plant-scale by industry leaders in the energy and 
cement manufacturing sectors, including:
CO2MENT Pilot Plant Project: Lafarge Canada and Svante 
launched this one tonne per day (tpd) project in 2019 at 
a cement plant in Richmond, British Columbia, Canada. 
The CO2 captured here is planned to be used to make 
products such as sustainable aviation fuel, makeup bases, 
snowboard waxes, and more.
Cenovus: (formerly Husky Energy): This is a 30 tpd 
demonstration plant, which launched in 2019 at an 
industrial facility in Lloydminster, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Chevron USA: Svante’s latest pilot-scale project, a carbon 
capture plant set to capture 25 tpd came online in the 
Spring of 2023 in Bakersfield, California, USA.
In addition, several engineering projects for commercial-
scale carbon capture projects ranging from 500 to 4,500 
tpd are underway in North America and Europe.
To date, Svante has attracted more than US$500 million in 
funding since it was founded in 2007, with the latest Series 
E fundraising round closing at a record-breaking US $318M 
with Chevron New Energies as the lead investor. Other 
participants included new and existing investors from large 
entities such as GE Vernova, 3M Ventures (the venture 
capital arm of 3M), United Airlines Ventures, Samsung 
Ventures, and more. 
The company is currently expanding its commercial filter 
manufacturing facility in Canada. In 2024, the new facility, 
The Centre of Excellence for Carbon Capture & Removal, 
located in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada will have 
an annual capacity to deliver filter modules capable of 
removing 5 Mtpa CO2. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 cnitta@svanteinc.com
Web: 	
www.svanteinc.com
SVANTE 
Svante’s energy efficient and low-cost technology, the 
VeloxoTherm™ carbon capture process, is an intensified 
rapid-cycle Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA) system 
using advanced Structured Adsorbent Beds (SAB). This 
novel process is designed to capture CO2 directly from 
industrial sources and release pure CO2 in less than 
60 seconds, compared to hours for other technologies 
and requiring significantly less capital cost. The capture 
process is implemented via a device similar to that of 
regenerative air heaters widely used in power plants, in 
which a proprietary structured adsorbent is arranged on 
a circular rotating structure, known as a Rotary Adsorption 
Machine (RAM). The device simultaneously exposes 
different segments of the structure to each step of the 
TSA cycle. A key advancement is the development of 
innovative adsorbent materials, which enable the use of a 
rapid temperature swing cycle.


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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TRANSPORT 


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DESCRIPTION
Transmission is often considered to be the low-tech 
piece in the CCUS value chain, however a vast pipeline 
expansion is needed if CCUS is to take its place in the 
Future Energy world. The arms of this new pipeline 
network will reach throughout populated areas and must 
be designed to prevent rupture, “running fracture” and the 
hazards of CO2 gas release.
Impurities in CO2 can adversely affect transmission pipeline 
design and operation. In the coming era of growth, fluid 
“quality” specifications will emerge, and will be eventually 
regulated for hubs and networks. However, many CCUS 
projects will require “point-to-point” transmission pipelines. 
These may seek to transmit and inject CO2 with challenging 
impurities such as hydrogen sulphide, and potentially 
increased water content, in an effort to reduce the overall 
capital and operating cost of the supply chain.
Whilst pipeline design standards such as DNV-RP-F104 
(Design and Operation of Carbon Dioxide Pipelines) 
continues to evolve, the process of designing a pipeline 
is far from fully codified. It can also be very iterative and 
inefficient.
An ill-disciplined and unstructured approach to design can 
easily lead to multiple repetitions of the design, impacting 
design cost and schedule. Worse still, it can leave the 
project owner with some doubt as to whether their final 
design is actually optimal from either a capex or an 
operability perspective.
GHD’s pipeline engineering team is based in Australia but 
works with pipelines worldwide. The Australian pipeline 
standard, AS 2885 provides specific design methods for 
oil and gas pipelines, with some guidance on CO2 design. 
This standard encourages a risk-based and thoughtful 
design process and is an excellent platform from which to 
develop a formal method to reach optimal CO2 pipeline 
designs, without multiple iterations.
GHD will design CO2 pipelines for any jurisdiction in full 
compliance with the nominated pipeline standard, however 
our journey to reach this destination follows the robust 
design methodology that we have developed.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Reduced FEED cost and schedule
•	
Minimal risk when procuring pipeline material
•	
Maximum flexibility and operability of installed pipeline assets
•	
Sound basis for capex estimating at the end of FEED
GHD OPTIMISED CO2 PIPELINE DESIGN
GHD presents its CO2 pipeline design method, outlining 
the importance and complexity of reaching optimal 
designs. The GHD method is focused and systematic. It 
drives towards the optimal pipeline design with a minimum 
of iteration.
For a pipeline, Front End Engineering Design (FEED) 
typically takes the design to an advanced state, especially 
in the specification of the pipeline steel.
This enables pipeline material to be ordered shortly after 
the financial investment decision is made, which is often 
necessary due to its long delivery time. FEED also refines 
the route, designs major crossings, and allows other long 
lead items to be procured. GHD’s approach facilitates 
these steps and avoids the common experience of 
needing to repeat complex design work as the pipeline 
design “evolves”.
CONTACT
Email: 	 anthony.mills@ghd.com
Web: 	
www.ghd.com/en/
GHD
Inputs
-
Injection pressure
– Flow Scenarios
– Concept route
– Temps
–
Heat xfer coeff
–
Composition
– Topography
– Flow liner (unlikely) ?
– Booster pump sites 
where power is available
Outputs
– Inlet Pressure
– NOM Pipe Size(s)
– Pump location & duty confirmed
– Design Pressure
Approximate wall thickness
using design factor from
previous CO2 designs
NO
Gas comp
Operating
P&T
Det Des
Feed
Feed
Concept
Steady state hydraulics
Informal estimate of design
pressure
Release modelling
Safety 
Management 
Study
Further Inputs
-
Refine route
-
Location analysis
-
Threat analysis
-
Cyclic pressure ?
-
Crossing types
-
Subsea design ?
Outputs
-
Location classes
-
High Consequence zones
-
Fracture control req’ts
-
MLV Spacing
Wall thickness calc
Fracture Control Plan
Market 
Check-in
Materials Study
-
Corrosion
-
Stress corrosion cracking
Operations Inputs
-
Start up
-
Stop and cool
-
Restart
-
Depressuring
-
Slugging
-
Hydrates
-
Free water margin
Flow Assurance
(Transient hydraulics)
Injection well design
Crack 
arrestors
practical
(Y/N) 
Validated 
assumption of 
200-250J  
toughness 
available
Validity of 
Empirical 
Method OK ?
Yes- Proceed
No- Use Failure 
Strain Locus 
Modelling
Select
strength
Grade
Topo and geotech surveys
(can be FEED or early
Detailed Design)
Detailed Design Tasks
-
Onshore and Offshore detailed design
-
Line pipe procurement
-
Facilities design
-
Crossing design
-
Bending philosophy
-
Others.
Output:
Selected Wall Thickness
Outputs
-
Moisture spec
-
Corrosion allowance ?
-
Min design temp
Outputs
-
Steel type
-
Special req’ts ?


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DON’T CRACK! 
BUT IF YOU DO CRACK- TRY TO PULL IT TOGETHER…
The classic concern with CO2 pipelines is running ductile 
fracture, where the pipeline “unzips” over an extended 
length, thus multiplying the chances that the failure and 
subsequent fluid release will coincide with and harm the 
public. 
“Crack arrestors” were historically used on older pipelines, 
but in many cases were applied in a tokenistic way at long 
intervals that sometimes failed to meaningfully lower risk 
levels. Recent and currently planned projects rely instead 
in “intrinsic arrest” pipe, which will arrest running cracks 
within a reasonable distance. Fracture control almost 
always ends up determining the final wall thickness.
Leading researchers in the field have taken designers 
on a challenging journey since 2019. Prior to this time, 
CO2 pipelines were designed using a modified “Batelle 
Two Curve” (BTCM) method. This method used well 
known software- DUCTOUGH™ to model the running 
crack and GASDECOM™ to model CO2 decompression. 
However, it was recognised that resulting designs could 
be unconservative and potentially still be vulnerable to 
running ductile fractures.
Since then, a number of methods have been proposed in 
quick succession, as shown in the following diagram.
OTHER THINGS TO JUGGLE
Whilst all of this is playing out, the hydraulic modelling 
from the Concept stage is expanded into “flow assurance” 
work. This considers all the transient conditions where the 
real challenge in operating CO2 pipelines occurs, such 
as how to start and stop the pipeline, cool-downs, and 
depressurization. These processes need to consider the 
dangers of hydrate formation, rapid free-water corrosion, 
and auto-refrigeration embrittlement.
These design strands weave together to culminate in the 
full specification of the pipe material, as well as a good 
understanding of the route that the pipeline traverses 
and how it will be built. GHD can then estimate costs 
more accurately and pipe material can be purchased with 
confidence.
GHD reaches out to developers of CCUS projects 
worldwide. Our key CCUS team is based in Houston and 
Brisbane, Australia. We provide engineering all the way 
from CO2 capture plant through to reservoir pore space. 
Our pipeline design work is leading-edge but resides 
within a complete service offering that also includes CCUS 
approvals and environmental work.
At the time of writing, proponents really face a choice 
between three main design outcomes:
•	
Employ a “conservative design”, which requires 
only lab-scale material tests to validate. This usually 
involves extra millimetres of steel, and potentially even 
over-sizing of the pipeline in order to be able to safely 
rely on the results of historical burst tests. However, it 
is a valid technique for shorter pipelines.
•	
Procure pipe samples and perform full scale burst 
tests- this method is likely to produce the most 
efficient design on large projects, but extends lead 
time considerably.
•	
Undertake “Special Assessments”, which involve 
highly specialised computer modelling of the running 
fracture. (GHD is acquainted with the very few 
institutions who can perform this.)
In any of these approaches, it is necessary to know the 
phase envelope of the CO2 with its various impurities and 
then to identify the temperatures and pressures of different 
operating points along the pipeline and in different 
seasons. Special modifications to the classical equations of 
state may be needed to accurately predict the saturation 
pressure.
The designer can then predict how the supercritical 
or dense phase CO2 will decompress. When the fluid 
saturation line is encountered, the fluid becomes a boiling 
liquid that evolves large quantities of CO2 vapour, tending 
to maintain the pressure and causing the crack to “keep 
running”.
The figure below shows how GHD assessed this on a 
recent project.
As at mid-2023, it is possible that the industry leaders are 
reverting to highly corrected versions of the BTCM. GHD 
continues to track these developments.
The process begins during Concept stage, by defining 
fundamentals such as the injection pressure of the target 
geo-reservoir. This stage is dominated by the process 
of “Steady State Hydraulics”, which allows the pipeline 
diameter and design pressure to be nominally set and 
determines the need for mainline pump station(s).
Cost estimates using factored metrics from the natural gas 
pipeline industry allow the pipeline to be costed at this 
stage and if the overall CCUS project appears attractive, 
then pipeline design enters the next stage- FEED.
A CO2 pipeline FEED by GHD starts with a materials study, 
which identifies any special requirements such as stress 
corrosion cracking resistance and proposes a grade of 
steel that is likely to be optimal. API 5L Grade X65 is a 
likely starting point, however GHD checks in with pipe 
merchants at this stage to identify any trends in the market, 
which might promote a different strength steel, which may 
then increase or decrease wall thickness and therefore 
steel tonnage.
Also, during FEED, the pipeline route becomes “real”. 
Geographically localized threats to the safety of the 
pipeline are identified, as are nearby population centres. 
Advanced software such as PHAST™, SLAB™ and CHARM™ 
are utilised to simulate the release and abrupt partitioning 
of CO2 its gaseous and solid (snow) ambient phases and 
to examine how prevailing wind and topography might 
transport the plume over unexpectedly long distances. 
The effect of contaminants such as H2S that are potentially 
more dangerous than the CO2 itself is also considered. 
AS 2885 calls for a Safety Management Study to formalize 
this mile-by-mile risk assessment of the pipeline route, 
and GHD advocates this process for pipelines in all 
jurisdictions. The results from this process combine with 
further design inputs to produce a tentative wall thickness 
selection and the process then begins of designing the 
pipeline’s “fracture resistance”. A new generation of 
pipeline steels has appeared in the last few years. These 
offer stellar toughness as measured using the conventional 
“Charpy” test but are behaving unusually in some of the 
other standard material tests..


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DESCRIPTION
JFE’S MARTENSITIC CRA TUBING
JFE Steel is an integrated steel mill, having various type 
of steel product lineup. JFE is also a global supplier of 
martensitic stainless steel, especially for Oil Country 
Tubular Goods (OCTG) and has wide range of expertise 
for steel pipe materials and connection systems. OCTG 
were first manufactured and shipped at JFE Steel Chita 
Works in 1971. Since then, JFE has been developing and 
supplying martensitic CRA tubing globally. Starting from 
first 13Cr martensitic stainless sales in 1984, JFE has further 
developed with the expertise in the corrosion research 
the martensitic CRA materials, from modified 13CR (named 
JFE-HP2-13CR) up to 15CR-17CR (named JFE-UHP™-15CR 
and JFE-UHP™-17CR) and supplied to the operators of oil & 
gas industry with great satisfaction.
JFE’S PREMIUM CONNECTION
JFE’s connection development started in early 1980s. In 
the 1990s, JFE introduced the JFEBEAR™. More recently, 
in 2011, the JFELION™ connections were developed, 
designed to meet today’s toughest well conditions 
and industry testing protocols. These JFE’s flagship 
connections have been globally supplied over 400,000mt 
and 100,000mt, respectively, with satisfaction. In 2018, 
JFE have established the connection testing laboratory at 
JFE Connections America (JCA) to further accelerate the 
connection development and evaluation.
APPLICATIONS OF CRA TUBING AND CONNECTION TO 
CO2 UNDERGROUND STORAGE WELLS
With the growing global demand and necessity for carbon 
reduction, JFE sets great priority on the supplying of tubing 
and connection for the CO2 underground storage wells.
In general, CO2 accelerate the corrosion of injection tubing 
material because the CO2 decreases the pH of water. If 
other corrosive impurities such as SO2, NO2 and O2 are 
included in the CO2, severity to the CO2 tubing will be 
increased further.
JFE has evaluated their martensitic CRA grades including 
JFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR tubing where they 
have shown great CO2 resistant corrosion performance 
against certain CCS simulated environments. Some of the 
evaluation results were published in the technical paper1) 
for AMPP Annual Conference (former NACE International’s 
CORROSION Conference & Expo),and will be presented in 
the Eurocorr 2023 (The Annual Congress of The European 
Federation of Corrosion) as well. 
JFE has also evaluated the sealability performance on their 
robust JFELION™ connection simulating worst case thermal 
shock during CCS operations. JFELION™
showed seal performance even after temperature cycles 
between -35C/ambient temperature and rapid cooling with 
a temperature drop of 80 degrees Celsius.  
JFE has been involved intensely in the material selection 
discussion and supply of the tubing for CCS projects. 
Starting from 2008, JFE has supplied the CRA tubing with 
their premium connections to several CCS projects globally 
as shown below in Table 1.
JFE would continue to put weight on the investigation 
studies to establish further confidence in different impurity 
and water chloride levels depending on the CO2 source/
well environment. JFE is collaborating and discussing 
with the operators/industry for optimization and supply 
of the CRA tubing for future CCS projects, enhancing the 
worldwide storage capacity.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
JFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR Tubing have following benefits which could contribute the popularization of clients’ 
CCS projects.
•	
Tubing with corrosion resistance against CO2 with contaminated gas condition
•	
Lower cost compared to duplex stainless steel and higher CRA tubing
•	
Shorter delivery time compared to duplex stainless steel and higher CRA tubing
•	
Delivered with JFE’s robust premium connection such as JFEBEAR™ and JFELION™
JFE-UHPTM-15CR AND JFE-UHPTM-17CR TUBING
JFE Steel has been playing a key role of supplying the oil 
& gas industry with martensitic corrosion resistant alloy 
(CRA) tubing with their own robust premium connections. 
With the growing global demand and necessity for carbon 
reduction, JFE now sets great priority on the supplying of 
tubing and connection for the CO2 underground storage 
wells. JFE has evaluated their martensitic CRA grades 
including JFE-UHP™-15CR and JFE-UHP™-17CR tubing 
together with the JFELION™ connection for the application 
in CO2 underground storage wells, where they have shown 
great and promising performance for the usage. Starting 
from 2008, JFE has supplied the CRA tubing with their 
premium connections to several CCS projects globally 
to demonstrate the feasibility of CCS and increase the 
storage capacity. JFE would continue the collaboration and 
discussion with the customers/operators to contribute to 
the CCS projects.
CONTACT
Email: 	 h-takai@jfe-steel.co.jp
Web: 	
www.jfe-steel.co.jp/en/index.html
JFE STEEL CORPORATION
Figure 1: Example of CO2 Corrosion
CO2 Corrosion
No Corrosion
Carbon Steel After 1 year Operation
JFE Material After 1 Year Operation


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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REFERENCE
1.	
Yuichi Kamo, Kenichiro Eguchi and Hiroyuki Takai, “Corrosion Behavior of Martensite-Based Stainless Steels in 
Chloride Solutions Saturated with CO2 Containing Impurity Gases,” AMPP Annual Conference 2023, paper No. 18908 
(Denver, Colorado,2023)
YEAR
AREA
MATERIAL 
GRADE
OD 
(INCH)
WT (POUNDS/
FEET)
CONNECTION
PROJECT TYPE
2008
N. America
HP2-13Cr-95
7
29
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2009
N. America
HP2-13Cr-95
4.5
18.9
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2008
N. America
13Cr-80
9.625
47
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2009
N. America
13Cr-85
4.5
12.6
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2009
Oceania
L80-13Cr
5.5
17
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2014
Japan
L80-13Cr
3.5
12.7
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2014
Japan
HP2-13Cr-110
3.5
12.7
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2022
Oceania
HP2-13Cr-95M
3.5
9.2
JFEBEAR
Commercial
2022
Oceania
L80-13Cr
4.5
13.5
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2022
N. America
L80
9.5
47/53.5
API 5B
Pilot
2022
Europe
UHP17Cr-110
7
29
JFELION
Commercial
2023
Japan
HP1-13Cr-110
OD:2.375” ~ 7”
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2023
N. America
L80-13Cr etc.
OD:2.875” ~ 5.5”
JFEBEAR
Pilot
2024
Asia
HP1-13Cr-110
7
29
JFELION
Pilot
2024
Asia
UHP17Cr-110
7
29
JFELION
Commercial 
(Under discussion)
Table 1: JFE’s Steel Pipe Supply Record for CO2 Injection. (Include Projects Under Discussion)
Figure 2: Image of JFE-UHPTM-15CR and JFE-UHPTM-17CR
Figure 3: Image of JFE Premium Connection (JFEBEARTM, JFELIONTM)
Figure 4:  JFEBEARTM, JFELIONTM company logos


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DESCRIPTION
WHAT IS DUOLINE 20 GRE LINED TUBING?
Duoline 20 is a Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) composite 
liner, which is inserted inside steel tubing to protect it from 
corrosion due to CO2, free O2, H2S, chlorides, water, and 
other constituents which may exist in the process fluids. 
This tubing is used downhole in injection and production 
wells. Duoline GRE also mitigates solid deposition inside 
the tubing.
Tubing made Carbon steel, lined with Duoline 20 GRE, can 
be utilized instead of expensive chrome and higher alloy 
steel grades, which are often the appropriate material for 
resistance to CO2.
Duoline 20 GRE Lined tubulars have been successfully 
employed in a variety of applications where they have 
been exposed to extreme process conditions – high 
temperatures, high pressures, high concentrations of 
dissolved gases, high chlorides, and high flow rates as 
well as mechanical “stresses” during multiple downhole 
interventions. The success of the technology is based 
on extensive testing and trials conducted by operators 
worldwide over five decades.
Duoline GRE liners are a proven flow assurance enabler. 
Benefits derived from the properties of the system include 
elimination of solid deposition, higher flow rates, reduced 
frictional losses and higher fluid temperature retention. 
These are attributed to the smoother surface of the Duoline 
GRE compared to steel, as well as the added insulation 
provided by the layers of grout and GRE. Enhanced 
flow assurance allows a more consistent, uninterrupted 
injectivity rate.
Duoline GRE has been proven to withstand:
•	
Temperatures from -51 °C (-60 °F) to 144 °C (291°F)
•	
More than 300,000 ppm chlorides
•	
100% wet, dry and dense phase CO2
•	
Over 18,000 psi pressure
Duoline 20 has been a workhorse in CO2 injection 
wells since 1984. This track record provides significant 
experience for knowledge transfer into material selection 
for carbon injection and utilization downhole in global 
CCUS projects. 
DESCRIPTION 
The Duoline 20 Lining system consists of a fiberglass 
reinforced epoxy resin composite liner cemented inside 
low alloy carbon steel tubing. The cement transfers fluid 
pressure to the steel. The ends of the liner are protected 
from mechanical damage by end caps called flares. A 
polymeric Corrosion Barrier Ring extends the corrosion 
barrier across the coupling between two adjacent flares.
DUOLINE 20 GRE LINED TUBING IN CO2 INJECTION 
The first miscible CO2 Injection EOR project in Canada 
began in 1984 in the Joffre Viking Tertiary Oil Unit by 
Vikor Resources and the Alberta Oil Sands Technology 
and Research Authority. This is the first known successful 
application of fibreglass-lined tubing to combat CO2 
corrosion.
Since then, Duoline 20 has been used extensively by 
Equinor, ExxonMobil and Oxy in CO2 injection wells. In the 
United States, nearly 20 million feet of Duoline GRE Lined 
tubing has been used in CO2 injection wells. In 1996, Statoil 
were among the first to use Duoline GRE Lined Tubing in 
offshore Water Alternating CO2 (WAG) wells.
Duoline 20 has since become the gold standard for tubing 
material in CO2 injection wells, CO2 WAG wells, carbonated 
water injection wells and hydrocarbon producers with high 
CO2 concentrations. Duoline GRE has been tested and 
field-proven to withstand dense phase CO2 (wet and dry) 
and low pH solutions from dissolved CO2, for decades.
Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing offers attractive savings 
compared to capital intensive high-chrome materials that 
are often the metallic selection for CO2 applications. 
CCUS projects depend on dehydration of the CO2 gas 
to prevent corrosion. It is undoubtedly challenging to 
maintain the 100% absence of moisture downhole. The 
impact of residual water from the reservoir during shut-in 
of CO2 injection wells is also a concern. In such cases, the 
dehydration of the gas will prove ineffective in combatting 
corrosion downhole. This risk necessitates a pre-emptive 
corrosion prevention strategy. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
There are two distinct contributions that Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing can make to reducing the carbon footprint of a CCUS 
project.
•	
Firstly, Duoline 20 GRE lining provides a corrosion barrier which protects carbon steel tubing for decades. The 
combined system costs a fraction of chrome and higher alloy steel tubing. Additionally, unlike sensitive alloy steels, 
Duoline GRE liners will offer consistent corrosion protection irrespective of contaminants in the flue gases from 
different industrial sources over the life of the project. 
•	
Secondly, eliminating the use of chemicals for corrosion inhibition means eliminating carbon emissions from chemical 
manufacture, transportation, and injection into the wells over the life of the well.
The above benefits of applying Duoline 20 GRE Lined tubing in CCUS applications enable significant reductions in CAPEX 
and OPEX over the lifecycle of the wells. This in turn enhances the overall viability of the project.
DUOLINE 20® FIBERGLASS (GRE) LINED TUBING IN CO2 INJECTION AND SEQUESTRATION
As CCUS projects are driven by the common goal of 
reducing global carbon emissions, the technologies 
employed in these projects have a critical role to play 
in achieving this goal. In several cases, existing ageing 
infrastructure from oil or gas field projects is repurposed 
for injecting CO2 for up to five more decades. Maxtube 
provides a technology that contributes to increasing the 
longevity of the asset while reducing the cost and overall 
carbon footprint of the project. 
Maxtube Limited are the proud owners of Duoline 
Technologies in the United States. Duoline are the 
pioneers of Fiberglass (GRE) Internal Lining systems, used 
to prevent corrosion in downhole tubulars. Over 110 million 
feet of Duoline GRE lined tubing has been installed in over 
55,000 wells worldwide.
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccs@maxtube.com
Web: 	
www.maxtube.com
MAXTUBE


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Over the life of CCUS projects, it is expected that the 
injected gas may be contaminated with NOx, SOx and 
other contaminants from flue gases generated at various 
industrial sources. The performance of metallic alternatives 
is sensitive to variations in the composition of process 
fluids. Duoline GRE liners, on the other hand, will offer 
consistent corrosion resistance irrespective of variations in 
constituents over the life of the project. 
The selection of Duoline GRE lined tubing provides added 
insurance against potential process interruptions on the 
surface. Any disruption to surface facilities for dehydration 
or treatment of the injected gas will not interrupt CO2 
injection if the material used downhole is able to withstand 
all corrosive elements. It is also noteworthy that repairs due 
to avoidable downhole failures are far costlier and time-
consuming than repairs on the surface. Such cases justify 
the added insurance of Duoline GRE lining of tubing.
The above points demonstrate how Duoline GRE 
enhances the integrity and flow assurance of CO2 injection 
systems thereby reducing the overall carbon footprint of 
the project. Duoline GRE Lined tubing offers substantial 
value to the overall economic and environmental viability 
of CCUS projects. Whether the well is completed onshore 
or offshore, platform or subsea, Duoline GRE lining is a 
single solution for tubing corrosion prevention and flow 
assurance.
INDUSTRY AND REGULATORY AUTHORITY 
ENDORSEMENTS
Duoline GRE liners have been tested extensively for 
resistance to exposure to a variety of industry chemicals, 
full-scale combined loading inside tubing, pressure 
cycling, high erosional velocities, fatigue, and durability 
when exposed to downhole, coiled tubing and wireline, 
interventions. 
Saudi Aramco, Shell, BP, Eni, and Statoil have conducted 
tests to confirm the viability of Duoline 20 GRE lined tubing 
as an alternative to chrome alloy steels. 
Eni performed qualification tests on Duoline 20 GRE Lined 
tubing for high-velocity gas production. These include 
tests to confirm the erosion resistance and mechanical 
properties of Duoline GRE which proved that its fatigue 
resistance is about nine times higher than super-duplex 
stainless steel. Direct impact and straight pipe test 
results showed a very good resistance of Duoline GRE 
comparable to that of a Nickel Alloy 625 sample under 
similar conditions. 
BP performed comprehensive testing to demonstrate 
the fatigue resistance of the system. Duoline GRE lined 
assemblies were internally pressurized to 8,000 psi 
and exposed to one million load cycles. They were also 
subjected to ISO 13679 loading in the first quadrant. None 
of the assemblies showed any leaks or signs of damage to 
the GRE liner and the components in the connection area.
Duoline GRE has been used in wells with temperatures up 
to 145 °C (293 °F) and has also been tested for resistance 
to temperatures as low as -51 °C (-60 °F). The resistance of 
Duoline GRE to temperature swings is particularly relevant 
considering the phase change sensitivity of CO2 relative 
to temperature and pressure. Additional testing is planned 
to confirm the integrity of the system when exposed to 
uncontrolled flash freezing due to rapid pressure drop.
Operators have tested the compatibility of the Duoline 
20 GRE Lining System with several premium connections. 
These confirm that the Duoline’s GRE lining process 
and system components do not affect the connection 
dimensions, torque values and gas sealability. Duoline 
20 GRE Lining systems have been applied on premium 
connection tubing from Tenaris, Vallourec, JFE, and Voest 
Alpine, among others.
In the US, experience and good practices recorded in 
the field of CO2 injection are documented as regulatory 
alternatives and operating practices for the geological 
sequestration of CO2 by the United States’ Environmental 
Protection Agency (USEPA). Federal Requirements under 
the Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program for CO2 
sequestration wells, are codified in the US Code of Federal 
Regulations, known as the Geologic Sequestration Rule, 
which establishes a new class of injection well (Class VI) 
and sets minimum technical criteria and well construction 
guidelines for these wells for the purpose of protecting 
underground sources of drinking water (USDWs). This 
guidance describes the construction requirements for an 
approved Class VI injection well wherein GRE lined tubing 
is well accounted for.
VALUE ADDITION FROM FLOW ASSURANCE BENEFITS
Duoline GRE retains its surface smoothness over its life 
which retards, and even eliminates, the nucleation and 
subsequent deposition of solids such as scales, paraffins 
and hydrates on its surface hence enhancing flow 
assurance in wells.
Flow assurance benefits derived from Duoline 20 GRE 
Lining have also been attributed to the thermal insulation 
provided to the steel by the fiberglass and grout. Eni and 
Pertamina have published findings of higher temperature 
retention in wells with Duoline GRE lined tubing compared 
to bare steel tubing. 
For higher thermal insulation requirements, Duoline 
can engineer a lining solution compatible with Vacuum 
Insulated Tubing (VIT) to combine superior corrosion 
resistance with superlative thermal insulation.
Duoline GRE lining system has also been applied to 
flowlines. Eni, Shell, and Apache subsidiaries have been 
using Duoline GRE lined tubing to construct flowlines 
used for the transportation of oil and water. In a worldwide 
first, Shell constructed a high-pressure flowline network 
using premium connection tubing. In such a system, the 
combination of the metal-to-metal seal in the premium 
connection tubing, and the Duoline GRE backed by the 
steel body of the pipe, ensure that there is no permeation 
of dissolved gases through the flowline into the 
atmosphere.


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STORAGE 


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DESCRIPTION
CMG has been involved in subsurface modeling of the 
application of CO2 in the enhanced oil production since the 
late 1980’s centered around our GEM reservoir simulator. 
Following the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 a change in focus 
resulted in the forming of a research consortium between 
Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth 
(RITE) and Japan Oil Engineering and CMG to enhance 
GEM to produce the required capabilities allowing 
predictive modeling of the CO2 storage process in deep 
saline aquifers. 
Further investigations and extensions of the modeling 
environment at this time also led to the investigation of CO2 
injection into coal seams. This process provided two main 
benefits: The potential increase in methane production 
due to preferential replacement of the CH4 by CO2 on the 
coal surface; as well as the long-term storage of CO2 as it 
adhered to the coal surface. 
As the safety and liability frameworks were gradually 
created, understanding the ability to safely store CO2 
underground; the ability to contain the CO2 over extended 
periods of hundreds or even thousands of years; and 
the type of physical mechanisms that take place over 
both the short- and long-term storage, were crucial to 
moving the concept of aquifer storage forward. CMG’s 
GEM reservoir simulator, originally designed for oil and 
gas extraction modeling, was enhanced to provide the 
physical mechanisms required to simulate CO2 behavior in 
underground formations. This involved: 
•	
Detailed CO2 solubility calculations for the subsurface 
fluids; as well as molecular dispersion and diffusion 
models 
•	
Geochemical modeling to capture the geochemical 
interactions between the injected CO2; the reservoir 
fluids; and the minerals present in the aquifer rock. 
•	
Geomechanical analysis of the stresses induced 
to determine seal integrity and fault movement; 
reactivation of inactive faults leading to undesired flow 
and leakage.
•	
Temperature effect on fluid movement, geochemical 
reactions, and geomechanical response. 
•	
Coupling to surface facilities 
CMG’s CoFlow solution is an Integrated Reservoir & 
Production System Modelling software that allows detailed 
analysis of the well and pipeline systems feeding CO2 
into the subsurface, modelling steady state flow in the 
pipeline system. CoFlow’s multi-fidelity, multi-disciplinary, 
collaborative modeling environment, allows reservoir and 
production engineers to make informed decisions on large 
integrated oil and gas projects and is fully integrated with 
GEM to provide an end-to-end software solution to model 
CO2 transport and storage. 
For over 45 years, CMG has brought industry-first 
technologies to the market through extensive research 
and collaboration. In our recent collaboration, CMG joined 
hands with Kongsberg to form a research consortium with 
10 other oil and gas industry partners to investigate CO2 
storage in depleted oil and gas systems. This consortium 
has resulted in software that links Kongsberg’s LedaFlow 
transient pipe and well modeling product with CMG’s GEM 
reservoir simulator to accurately capture the CO2 behavior 
during transport and storage, focusing on the ability to 
start up and shut down injection operations safely and 
effectively. 
Further enhancements of CMG’s GEM simulator have also 
been developed over the years to allow for the additional 
complications of storage in the low pressure (and lower 
temperature) depleted oil and gas reservoirs
1.	
Pure CO2 behavior as well as impure mixtures, and the 
mixing with existing reservoir hydrocarbons. 
2.	 Rapid cooling to subzero temperatures around 
the injection wells and the consequences of such 
temperature changes to the local well environment 
and ability to inject. 
More recently, with the latest software development of 
Focus CCS, customers have access to a solution that 
supports their process from end-to-end, fast-tracks their 
time-to-value, and allows them to make business critical 
decisions regarding new CCS ventures, through faster and 
more efficient model creation, and automated regulatory 
reporting. 
CMG’s commitment to bringing industry-first solutions 
to market, coupled with high-quality user experience 
and expert customer support has always set us apart 
from the competition. CMG’s dedicated support team is 
comprised of practicing reservoir simulation engineers 
who will answer your questions, assist with installation 
and resolve technical issues to keep your business 
running smoothly. Our team of experienced and skilled 
professionals guide users through an immersive online 
or in-person learning process that builds capabilities that 
can be directly applied to real-world projects. Customer 
Success and Consulting experts average at least 10 years 
of engineering experience and offer over 30 courses that 
cover all recovery processes and reservoir challenges, with 
dedicated training facilities and global support.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
De-risk a range of Energy Transition projects related to CO2 storage; H2 storage and production; and geothermal 
processes 
•	
Analyse the subsurface uncertainties associated with injection and storage of CO2 
•	
Quantify the storage volumes; long term stability; and applicable injection rates for CO2 storage projects 
•	
Satisfy regulatory requirements through determining the long-term safe containment of CO2 
INNOVATORS IN SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY
Computer Modelling Group Ltd. (CMG) (TSX: CMG) is a 
global software and consulting company that combines 
science and technology with deep industry expertise to 
solve complex subsurface and surface challenges for the 
new energy industry around the world. For over 45 years, 
we have helped organizations unlock value from their 
assets through continuous innovation and consultation. 
Our expertise spreads across a broad spectrum of energy 
workflows, and our technology can help energy companies 
navigate this complex and changing landscape. CMG is 
headquartered in Calgary, AB, with offices in Houston, 
London, Dubai, Bogota, Bengaluru, and Kuala Lumpur. 
INNOVATION TO ADVANCE A NEW ENERGY SYSTEM 
Longer forecasting timescales, limited subsurface data, 
and public safety and environmental concerns increase the 
complexity of carbon storage projects exponentially. CMG’s 
20 years of experience in helping energy companies use 
CO2 injection to enhance oil recovery can be applied to 
accelerate the transition safely and effectively to a low-
carbon future. Our knowledge and real-world experience 
allow us to help companies in oil and gas and other 
carbon-intensive industries like refining, power generation, 
and manufacturing make the transition. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 Mark.Edmondson@cmgl.ca
Web: 	
www.cmgl.ca/; https://accelerate.cmgl.ca
CMG


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DESCRIPTION
Exploration Analyst is a straightforward Common Risk 
Segment mapping tool based in ESRI’s ArcMap or ArcPro 
that convolves any combination of geologic, environmental, 
regulatory, infrastructure, or other geospatial inputs to 
calculate storage volumetrics and Chance of Success on 
a map basis. Because Exploration Analyst has an easy-to-
master user interface and standard ESRI data structures 
it can be easily adopted and integrated into existing or 
evolving workflows. Exploration Analyst workflows can 
be standardized and shared and even run in batch. The 
concepts and functionality have been honed by decades 
of deployment in the hydrocarbon industry, with clear 
translation to carbon storage application. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Agnostic compilation of proprietary, vendor, and public data.
•	
Efficient integration of inputs from multiple disciplines that facilitates communication among diverse team members.
•	
Auditable conclusions that can be validated against well results.
•	
Volumetrics and risk evaluated in a single application.
•	
Inputs may be rigorously derived from data, loosely sketched from concepts, or anything in between.
•	
Workflows can be standardised and shared using Tasks, as well as run in batch using Exploration Analyst’s 
geoprocessing tools.
EXPLORATION ANALYST TO MAP AND EVALUATE STORAGE PLAY POTENTIAL
Exploration Analyst is an extension to Esri’s ArcMap and 
ArcGIS Pro software that assesses potential storage 
capacity, maps storage segments with common risk 
profiles, and high-grades storage areas with the best 
Chance of Success (COS). Exploration Analyst can 
validate COS maps against well results, calculate prospect 
volumetrics, perform multi-criteria block or lease analyses, 
as well as evaluate competitor positions and support 
portfolio strategy. Exploration Analyst creates individual 
COS layers for separate geological elements that 
contribute to successful storage, including reservoir, trap, 
and seal factors. Layers can be constructed from data or 
sketched from concepts, and are then combined into a 
geologic play-chance model. Additional environmental, 
regulatory, infrastructure, or other elements can be added 
to the analysis as required. Exploration Analyst provides 
a wide range of summary maps, graphs, and reports to 
quickly and intuitively communicate results.
CONTACT
Email: 	 Richard.Webb@getech.com
Web: 	
www.getech.com
GETECH
Risked storage capacity, by stratigraphic unit
Regional integrated Chance of Success


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DESCRIPTION
Getech prepares detailed regional  (102 - 105 km2) fault 
maps to support client evaluation of seal integrity and 
the potential for induced seismicity, as well as to guide 
additional, more detailed, investigations including the 
design of seismic monitoring networks and the acquisition 
of project specific 3D seismic surveys. The process begins 
with an inventory of existing Getech and client geophysical 
data, including gravity, magnetic, and seismic. The data 
are integrated and processed with advanced techniques 
including filtering, reduction to pole, and various derivatives 
appropriate to the specific local question addressed by 
the investigation.  Getech (alone, or in collaboration with 
the client) synthesize and evaluate available literature and 
other publicly available geoscience data against Getech 
global plate-tectonic models to establish a fundamental 
tectonic framework. Faults are interpreted from the 
processed geophysical data by human and machine 
methods, including by Automated Coherent Lineament 
Analysis and Selection (ACLAS, Cascone et al. 2017, 
Geophysics, v. 82. P. G87-G100, https://doi.org/10.1190/
geo2016-0337.1), and iteratively compared to topographic, 
remote-sensing, and geologic data to describe each fault 
according to its relative importance for compromising seals 
or inducing seismicity, and according to its kinematics. 
Individual faults are grouped into families of structures that 
share kinematic and activation histories. Fault-segment 
azimuths are compared to publicly-available regional stress 
orientations (± client local measurements, for example from 
image or caliper logs) to evaluate slip propensity. Fault 
interpretations are iteratively combined with 2D, 2.5D, 
and 3D inversion of gravity and magnetic data to sharpen 
the interpretation of subsurface lithologic geometry, 
including depth to significant boundaries, for example 
crystalline basement or clastic/carbonate transitions. The 
2.5D modelling also investigates lithologic variations 
within constrained geologic units via density (gravity) or 
susceptibility (magnetic) variation. Results are delivered in 
industry-standard, fully attributed, electronic files for a wide 
range of analytic platforms (for example ESRI ArcGIS, QGIS, 
Petrel, KINGDOM, Geographix, CPS3, IESX, SEG-Y, SPS, 
UKOOA, OGP, Landmark, ZMap and OpenWorks).
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Can be applied anywhere, even where seismic or well data are sparse.
•	
Existing Getech database, especially good in US Lower 48 onshore and shallow water, allows immediate project 
initiation without additional geophysical data acquisition.
•	
Total project time from kick-off to final delivery can be weeks instead of months or years.
•	
Existing Getech datasets are regionally consistent, they do not require compilation and QC of diverse legacy data, for 
example seismic surveys of varying vintage, quality and acquisition/processing parameters.
•	
Proven approach has been validated over many years in hydrocarbon and geothermal applications worldwide. 
REGIONAL FAULT MAPPING TO EVALUATE SEAL INTEGRITY AND INDUCED SEISMICITY RISK
Getech regional (102-105 km2) fault mapping starts with the 
world’s most comprehensive and quality-controlled gravity 
and magnetics database, applies advanced processing 
(including high-pass filtering, total horizontal derivative, and 
tilt angle), creates robust 2D, 2.5D, and 3D inversions, and 
picks potential faults using Automated Coherent Lineament 
Analysis and Selection (ACLAS), a process developed 
and published by Getech. Additional client geophysical 
data can be integrated to enhance the analysis, but is 
not required. Potential faults are iteratively validated and 
classified into temporal and kinematic families using 
available topographic, remote-sensing, and geologic 
(including seismic) data and Getech’s plate-tectonic 
models. Fault azimuths are compared to regional stress 
measurements to evaluate the chance for fault segments 
to be under extension or compression. The regional fault 
framework can be used on its own or serve as the basis 
for more detailed local interpretation, including planning 
seismic-monitoring networks or 3D seismic acquisition.
CONTACT
Email: 	 Simon.Campbell@Getech.com
Web: 	
www.getech.com
GETECH
Regional fault mapping symbolized by crustal scale and 
kinematics
Regional fault mapping symbolized by activation history


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DESCRIPTION
One of the initial challenges facing the global development 
of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is the identification 
and characterization of subsurface storage sites. While 
depleted oil and gas fields represent some of the best 
understood and commercially viable targets, there is simply 
not enough storage volume to tackle the scale of the 
challenge.  Saline formations are porous and permeable 
reservoir horizons that contain saline fluid as opposed to 
hydrocarbons and have a much larger storage potential. 
Fortunately, the concept of exploring for suitable saline 
formations shares many similarities with play-based 
exploration for hydrocarbon reservoirs. As part of the 
energy transition effort, our geoscientists have been 
focused on adapting traditional oil and gas workflows, 
gathering datasets, and investigating stratigraphy to help 
with CO2 storage identification. These workflows are 
underpinned by data and a global tectonostratigraphic 
model, combined with geoscience principles to enable a 
consistent global coverage of inputs for fairway analysis. 
Workflow results are collated together in storage atlases 
that provide immediate overviews of the storage potential 
and risks associated with assessed intervals. This enables 
a user to quickly familiarise themselves with the breadth of 
stratigraphic potential in a target area.
The consistent, reproducible screening workflows on 
CO2 Storage Screen, provide teams with an accelerated 
understanding of the subsurface and helps identify suitable 
saline aquifers for CO2 storage. The efficiency gains of 
cloud technology and leveraging a wealth of subsurface 
context, means that within minutes users can test storage 
concepts, investigate risks, and make informed decisions 
without significant investments of time and resources. 
The underpinning Neftex® Predictions context supports 
those without location specific subsurface understanding. 
In addition, comparing fairways via Prospective Storage 
Resource Calculation (PSR) provides initial ranking of play 
potential, allowing a user to quickly build a custom portfolio 
of storage targets anywhere around the world.
For users who wish to understand the deeper context, 
including the search for analogues or access to 
stratigraphy, tectonic or climate frameworks, a full 
subscription to Neftex® Predictions is recommended. This 
access will help the user gain a deeper understanding with 
the Neftex® interpretative framework and the wealth of 
conditioned and contextualised subsurface data. 
For more information on how DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 
Storage Screen or a comprehensive Neftex® subscription 
can meet the challenge of screening for suitable storage 
locations, please contact us.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Answer in minutes – Reduce the time required to generate a play fairway evaluation for CO2 storage potential from 
weeks to minutes, with comprehensive analysis, evaluation of multiple concepts and Prospective Storage Resource 
Calculation 
•	
Any play, anywhere - Model driven interpretive inputs allow global usage regardless of data coverage or exploration 
history
•	
Proceed with confidence – Identify suitable saline aquifers for CO2 storage with Neftex® Predictions unique integration
•	
Consistent analysis – Inputs supported by the Neftex® Predictions global tectono-stratigraphic framework deliver 
a consistent analysis regardless of differences in geography or stratigraphy
•	
	
Integrated assessment – Assess both the geographic and temporal distribution of play elements and risks related 
to reservoir, seal, supercriticality, or operations
•	
	
Connected workflows – Bring screened outputs into geospatial software or DecisionSpace® 365 applications
•	
	
Quickly tap into an area – Regional storage atlases provide immediate overviews 
•	
	
Portfolio risk and ranking
CO2 STORAGE SCREEN 
Screening, leading to site selection, is the first stage of the 
carbon sequestration workflow. This involves identifying 
stratigraphic units with storage potential and identifying 
locations with the greatest prospectivity. DecisionSpace® 
365 CO2 Storage Screen builds on over 20 years of 
subsurface insights to provide users with the subsurface 
context to rapidly screen sequestration targets around the 
world. Our screening inputs are derived from disparate, 
often siloed, publicly available data, combined with 
global subsurface models and geoscience principles, to 
extrapolate into white space and provide insight into data 
lean saline aquifers. Different stratigraphic units can be 
rapidly and uniformly assessed to test multiple scenarios 
or compare multiple fairways within the cloud hosted 
screening application. Storage volume calculations and 
risk assessments are collated in storage atlases to provide 
users with the understanding required to select potential 
storage intervals from an existing portfolio.
HALLIBURTON 
Play Fairway evaluation for 
CO2 storage potential
CONTACT
Scan the code to contact 
our Sustainability Experts


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DESCRIPTION
DWP takes well design and engineering through a standard 
process that can be customized for CCS well construction 
and design criteria. 
DWP’s offset well analysis enables the automated design 
of a new well by comparing operator defined KPIs and 
design parameters. It uses drag-drop capabilities to 
create a blueprint for the new design to automatically 
run engineering calculations for the new well. Offset well 
analysis includes:
•	
Casing depth selection
•	
Casing specifications
•	
Bottomhole Assembly (BHA) selection
•	
Fluid design
•	
Well barrier management
•	
Well operating parameters
DWP has detailed business process management 
workflows for the feasibility of a well prospect and the 
design of the well. A cloud based integrated suite of well 
construction technology, including EDT, takes the well 
construction process from trajectory design to completions 
design and analysis. Higher well construction performance 
is achieved by incorporating drilling decision optimization 
with integrated workflows.
WELLCAT™ SOFTWARE FOR CCS WELLS
WellCat™ software is part of the EDM suite and provides a 
precise solution for both wellbore analysis and integrated 
casing and tubing design. It calculates accurate downhole 
temperature and pressure profiles, which can be used for 
pipe-body movement and casing and tubing load analysis 
for production scenarios and CO2 injection. WellCat™ 
software helps understand various challenges in CCS wells 
and different load scenarios.
DRILLING DESIGN
The Drill Design module simulates flow and heat transfer 
during drilling operations, providing full transient analysis. 
CASING DESIGN
The Casing Design module analyzes casing loads, design 
integrity, and buckling behavior under complex mechanical, 
fluid pressure, and thermal-loading conditions with 
standard and automatic load-case generation. Analysis 
may be performed in conjunction with the Drill Design 
and Production Design modules, including tubingless 
configurations.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Digital Well Program® outcomes:
•	
Improved decision-making on drilling parameters using comprehensive and proven engineering
•	
Reduced time to select the optimum design by 60-80% due to running multiple design scenarios
•	
Automated workflows allow engineers to work on high value business decisions
•	
Perform advanced analysis through trusted Engineer’s Desktop™ computer software.
•	
Automatic update of design as new real time data is available
•	
Integration of the well plan with well site operations for real-time plan adjustments
Modelling and operational best practices can be leveraged to minimize the risk of chemical corrosion and mechanical 
property degradation. NETool™ software simulations enable an image of the expected behaviour of injected CO2 in specific 
reservoirs. Temperature, pressure, and flow of CO2 in the wellbore are estimated to ensure the injected CO2 remains within 
the safe boundaries. Preliminary CO2 injection screening and probabilistic system assessments help enable decisions in 
preliminary stages of a CCS project. 
CO2 STORAGE WELL CONSTRUCTION & INJECTIVITY TECHNOLOGY 
Digitally Integrated Well Construction is Halliburton’s 
approach to plan, design, and execute a well using 
Collaborative Well Engineering and Integrated Automation. 
As part of this approach, the Digital Well Program® (DWP) 
web based application integrates offset-well analysis with 
industry-proven engineering algorithms, and reporting 
tools to fast-track a cost-effective well program approval 
process and well delivery, while supporting continuous 
improvement of well design. Implementation of a DWP 
solution can help address most concerns including, reduce 
well program preparation time, increase well reliability, 
accelerate end-to-end well delivery, while lowering cost. 
CO2 injection modelling requires dedicated wellbore 
simulations to ensure operations are planned within 
safe and effective limits. NETool™ software is a steady-
state numerical simulator that provides user-friendly 
comprehensive modelling with the capabilities required for 
a simple vertical well, a long horizontal well, or a multilateral 
well with complex completions.
CONTACT
Scan the code to contact 
our Sustainability Experts
HALLIBURTON 


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ANNULAR BARRIER DESIGN
Halliburton offers a tiered portfolio of chemical barriers 
tailored to the injection plan and isolation zone of interest. 
These solutions include non-Portland solutions, such as 
ThermaLock™ cement system or WellLock® resin system, 
a resin-modified cement, CorrosaLock™ cement system, 
and a Portland based solution, CorrosaCem™ cement 
system. When combined with multi-stage cementing 
and mechanical barriers, additional benefits may result in 
maximized annular fluid separation, increased cement lift 
to surface, and the presence of a secondary barrier.
PRODUCTION DESIGN (INJECTIVITY AND FLOW 
ASSESSMENTS)
This module simulates fluid and heat transfer during 
completion, production, injection, stimulation, testing, 
and well-service operations. Transient and steady-state 
analysis for single-phase and multiphase flow can be done 
with initial conditions defined by thermal results from the 
Drill Design module. It also offers linked analyses with the 
Tube Design and Casing Design modules. New collapse 
load assessments are incorporated (Bureau of Safety and 
Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), Well Containment 
Screening Tool (WCST)). 
TUBE DESIGN
The Tube Design module analyzes tubing loads and 
movements, buckling behavior, and design integrity 
under complex mechanical, fluid-pressure, and thermal-
loading conditions with standard and automatic load-case 
generation. Tube Design offers linked analyses with the 
Production Design module.
MULTI-STRING DESIGN
The Multi-string Design module predicts pressure and 
volume changes due to annular pressure buildup (APB) 
when the well system heats up as a result of drilling or 
production operations or the injection of hot fluids into 
the well. The Multi-string Design module determines the 
movement that occurs at the wellhead during the life of the 
well. Analyses are linked to Drill Design, Production Design, 
Tube Design, and Casing Design modules.
NETOOL
™ SOFTWARE
NETool™ software is a steady-state numerical simulator that 
provides comprehensive modeling for the most complex 
wells. Designed for completion engineers operating 
CO2 injection wells, this tool is a highly detailed wellbore 
and completion simulator for CO2 storage design. From 
injection well design to execution control, it incorporates 
the functionality required for all phases of injectivity 
planning and operations. It manages outflux injection 
profiles along the wellbore, which gives a clear picture 
of the CO2 injection zones, especially in horizontal wells. 
Its compositional simulation provides accurate phase 
behaviour in changing pressure–temperature conditions 
along the wellbore and built–in component properties 
allow for the creation of high complexity EOS models. 
Figure 1: Digital Well Program® - Offset Well Analysis 
Figure 2: Digital Well Program® - Design Feasibility (Plan)
Figure 3: WellCat® Software 
Figure 4: NETool™ Completions and CO2 Phase Behaviour Analysis


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DESCRIPTION
The DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Solution optimizes 
modelling and interpretation at each critical stage of 
the CO2 life cycle using a flexible approach to accessing 
tools. The solution facilitates specific workflows designed 
between applications to optimize modelling and create 
greater efficiency for timely results and decisions.
Within the umbrella of CO2 Storage Solution, CO2 Storage 
Plume is an integrated suite of high-resolution modelling 
tools and simulators for CO2 storage exploration, 
monitoring, and prediction. The software addresses key 
aspects of CO2 storage workflows: formation storage 
prospecting, capacity estimation, well injectivity, formation 
pressurization, plume trapping, and dissolved CO2 
dispersal. 
•	
Prospect for new storage sites 
•	
Assess capacity and containment for CO2 storage
•	
Match storage monitoring data 
•	
Predict the long-term fate and risks of a storage site in 
the post-operational phase 
CO2 
Migration 
simulator: 
A 
CO2-adapted 
invasion 
percolation simulator for free-phase plume modelling. CO2 
Migration is built on the state-of-the-art Permedia® CO2 
migration simulator, providing extremely high-resolution 
models of gravity-segregated plume distributions in 
heterogeneous storage settings. 
CO2 BOS simulator: A fast multi-threaded Black Oil 
Simulator, developed to specifically handle CO2 storage 
and solubility. Specially adapted for two-phase plume and 
brine modelling, CO2 BOS addresses reservoir engineering 
workflows for CO2 modelling in saline formation settings. 
It is specifically tuned to run CO2 injection out-of-the-box, 
with built-in CO2 injection scheduling, PVT, and solubility 
handling. 
CO2 Flow simulator: CO2 Flow is a high-resolution 
hydrodynamic solver for modelling CO2 storage related 
pressure changes. With a well modelling scheme that 
handles CO2 injection rates and injection interval pressures, 
CO2 Flow offers a high-resolution regional simulation 
for testing the boundary conditions of high-resolution 
heterogeneous meshes for regional pressure models. 
CO2 Dashboard: CO2-specific equation-of-state and PVT 
wizard for initializing simulations. The CO2 Dashboard 
is used to initialize model conditions: gas and brine 
phase density, compressibility, viscosity, solubility, and 
interfacial tension. The wizard has been validated against 
several published works containing both theoretical and 
experimental data. Initial model conditions for these key 
properties can be automatically transferred from the 
Dashboard to the CO2 simulators.
MODEL CALIBRATION 
The iSTAR™ intelligent drilling and logging platform and 
wireline Xaminer® (XSI™, XMR™, STX™, RDT™) services 
provide the necessary detailed rock and fluid properties, 
structure and fault analysis, rock mechanics, pressures, 
and samples to characterize and simulate a CO2 storage 
site fully Integrated rock analysis provides detailed 
heterogeneity and texture mapping to logs and fast CO2 
relative permeabilities and sensitivity to advance simulation 
while waiting for physical core. 
The ability to “see” small quantities of CO2 outside the 
injection reservoir is critical for confirming well integrity and 
that no CO2 has entered diffusion or aquifer zones above 
the injection reservoirs. 
IntelliSat™ pulsed neutron logging service is Halliburton’s 
latest generation Multi-Detector pulsed neutron tool 
that provides accurate and robust Sigma, Hydrogen 
Index and Carbon/Oxygen ratios from the wellbore 
environment. It also measures individual energy yields for 
aluminium, carbon, silicon, oxygen, and 21 other discrete 
elements. This is the only tool that gives definitive change 
in saturation which will impact injection conformance 
monitoring and update to simulations.
A strong differentiator of Halliburton’s IntelliSat™ pulsed 
neutron logging service is the use of a third detector. 
This Long detector is designed to read primarily neutron 
interactions in a partially gas filled environment given 
the low density of gas. This gas saturation measurement, 
SatG™ (Chen, Jacobson, Guo, SPWLA-2015-AAA), derived 
from long inelastic count rates, is even more sensitive 
in the presence of CO2. A methodology derived by 
Halliburton for CO2 injection in depleted gas zones yields 
a SatQ, (Quintero, Guo, Gales SPWLA-2022-0091) which 
represents the CO2 saturation in the near borehole region, 
exclusively.
The tool’s superior and unique resolution of 2% (Sigma, 
C/O) allows for detection of minute changes in CO2 
saturation whether the injection is in depleted gas or water 
zones.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Plume leverages Permedia® CO2 software to couple robust reservoir, CO2 migration, 
and customized black oil simulators with an easy-to-use interface. These are integrated through a single wizard to help 
users set up simulation parameters and runs with easy-to-follow workflows. 
CO2 Storage Plume is flexible and able to consume existing models in a variety of data types. It allows the user to complete 
an end-to-end CO2 workflow for prospecting, regional pressure modelling, plume modelling, and injection modelling. 
STORAGE CHARACTERIZATION AND PLUME SIMULATION
DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 Storage Solution is a highly 
flexible cloud-based solution designed to evolve and grow 
with the needs of the industry as CO2 projects are initiated 
and developed. 
It is designed to facilitate data interpretation, modeling, 
and design of a CO2 storage site from the first stages of 
site selection to site characterization, scenario modelling 
for storage resources estimation and containment and CO2 
injection assessments. 
Understanding CO2 displacement in injection intervals is 
important for developing effective injection strategies and 
estimating storage capacity. Detailed storage resource 
information is updated into DecisionSpace® 365 CO2 
Storage Plume software to update and confirm simulation 
models. Key information acquired by Halliburton’s 
iSTAR™ intelligent drilling and logging platform and 
wireline Xaminer® logging services provide the detailed 
characterization and data to model a CO2 storage site.
HALLIBURTON 
Sleipner Plume Visualization
CONTACT
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DESCRIPTION
The safe and successful design and operation of 
CO2 injection and observation wells requires careful 
consideration of several technical challenges. To maintain 
well integrity, it is essential to understand the reservoir and 
factors such as caprock integrity, potential leak paths, and 
legacy, plugged, and abandoned (P&A) wells. 
Analyzing cement condition and bonding confirms 
zonal isolation and/or identifies the possibility of fluid 
migration through channelling or poor cement areas. 
These technologies are acoustic, therefore are affected 
by the fluids, solids, and scaling material in the well. The 
Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool (CAST™) is an 
ultrasonic tool that provides high-resolution images in 
cased holes. The tool’s interchangeable head rotates a full 
360° and contains a high-frequency acoustic transducer 
to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the pipe and 
cement. The CAST™ tool determines the casing thickness 
for pipe inspection and determines the type of material in 
the annular space between the casing and borehole wall. 
Advanced software analysis is available which can provide 
additional information on cement bond and well integrity.
Halliburton’s Radial Cement Bond Log (RCBL™) tool 
captures downhole data to ensure a reliable cement-bond 
evaluation for a full range of thru-tubing logging and casing 
completions, from small diameter tubing to large casings.
The Halliburton Electromagnetic Pipe Xaminer® V (EPX™ 
V) pipe inspection service quantifies metal loss in one 
to five concentric strings of pipe in a wellbore using 
accurate High-Definition Frequency (HDF) technology. This 
capability and 1 11/16” OD enable examining the whole well 
in one trip and assessing pipe condition quickly through 
tubing. This unmatched capability enables customers to 
reduce diagnostic time, obtain comprehensive information 
for monitoring programs, and determine the right solution 
for a nonconformity in their completion.
With the DataSphere® monitoring systems platform, 
Halliburton delivers a broad portfolio of highly accurate, 
Quartz based sensor solutions that give advanced 
pressure and temperature insights. This extensive portfolio 
is AWES certified and includes LinX® behind casing 
wireless monitoring, Opsis® tubing deployed gauges, and 
industry leading DataSphere Array multi-point pressure 
temperature allowing for distributed pressure sensors 
across all injection intervals. The various sensor solutions 
within the DataSphere platform feature field proven, 
robust solutions including single billet mandrels with 
no connection, full redundancy, a range of metallurgy 
and thread connections, and unparalleled deployment 
options allowing for reliable, efficient installation. These 
sensor solutions combine to provide zonal connectivity 
insights, CO2 migration patterns, and reliable life of well 
confirmation of containment.
Advanced solutions that encompass an array of monitoring 
tools, including Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), 
Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS), microdeformation 
monitoring (tiltmeters, GNSS, InSAR), and Microseismic 
monitoring, providing accurate insights.
DAS monitors acoustic signals within the wellbore to 
identify potential leaks and establish their exact locations, 
while DTS tracks temperature changes that signify 
fluid movement and possible leak points. Collectively, 
they provide a thorough understanding of the wellbore 
environment to facilitate early detection and remediation of 
wellbore integrity issues.
The risks of out of zone injections (OOZI), where CO2 
migrates beyond the target storage area, may pose 
potential threats to the environment and storage integrity. 
DAS and DTS help monitor and detect OOZI. DAS senses 
variations in fluid movement and pressure that may 
indicate CO2 migrating out of the target zone, while DTS 
identifies temperature anomalies related to out of zone 
CO2 migration. By utilizing these tools, rapid detection is 
enabled, to help ensure containment and conformity.
Microseismic monitoring plays a critical role in caprock 
integrity 
monitoring 
by 
capturing 
and 
analyzing 
microseismic events to detect fracture propagation and 
fluid migration within the caprock. Combining surface 
microseismic monitoring with DAS microseismic improves 
event detectability and location accuracy, ensuring a 
comprehensive understanding of subsurface dynamics 
and enhancing caprock integrity protection.
Old, inaccessible legacv wells can be monitored with 
surface 
techniques 
and 
far-field 
microdeformation 
techniques. These measurements provide a svstematic 
approach to caprock and well integrity monitoring.
Downhole and surface sensors combine to provide a 
robust and integrated solution, which will deliver valuable 
reservoir insights as well as superior performance and 
enhanced well-monitoring capabilities. With our MMV 
solutions, our customers can have confidence in the 
reliability and accuracy of their implemented monitoring 
systems to enable optimal CCS operations.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
Benefits from the holistic cap rock and well integrity monitoring system can be outlined as follows:
•	
Comprehensive azimuthal cement evaluation to insure injection zone isolation and containment with CAST™ 
(Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool)
•	
Radial bond log and baseline tubular inspection for time lapse comparison of erosion and/or corrosion with EPX™ 
(Electromagnetic Pipe Xaminer®, CAST™ or MFC (multi-finger caliper)
•	
Active pressure and temperature monitoring in the wellbore, multi-point P/T across the reservoir, caprock and in 
A-annulus and/or B-annulus with DataSphere® Opsis®, Array and LinX®
•	
Active well integrity monitoring with LinX®, DTS and DAS
CAPROCK AND WELL INTEGRITY MONITORING: SUBSURFACE (IN-WELL) MMV SOLUTIONS
Well integrity plays a vital role in the profitability of a project 
or asset. Regular well inspection provides assurance of 
the system’s integrity and containment, which reduces 
uncertainties and risks associated with CO2 storage 
like erosion from drilling or workovers, corrosion, and 
geomechanics constraints. Unexpected well damage 
or containment issues can jeopardize assets and CO2 
containment.
Caprock and well integrity are critical monitoring objectives 
for MMV (Measurement, Monitoring and Verification) plans. 
Well sensor measurements acquired with DataSphere® 
monitoring systems, as well as Distributed Temperature 
Sensing (DTS) fiber optics and Distributed Acoustic 
Sensing (DAS) provide a holistic monitoring approach 
where both tubular and caprock leaks can be determined 
in real time. A downhole system can be combined with 
seabed monitoring solutions such as tiltmeters and seismic 
to design a system that is scalable alongside the CO2 
injection radius growth.
HALLIBURTON 
•	
Ability to monitor far field cap rock condition with DAS Microseismic
•	
Combining surface pressure measurements with tiltmeter microdeformation monitoring, available both on land and 
subsea, results in robust caprock monitoring
•	
Approach for legacy, plugged, and abandoned wells for well integrity screening with Microdeformation monitoring
•	
Integrate with Clariti® View to provide a seamless solution to access Array sensor data remotely from any device, 
without having to install or maintain the infrastructure necessary. The monitoring platform stores data in a secure cloud 
and provides access via the Clariti View visualization dashboard, where the operator can view live data, download 
historic data and set alert triggers to stay ahead of any remediation needs. This also helps ensure the operator meets 
regulatory agency reporting requirements with up-to-date information.”
CONTACT
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our Sustainability Experts


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DESCRIPTION
Conformance and containment, pillars of any MMV plan, 
must be ensured to achieve a successful CCS operation. 
Conformance can be achieved by ensuring the injected 
CO2 behavior in the storage complex matches the models, 
while containment is fulfilled by putting in safeguards 
to have the CO2 plume confined in the reservoir and 
preventing any uncontrolled release of fluids through the 
primary or secondary seals. To achieve conformance and 
containment, the CO2 plume needs to be monitored and 
tracked throughout the lifetime of the project, while also 
monitoring caprock integrity.
Given its higher resolution and image quality, VSP (Vertical 
Seismic Profiling) is an effective tool for monitoring 
and tacking the CO2 plume. DAS has emerged as a 
cost-effective alternative to conventional VSP, offering 
comparable imaging quality. Halliburton offers FiberVSP™ 
service, a DAS based VSP solution, that when combined 
with other monitoring tools, provides a comprehensive 
approach to monitor and track the CO2 plume.
Key Features of Halliburton’s FiberVSP™ service:
•	
DAS enables the capture of high-resolution subsurface 
images, which is essential for accurate CO2 plume 
tracking and caprock integrity monitoring. Featuring a 
denser sensor array than traditional geophones, DAS 
collects extensive, top-quality data with exceptional 
spatial and temporal resolution
•	
By requiring a much smaller footprint at the wellsite, 
DAS offers a cost-effective solution for VSP surveys to 
enable more repeatability
•	
To 
address 
diverse 
CCS 
applications 
and 
environments, the fiber optic cable can be permanently 
installed for long-term monitoring or deployed for 
temporary surveys, providing flexibility in MMV plans
In conjunction with FiberVSP™ service, Halliburton offers 
Microdeformation Monitoring as an additional tool for CO2 
plume and caprock integrity monitoring. This technology 
has been in commercial use for over 30 years and is robust 
across a wide range of formation properties. It provides 
valuable model calibration data and is more cost-effective 
than repeat seismic surveys.
Continuous CO2 injection could potentially cause fluid 
migration in formations either by moving through the rock 
matrix or by opening a fracture system. Both processes 
result in rock motion transmitted elastically in all directions, 
which can be detected at the ground surface or seabed 
with precise measurements. These insights are essential to 
ensure the containment and conformity of CCS initiatives.
Three main technologies in Microdeformation Monitoring 
—tiltmeters, GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems), 
and InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar)—
can be combined to optimize monitoring programs. They 
offer reliable caprock breach detection, long-term fluid 
balance tracking, and calibration values for reservoir and 
fracture growth models. Each one contributes to MMV plan 
compliance in CCS projects.
Tiltmeters are extremely sensitive instruments used to 
map hydraulic fracture orientation for treatments as deep 
as 5000 meters and provide rough locations of fluid 
volumetric centers for shallower processes. These sensors 
can be used on surface, downhole, or marinized to be used 
for seabed deformation monitoring.
GNSS, which includes the United States’ GPS constellation, 
has a lower measurement resolution than tiltmeters but 
can be integrated into a tiltmeter array to limit long-term 
measurement uncertainties. The advantages of GNSS 
include three-axis measurements and absolute output 
relative to a global frame of reference. Incorporating a 
few GNSS measurements into a tiltmeter provides both 
short-term sensitivity and confidence in deformation 
measurements over project timescales.
InSAR uses radar measurements, primarily from purpose-
built satellites or airborne systems, to measure motion 
at near GNSS levels of sensitivity over a large area with 
fine pixel resolution. Dense coverage ensures that areas 
requiring higher precision monitoring are not overlooked.
The combination of tiltmeters, GNSS, and InSAR 
technologies offers a comprehensive and adaptable 
solution for monitoring caprock and well integrity in CCS 
projects. By leveraging these techniques, operators can 
help ensure MMV plan compliance and promote the long-
term viability and safety of CCS initiatives.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Comprehensive monitoring: Combining FiberVSP™ with Microdeformation Monitoring techniques offers a robust 
approach for tracking CO2 plumes and ensuring caprock integrity throughout CCS projects
•	
Model calibration: Microdeformation Monitoring provides valuable data for calibrating reservoir and fracture growth 
models to enhance the accuracy of predictions
•	
Early leak detection: FiberVSP™ and Microdeformation Monitoring technologies contribute to swift identification and 
precise localization of leaks, allowing for timely remediation
•	
Improved safety and containment: By effectively tracking fluid movement and detecting potential breaches, FiberVSP™ 
and Microdeformation Monitoring help ensure the CO2 plume remains confined within the reservoir
CAPROCK INTEGRITY & CO2 PLUME MONITORING: SURFACE/SEABED MMV SOLUTIONS 
Conformance and containment are crucial for successful 
CCS operations and require CO2 plume monitoring 
and caprock integrity throughout the project’s lifetime. 
Halliburton’s 
FiberVSP™, 
a 
Distributed 
Acoustic 
Sensing (DAS) based solution, captures high-resolution 
subsurface images and provides a cost-effective, versatile 
approach for CO2 plume tracking. When combined with 
Microdeformation 
Monitoring 
technologies—tiltmeters, 
GNSS, and InSAR—offer reliable caprock breach detection, 
long-term fluid balance tracking, and calibration values 
for reservoir and fracture growth models to ensure 
MMV (Measurement, Monitoring and Verification) plan 
compliance.
HALLIBURTON 
Microdetormation measurement through Tiltmeters
CONTACT
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DESCRIPTION
Since relatively few carbon sequestration projects are 
online to use as analogs, the subsurface assessments 
of these projects rely heavily on reservoir simulation. 
Geoscience and engineering teams collaborate to build 
geocellular models and upscale for dynamic simulation of 
storage reservoirs.
NSAI has built hundreds of models and has efficient, fit-for-
purpose workflows that can tailor a model to the specific 
needs of any client. These models can provide insight into 
key reservoir uncertainties pre-injection or deep insight 
into storage mechanisms once history-matched to actual 
performance data.
NSAI is also an industry leader in gas storage evaluations in 
North America. We have worked over 40 storage projects 
for our clients, assisting in area of review (AoR) updates, 
identifying and resolving wellbore issues, field studies, 
litigation, and more.
This experience has given NSAI a thorough understanding 
of all storage containment issues, with expertise in studies 
to support initial permitting and ongoing regulatory 
obligations. Additionally, NSAI has prepared thousands of 
reports using the definitions of the Petroleum Resources 
Management System (PRMS) of the Society of Petroleum 
Engineers (SPE). The SPE’s classification system for CO2 
storage, the Storage Resources Management System 
(SRMS), closely parallels the PRMS, and commerciality of 
projects is a key aspect.
Beyond storage fees, tax credits, and government 
subsidies, CCS projects evaluated under SRMS can be 
coupled with a revenue- and CO2-generating project for 
commercial determinations. NSAI’s time-tested processes 
for evaluating project technical and economic aspects are 
highly respected in the investor community.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Experience – NSAI has over 60 years of experience in integrated subsurface studies, providing technical and advisory 
services for clients in over 100 countries, both onshore and offshore. NSAI has evaluated dozens of natural gas 
storage projects and more than 10 permanent CO2 sequestration projects.
•	
Reputation – NSAI is known for the high quality of our work, the excellent service we provide to our clients, our strong 
respect for confidentiality, and our independence from the clients and properties for which we prepare evaluations.
•	
Expertise – NSAI has the technical skills needed for all subsurface aspects of CCS projects, including well planning, 
regional geology characterization, local geologic structural mapping, storage reservoir characterization, log and core 
data analysis, fluid PVT analysis, static and dynamic simulation modeling, and injection performance surveillance.
•	
Trusted Analysis and Advice – At NSAI, our goal is to be more than just a consultant; we strive to be a trusted advisor 
to our clients through full project life cycles and beyond.
GEOLOGIC MODELING, RESERVOIR SIMULATION AND CARBON STORAGE CERTIFICATIONS
Whether injecting into depleted hydrocarbon-bearing 
formations or into regionally extensive aquifers, NSAI has 
the expertise to certify the subsurface aspects of your 
carbon capture project. As a leader providing petroleum 
engineering and geology evaluation services to industry for 
over 60 years, NSAI staff can bring to bear an unparalleled 
skill set.
NSAI has geological staff that are experts at seismic 
interpretation and integration of well data to map 
formations, as well as reservoir engineering teams that are 
experts in dynamic modeling of fluid flow and CO2 storage 
processes. NSAI also employs specialized economic 
modeling software and capabilities to accurately quantify 
project value.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@nsai-petro.com
Web: 	
www.netherlandsewell.com
NETHERLAND, SEWELL & ASSOCIATES, INC.
NSAI integrated geologic modeling and reservoir simulation of Sleipner Field CCS Project CO2 plume migration.


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DESCRIPTION
CARBON STORAGE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
In a low-carbon environment, underground CO2 storage 
has the potential to be a cash-flow generating asset. This 
includes both mature, operational CCS projects as well as 
immature, future CCS projects. Like all corporate assets, 
CO2 storage owners should track and estimate the value 
of all CO2 storage assets. Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resources Management solution enables CCS operators 
to analyze the capacity of their CO2 storage assets and 
understand how that capacity is changing over time.
Benefits
•	
Track and analyze the full portfolio of CO2 storage 
assets – Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources 
Management application serves as a single source of 
truth for a full portfolio of CO2 storage assets.
•	
Supports SPE’s CO2 Storage Resources Management 
System (SRMS) - align with the industry standard 
framework for managing and reporting CO2 storage 
resources.
•	
Spend less time gathering data – engineers will have 
more time to analyze storage resources data and 
support decision-making.
•	
Reduce risk of data entry errors – company-specific 
data quality checks to identify errors early in the data 
gathering workflow. 
•	
Scalable for companies of all sizes - from small 
independents to international supermajors, companies 
around the world can take advantage of our solution.
•	
Future proof your CO2 storage business – capture 
and report CO2 storage resource estimates in a 
structured manner in preparation for future regulatory 
requirements.
Description
Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management is 
a cloud-based solution that captures storage estimates 
across a resource owner’s full portfolio of assets from 
mature, operational projects to less mature contingent or 
prospective storage resources. It is a best practice for a 
resource owner to gather estimates for all storage assets 
– to understand their value in the context of all corporate 
assets and prioritize investment accordingly.
The capacity of CO2 storage assets changes year-over-
year for a variety of reasons such as reservoir performance 
or economic conditions. Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resources Management solution reconciles year-over-
year changes allowing a CO2 storage owner to understand 
which factors are driving fluctuations in estimated reservoir 
capacity. The diagram below illustrates the change in CO2 
storage estimates over the course of a year. The starting 
estimate is represented by the bar on the left side. The 
ending estimate is represented by the bar on the right side. 
The items in between reconcile the difference in starting 
and ending estimates due to technical or economic factors:
Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management 
application is an extension of one of Quorum’s world-class 
software applications. Our application, Quorum Reserves, 
is used by oil and gas producers to track, estimate, and 
analyze oil and gas volumes in underground reservoirs. 
The same technology in Quorum Reserves has been used 
for Quorum’s Carbon Storage Resources Management 
software application.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
In-depth analysis to support decision-making
•	
Understand the value of your assets and unlock their hidden value
•	
Greater consistency across asset teams
•	
Spend less time compiling data and ensuring data quality
•	
Transparency and governance to your data and processes
•	
Future-proof your business as the energy transition accelerates
CCUS OFFERINGS BY QUORUM
Quorum Software is a leading provider of energy software 
worldwide, serving more than 1,800 customers across the 
entire energy value chain in over 55 countries. Quorum’s 
solutions power growth and profitability for energy 
businesses by connecting people, workflows, and systems 
with decision-ready data. Twenty years ago, we delivered 
the industry’s first software for gas plant accountants, 
and today our solutions streamline business operations 
with industry-forward data standards and integrations. 
The global energy industry trusts Quorum’s experts and 
applications to successfully navigate the energy transition 
while delivering value today and into the future. 
For more information, visit www.quorumsoftware.com.
Quorum is developing solutions for the energy transition 
in many different areas including a) Carbon Capture, 
Utilization, and Sequestration b) Corporate Planning & 
Strategy c) Emissions Management d) Hydrogen & RNG, 
and e) Utility Scale Renewables. Below we outline a portion 
of our energy transition portfolio specific to CCUS. For a 
complete picture, please see our website:
https://www.quorumsoftware.com/solutions/energy-
transition/
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@quorumsoftware.com
Web: 	
www.quorumsoftware.com
QUORUM SOFTWARE


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PETROVR
Planning and developing Carbon Capture, Utilization and 
Storage projects necessitates the integration of the input 
of many technical and commercial functions. The quality 
of this integration, together with the ability to assess 
effectively and transparently all alternative development 
options, is essential to maximising the value of these 
projects. Furthermore, these projects are fraught with 
uncertainties, from the storage capacity, the costs and 
performance of all the wells and facilities involved as well 
as scheduling of the execution and operational activities. 
Throughout the maturation of these projects, storage 
owners are faced with decisions such as how many CO2 
injection wells are needed, what should the capacity of 
transmission pipelines and/or processing facilities be, and 
how to manage risks associated with the development? 
Each of these decisions will impact the success of the 
project both in terms of financial success and amount of 
CO2 that can be captured and safely stored. Quorum’s 
PetroVR application empowers engineers and planners 
to assess and compare all the development alternatives 
available, factoring in the impact of the risks and 
uncertainties into the decision-making process throughout 
the maturation process of these large and complex CCUS 
projects. 
Benefits
•	
Enhance CCUS project evaluation through integrating 
simulation covering all technical and commercial 
aspects in one single application.
•	
Streamline CCUS project evaluation by integrating 
simulation of all technical and commercial aspects into 
a single, comprehensive application.
•	
Improve the quality of the CCUS project development 
decisions throughout the project maturation process 
with the ability to assess and compare transparently 
and consistently the various development alternatives 
available, understand the trade-offs between these, 
and select the one that fits best your corporate 
strategic objectives. Understand the impact of the 
project risks and uncertainties and factor this into the 
decision-making process.
•	
Simulate the development of your CCUS project under 
uncertainties through Monte Carlo analysis.
•	
Manage production goals and net-zero commitments 
– actualize the challenges of net-zero development 
with easily configurable tooling to enable development 
planning and production optimization.
Description
Quorum’s PetroVR application is a comprehensive full-
cycle, integrated simulation software for exploration and 
development projects including specific functionalities to 
cover the CCUS use-case. 
PetroVR is built on more than 20 years of oil & gas field 
development experience. It permits engineers and 
planners to configure the model of their asset as necessary 
to reflect specific areas of complexity. It has an integrated 
simulation capability where users can specify any object 
and associated activities necessary to model their project 
throughout its life cycle. This includes reservoirs, wells, and 
facilities but also specific CO2 storage: CO2 injection wells 
and CO2 injection facilities. An illustration is provided in the 
figure below.
The application simulates the project execution and 
operation in a time step fashion covering the entire life of 
the project, consistently applying inputs, constraints and 
rules as specified by the user and thereby computing the 
expected production and injection volumes as well as 
the associated costs incurred through time, allowing the 
assessment of the economic viability of the project.
Storage Resources Management Standard (SRMS)
The Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) has developed 
a common framework for resource owners to account 
for CO2 storage resources called the Storage Resources 
Management Standard (SRMS). Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resources Management application aligns with the SRMS 
framework.
The above diagram illustrates the structure of the SRMS 
framework. It has two axes. The vertical axis indicates the 
maturity of a CCS project which is measured by the chance 
of commerciality. The most mature projects are accounted 
for as “capacity”, followed by ‘contingent storage 
resources’ and finally the least mature “prospective 
storage resources.” The horizontal axis indicates the range 
of uncertainty of CO2 storage capacity in a resource. As a 
project matures toward commerciality there is typically a 
narrower range of uncertainty. Resource owners usually 
capture three deterministic estimates of a CO2 storage 
resource: a low estimate, a best estimate, and a high 
estimate.
A standardized framework such as the SRMS empowers 
CCS operators to have a common basis of understanding 
to describe CO2 storage resources in different jurisdictions 
across different companies. Quorum’s Carbon Storage 
Resource Management application aligns with the 
SRMS framework. Like other resource-based industries, 
Quorum foresees a regulatory environment that requires 
CCS operators to publicly disclose their CO2 storage 
resources using a framework such as the SRMS. Quorum 
recommends that operators future-proof their CO2 storage 
business by adopting a standardized, auditable application 
to capture storage resource estimates. 
Please see our website: https://www.quorumsoftware.com/
solutions/energy-transition/carbon-capture-utilization-and-
sequestration/carbon-storage-resources-management/


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FLOWCAL
The Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) process involves 
collecting (capture) CO2 from industrial processes or from 
the atmosphere, transporting the CO2 via pipelines and 
injecting it into underground geologic formations. During 
this highly technical process, CO2 is handled in both 
gas and liquids (supercritical) phases making accurate 
measurement data management both a challenge and a 
requirement for successful and ongoing profitability of CCS 
projects. 
The responsibility of custody transfer measurement points 
means CO2 must be measured and correctly accounted 
for at the capture point, pipeline inlets, pipeline outlets, 
pipeline linepack/inventory, storage injection points, and 
finally, the storage inventory must also be tracked and 
balanced. A CCS operator must have a strong toolset to 
consolidate, review, correct and distribute an immense 
amount of measurement data across the organization. 
In addition, the CCS operator must perform this with the 
knowledge that the measured CO2 and inventory are 
accurate to minimize legal and financial exposure and 
maximize revenue.
FLOWCAL by Quorum is the tool that enables CCS 
operators manage CO2 measurement data.
Benefits
•	
Support for CO2 measurement in both gas and liquids 
(dense) phase 
•	
Support for a wide range of metering technologies 
such as coriolis, ultrasonic, orifice, linepack/linefill, 
caverns, etc.
•	
Compliance with measurement industry standards and 
regulations 
•	
Physical balancing by volume and mass
•	
Meet internal and external audit requirements.
•	
Financial risk reduction/elimination
Description
FLOWCAL by Quorum Software is one of the most robust 
measurement data management systems available, 
streamlining the measurement process and optimizing 
data integrity. Designed to operate as a data warehouse 
capable of serving the needs of an entire organization, 
FLOWCAL provides a corporate solution for the most 
demanding system requirements. It can be applied to 
CO2 measurement, hydrocarbon measurement (gas and 
liquids), helium and hydrogen measurement.
 
FLOWCAL is used by the largest energy producers and 
midstream operators to ensure every drop of hydrocarbon 
is reviewed and accounted for. New CCS operators are 
starting to rely on FLOWCAL to ensure their stringent 
measurement needs are met in support of their financial 
goals. FLOWCAL has an extensive toolset to avoid costly 
errors by using validation routines that flag erroneous 
data and identify issues in the field, reduce measurement 
uncertainty, identify ‘Lost And Unaccounted For’, physical 
system balance, and minimize risk by ensuring compliance, 
data transparency and a complete secure audit trail.
In addition to simulation capabilities, PetroVR has an 
advanced scenario manager enabling the easy and 
transparent generation of alternative development scenario 
models. This functionality facilitates the comparison of the 
development alternatives identified by the user making the 
“what if” analysis easy, transparent, and greatly enhancing 
the ability to generate insights into the trade-offs between 
decisions.
Many project engineers and planners rely on aggregating 
inputs from various spreadsheets to model their field 
development plan and possible alternatives. While 
spreadsheets are flexible, they are prone to errors. The 
approach is often cumbersome, time-consuming and does 
not offer any standardization across asset teams. PetroVR 
permits companies to replace spreadsheet modelling with 
a powerful business simulation approach that integrates all 
the elements of their project.  
The PetroVR application facilitates probabilistic analysis 
through its easy-to-use Monte Carlo functionality. Users 
can specify the range of uncertainty for every input variable 
that they need to consider in the evaluation of the project 
and generate the full range of expected outcome for any 
selected value measure reflecting all the uncertainties 
specified (see example below). CCUS are large and 
complex projects with many technical uncertainties as 
well as commercial. Factoring these uncertainties in the 
decision-making process is essential. 
Quorum’s PetroVR application has a long-standing track 
record of adding value and reducing risks associated with 
field development. CCUS operators can take advantage of 
this application’s powerful simulation, scenario analysis and 
probabilistic evaluation capabilities to guide and support 
their project development decision-making. 
Please see our website: https://www.quorumsoftware.
com/solutions/planning-economics-reserves/asset-
development-planning/petrovr/
CO2 Transportation and Injection Balance


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In summary, FLOWCAL enables CCS operators to review, 
correct, and account each CO2 molecule whether it is 
in gas or dense phase, in the pipeline or in underground 
storage. FLOWCAL can manage CO2 custody transfer 
data, balance the captured versus the injected CO2, keep 
track of CO2 inventories in the pipe and underground, 
and provide a holistic view of the CO2 moved across the 
CCS operation. System balancing can be managed from 
gas volume balance, liquids volume balance, and mass 
balance perspective providing a bird’s eye view of the 
entire CCS system. Please see our website: https://www.
quorumsoftware.com/solutions/measurement/gas-liquid-
measurement/
Dense phase CO2 volume statement


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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FULL VALUE CHAIN 


STATE OF THE ART: CCS TECHNOLOGIES 2023
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DESCRIPTION
Industrial carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a significant 
contributor to global warming and climate change. 
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 
Change (IPCC), one of the key measures for countries 
to accelerate their efforts toward achieving net zero 
emissions in accordance with the Paris Agreement, is 
the adoption and implementation of carbon capture 
and storage (CCS) technologies. A crucial aspect of a 
CCS system is the design and operation of its network 
infrastructure which encompasses gathering and export 
pipelines, storage facilities, compressors, heaters, coolers, 
pumps and injection systems for safe and reliable transport 
and storage of CO2 in subsurface formations.
However, transitioning from the design phase to the 
operational phase of any CCS network project poses 
significant challenges especially as the transportation and 
permanent storage of CO2 is different when compared 
to hydrocarbons specifically around understanding CO2 
corrosion and its thermodynamics. To date, most CO2 
sequestration experiences has been around enhanced oil 
and gas recovery (EOR/EGR). The challenges are made 
more difficult with the implementation of hub & cluster 
type networks. The complexity arises with having multiple 
emitters and sources of CO2 flowing into the network with 
varying pressures, temperatures, and impurity composition. 
Therefore, there is an identified need for a comprehensive 
modelling solution of the entire value chain of a CCS 
network, which would not only assist in the design phase 
as a proof-of-concept tool and provide detailed simulations, 
but also deployed as a predictive and real-time operational 
solution throughout the entire lifecycle of the network. 
Such a digital model would help reduce investment costs, 
operational expenditures and mitigate operational risks.
To address this knowledge gap in the CCS segment, ABB 
has developed an integrated digital solution called ABB 
Balance of Operations which harnesses the capabilities 
of digital twins for different aspects of a CCS network. 
This digital solution specifically focuses on two important 
parts of a CCS network, namely the transportation and 
permanent storage of CO2. 
During operations, on the above-surface element, this 
solution is capable of managing CO2 flow assurance and 
conduct CO2 thermodynamic modeling in real-time, as 
well as respond to the transients and interruptions within 
the network in real-time with regards to loss of emitter(s), 
well shut-ins, as well as pressure, temperature and 
flowrates fluctuation to provide responsive and flexible 
operation of the CCS cluster network. It is also able to 
analyze composition of impurities in individual CO2 streams 
from multiple emitters, calculate the blended emission 
composition from multiple emitters, and compute to predict 
corrosion factors, ensuring safety and reliability of the 
network infrastructure and its operation.
On the subsurface element of the CCS network, this 
solution is able to model the subsurface formation in 3D 
and in real-time in terms of its capacity, containment and 
injectivity. This allows for the availability of real-time data 
and parameters such as injection pressure, temperature 
and flowrates to be input into an optimization system.
A digital optimizer then computes and provides optimized 
setpoints for key operational aspects such as compression, 
heating, cooling and tight injection profiles according to the 
operational philosophy across multiple injection wells with 
varied subsurface pressures. The solution is also capable 
of modeling and forecasting the dispersion of CO2 within 
the subsurface formation throughout the lifecycle of the 
network. This optimization process ensures minimization 
of energy consumption and ensures high availability of the 
network.
ABB Balance of Operations for CCS networks is an 
integrated 
holistic 
digital 
solution 
which 
ensures 
operational flexibility and reliability through the entire 
operational lifecycle of a CCS network. It caters to the 
complexities of a CCS network by providing capabilities 
such as full-chain modeling of the CCS network, analysis 
of CO2 flow streams in terms of impurity composition, 
calculation of blended CO2 emission composition, 
computation and prediction of corrosion factors, modeling 
of subsurface geological formations, and optimization 
of energy consumption through compression, pumping, 
heating, cooling and injection rates. This solution aims to 
ensure high operational availability, infrastructural safety, 
and de-risk CCS network operations whilst optimizing 
operational costs.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
ABB CCS Balance of Operations embodies an end-to-end digital solution with energy optimization capabilities, focused on 
ensuring safe, reliable, and efficient operation of CCS networks with the following core functionalities: 
•	
Leading-edge modelling of CO2 processes and impurities
•	
Subsurface geological lifecycle modelling for CO2 dispersion
•	
Autonomous and optimized operation for real-time transient response
•	
Smart heating, cooling and energy-optimized compressor and pump control
•	
CO2 injection profile management
•	
Real-time CO2 corrosion prediction
•	
Training, simulation, and ‘look-ahead’ or ‘what-if’ scenario analysis for planning
•	
Enablement for autonomous operations
ABB BALANCE OF OPERATIONS FOR CCS NETWORKS
ABB is a prominent provider of electrification, controls/
automation, 
telecommunication, 
and 
digital 
(ECTD) 
solutions to energy industries, including carbon capture 
and sequestration (CCS). As a technology partner to the 
energy industry, ABB has advanced its comprehensive 
sustainability 
portfolio 
by 
integrating 
cutting-edge 
technology known as ABB Balance of Operations for CCS 
networks. Our patented product is tailored specifically to 
enhance the efficiency and management of CCS network 
operations from the emitters through to and including 
the subsurface storage formations, encompassing the 
complete network lifecycle.
CONTACT
Email: 	 daniel.tay@my.abb.com
Web: 	
www.new.abb.com
ABB PROCESS AUTOMATION


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DESCRIPTION
Across the carbon capture value chain, digital solutions 
for capture, transportation and storage can address the 
key challenges to successful commercialization and wide-
scale deployment of CCUS, by helping to reduce costs, 
minimize risks and ensure confidence in long-term solutions. 
Additionally, risk and reliability software evaluates project 
plans and economic feasibility by analyzing the effect of 
factors such as the equipment reliability and capacities, 
operations logic, storage limits, maintenance practices, 
logistics alternatives, weather, and market conditions. This 
dynamic, event-driven modeling technology can provide 
an accurate prediction of future performance to justify 
investment and operation decisions that will minimize the 
risks and will maximize profits across the asset lifecycle.
Digital Solutions from AspenTech can be used across the 
value chain by different stakeholders to: 
•	
Prioritize investment options
•	
Help to make technology more economic to deploy it at 
a wider scale
•	
Accelerate project execution
•	
Improve efficiency in operations
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT OF CAPTURE PROCESSES
Digital technologies, using well-known process simulators 
Aspen Plus® and Aspen HYSYS®, can help to perform 
technical and economic analysis through rigorous modeling 
of carbon capture or conversion of CO2 into valuable 
products, by representing the complex chemistry and 
thermodynamics.
GEOLOGIC CHARACTERIZATION
Characterization of geologic storage candidates with 
efficient subsurface studies to confirm technical and 
economic feasibility, disclose technical details of the 
proposed site and enhance confidence to support permit 
applications. 
PROJECT SCALE-UP AND EXECUTION
AspenTech’s Concurrent Engineering solution leverages 
digital technologies that improve collaboration between 
Licensors, Engineering & Construction companies, and 
owner-operators. Models used on previous technology 
development and R&D stages provide early visibility to 
help improve CAPEX allocation across any future projects 
and eliminate risks. Digital tools provide insights to size and 
select equipment and identify the need for corrosion or other 
types of sensors that could reduce the CAPEX needed. 
Scale-up uncertainties can be further evaluated with Aspen 
Fidelis™ to consider alternative processes and prioritize 
capital options. This dynamic, event-driven modeling 
technology can provide an accurate prediction of future 
performance to justify investment and operation decisions 
that will minimize the risks and will maximize profits across 
the asset lifecycle. 
CAPTURE TECHNO-ECONOMICS
Process modeling can further optimize capture processes 
and improve economics. AspenTech’s integrated economics, 
energy and emission analysis, enables iteration of process 
configurations, to reduce costs and carbon footprint, 
identifying the right tradeoff between capture efficiency and 
energy consumption. 
In December 2022, AspenTech announced a partnership 
with Saudi Aramco to provide a unique, integrated modelling 
and optimization solution that will enable capital intensive 
industries to address the identification of the most promising 
carbon capture and utilization paths by simultaneously 
considering economics, process design and operations 
constraints and CO2 reduction. The goal of this innovation 
is to enable businesses to make evidence-based decisions 
in support of adopting carbon management strategies that 
optimize and accelerate sustainable operations.
CARBON CAPTURE OPERATIONS 
Models from the design stages can be used for high-fidelity 
Operator Training Systems to help staff be prepared once 
the process is up and running. In addition to that, advanced 
process control technologies like Aspen DMC3, can improve 
the stability of the process, and reduce energy use in key 
unit operations.
LONG-TERM MONITORING OF GEOLOGICAL STORAGE 
In the long term, during operation of the carbon 
management system and at the post-closure stage, digital 
technology is crucial to enable reliable, transparent and 
auditable records of the performance of the carbon storage 
asset. Time lapse (4D) seismic monitoring allows the imaging 
of the growth of the CO2 plume in the reservoir and helps 
demonstrate both containment and conformance. Today’s 
AspenTech Subsurface Science & Engineering provides the 
tools to analyze and interpret monitoring measurements 
and to update performance prediction through 3D model 
calibration.
Integrated digitalization strategies for CCS, and related 
sustainability initiatives, will ensure long-term business 
resilience during the demanding and volatile Energy 
Transition. Choosing the right partner to guide your journey 
will be critical to tackle the magnitude of this challenge and 
the transformation required. AspenTech understands the 
value of partnership and the deep and lasting bonds that 
come from continuous engagement, working side-by-side 
with customers to identify new applications as they adapt to 
changing market demands while also ensuring sustainability 
progress.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Drive innovation in the development of new carbon capture technologies
•	
Evaluate risk in CCS systems to make informed investment decisions across the value chain
•	
Reduce capital and operational expenditures in carbon capture processes with rigorous process simulation
•	
Accelerate cost-effective commercialization and scale-up of carbon capture processes with optimized process designs
•	
Screen storage/sequestration candidates & select storage locations by evaluating capacity, containment and site 
ability for injection and monitoring performance
•	
Optimize injection conditions during storage and track CO2 movements in the subsurface to demonstrate regulatory 
conformance
CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS 
Digital technologies are crucial enablers for continuous 
innovation, economic scale of technologies, accelerated 
implementation, and complete confidence in geological 
CO2 storage.
AspenTech is an industrial software company for capital-
intensive industries with a long history of innovation 
that started over 40 years ago with the first process 
flowsheet simulator. AspenTech digital portfolio provides 
a comprehensive, holistic approach to asset optimization 
across design, operations and maintenance. 
For the carbon capture value chain, an end-to-end solution 
includes optimization of capture, transportation and 
storage. AspenTech process simulation software already 
has a strong track record of helping companies improve 
operational efficiency and reduce emissions and is even 
more crucial to CCUS. 
The powerful combination of AspenTech breakthroughs 
in process simulation, subsurface geophysical and 
geological modeling, AI-powered hybrid modeling, process 
optimization software and digital grid management can 
deliver results at scale—both economically and at an 
accelerated pace to meet the requirements of industrial 
carbon mitigation.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gerardo.munoz@aspentech.com 
Web: 	
www.aspentech.com 
ASPEN TECHNOLOGY


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DESCRIPTION
Baker Hughes has been supplying unbonded flexible pipe 
to the offshore oil & gas industry for more than 30 years, 
supporting the development of such projects that face some 
of the harshest conditions in the world. An unbonded flexible 
pipe is made up of a series of polymer and metallic layers 
that are uniquely configured to suit each project’s specific 
requirements.
The traditional oil & gas industry is witnessing a remarkable 
surge in demand for CO2-compatible pipelines, primarily 
fueled by the unique challenges posed by CO2-rich pre-
salt reservoirs in Brazil. In these projects, CO2 stripped from 
the pre-salt fields’ production fluids is reinjected into the 
reservoirs at high pressures.
Baker Hughes has undertaken significant research and 
development over more than five years to support the 
use of its conventional flexible pipe products in CO2-rich 
applications. This research, which includes small-, mid- and 
full-scale tests, has led to a detailed understanding of the 
critical design parameters for transporting CO2. A review by 
an Independent Verifying Authority has led to an approved 
‘safe envelope’ of operating conditions under which no 
failure modes, including stress corrosion cracking, will occur.
Baker Hughes’ proven expertise in CO2-rich applications 
has positioned the company as a leading supplier of flexible 
pipes, with more than 70km of such pipes already installed. 
These CO2-compatible products leverage the same set of 
standard materials and manufacturing techniques employed 
in more traditional applications, ensuring consistent quality 
and performance across the board.
Based on the product’s capability and track record, Baker 
Hughes’ flexible pipes are equally suitable for use in CCS 
applications and there are clear value propositions for 
this product. For example, shallow water CCS dynamic 
applications necessitate a technology that can withstand 
CO2 and a high-fatigue environment. Only an unbonded 
flexible pipe has a proven track record in both.
When used as infield flowlines, flexible pipes can lead to 
a lower total-installed cost than rigid pipes. Furthermore, 
flexibles remove the need for rigid jumpers, which require 
metrology and fabrication before installation. This hugely 
benefits the schedule at the most critical time – shortly 
before start-up.
Baker Hughes remains committed to providing cutting-
edge, reliable solutions for the offshore oil & gas industry, 
while simultaneously addressing the growing need for CO2-
compatible pipelines in CCS applications. By consistently 
delivering high-quality, innovative products, Baker Hughes 
cements its position as a trusted partner, helping to shape a 
sustainable future for the energy sector.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Proven capability for high-pressure CO2 transportation using standard materials and product design
•	
Project schedule is hugely benefited when compared to rigid alternatives
•	
Enabling technology for shallow-water dynamic CO2 risers
OFFSHORE FLEXIBLE PIPES
Subsea CCS projects require pipelines for transportation of CO2 to the reservoir. Key requirements of these pipelines 
include technical capability, cost-effectiveness and risk reduction. Baker Hughes unbonded flexible pipes have a proven 
track record in CO2-rich applications that address these technical requirements. Baker Hughes’ flexible pipe product has 
the potential to offer significant cost and risk benefits to a CCS project compared to alternative options such as rigid pipes.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES


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DESCRIPTION
The Regenerative Froth Contactor (RFC) provided by 
ICS is an innovative gas/liquid absorption co-current 
contactor system equipped with the Corrugated Screen 
Packing (CSP) that offers promising reductions in 
equipment size versus conventional absorbers. The RFC 
absorber represents a cutting-edge technology. It is static 
equipment, having no moving parts, and operates in a 
downward gas- liquid ‘co-flow’ configuration, with pulse 
regime hydrodynamic condition. While conventional 
absorbers work with a thin film of liquid over the packing 
itself, the CSP is made of convoluted screens that 
maximize the solvent pulsing effect while minimizing the 
metal packing material; by inducing the RFC to operate 
under a froth condition in two phase flow, the diffusivity film 
over the traditional packing surface is replaced by millions 
of bubbles and droplets in the volume of the tower. These 
bubbles are created as bands of froth collapse and are 
regenerated. The liquid and gas phases enter the tower co-
currently from the top, flow through the absorber in pulsing 
regime and are disengaged at the bottom of the tower. The 
pulse flow is not imposed by a mechanical stimulation but 
set up as a purely hydrodynamic multi-phase phenomenon 
depending on the phases flow rates and the CSP design. 
The gas passes through multiple zones of froth along the 
absorber and gas components gets absorbed into the 
solvent.
In carbon capture application, the CO2 will be transferred 
from the gas into the liquid phase in the froth present 
throughout the whole volume of the column. The 
RFC absorber/reactor design enables the system to 
accommodate high gas flow rates and liquid/gas ratios 
at acceptable back pressure and without encountering 
flooding in the column. RFC systems can also be used 
in processes with precipitating solvents or high levels of 
entrained solids, leading to 3-phase contactors. There is 
minimal-to-no fouling or additional pressure drop penalty 
with RFC technology, even under high particulate loads 
and high viscosity.
Based on the selected gas/liquid system’s physical 
properties (e.g. viscosity, presence of solid precipitation), 
the geometry of the CSP packing can be selected to 
enforce a coarser/thinner froth. 
Applications of the RFC technology can be used across 
various carbon capture platforms, ranging from natural 
gas treatment, post-combustion capture, and air pollution 
control, e.g., indoor air quality management, direct air 
capture
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Higher mass transfer rate  
•	
Significant absorption tower height reduction 
•	
Significant absorption tower cross-sectional area and footprint reduction
•	
Fouling and salts deposition resistance
•	
Limited impact of high viscosity on mass transfer rate
REGENERATIVE FROTH CONTACTOR
Baker Hughes has acquired a Canadian start-up, Industrial 
Climate Solutions (ICS), to further strengthen engineering 
technology developments through process intensification. 
The technology provided by ICS is the Regenerative Froth 
Contactor (RFC) equipped with Corrugated Screen Packing 
(CSP). The RFC operates in co-current flow under the pulse 
regime generated by the gas and liquid phases that flow 
through the CSP packing, a static equipment.  The RFC 
provides an increase of effective mass transfer surface that 
reduces the required packing volume, within admissible 
pressure drop values for the process. The technology 
is solvent-agnostic and has been validated at lab scale. 
ICS is currently conducting the implementation for post-
combustion carbon capture applications within Baker 
Hughes portfolio.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Demonstrated low specific thermal energy consumption of 2.6 GJ/ton CO2 
•	
Uses ammonia, a commodity chemical that is easily procured and not bound to a specific supplier
•	
Stable reagent. Unlike amine-based solvent systems, it does not suffer from thermal and oxidative degradations
•	
Flexible for process integration. Allows efficient-direct high temperature waste heat utilization or direct electrical 
heating without the degradation of solvent performance
•	
Tolerant towards oxygen in flue gas and towards contaminants such as SOx and NOx
•	
Produces less harmful emissions and potentially useful by-products
•	
Regenerates CO2 at high purity (> 99.5%) at elevated pressure, thus requiring less compression energy for the 
downstream CO2 product
CHILLED AMMONIA PROCESS 
The Chilled Ammonia Process (CAP) was developed to 
address the challenges of removing carbon dioxide from 
low-pressure flue gases, which were generated by fossil-
fuel-based power plants and industrial emissions points, 
such as coal-fired power plants, waste-to-energy power 
plants, biomass power plants, cement plants, refineries, 
and petrochemical complexes.
CAP is a post-combustion carbon-capture process that 
uses a non-proprietary solvent formulation based on 
ammonia. Ammonia is a low-cost, inorganic commodity 
chemical, readily available on the global market from 
multiple sources and not bound to any specific supplier. 
It is also stable, tolerant to flue gas contaminants and 
typically exhibits very low and controllable loss in the CAP 
process.  Moreover, green ammonia (produced from green 
hydrogen) could be used instead of conventional ammonia 
in the CAP process.
Amine-based solvents have a tendency to degrade 
as a result of exposure to hot environments (thermal 
degradation), in the presence of oxygen (oxidative 
degradation) and in acid gas reactions (such as NOx). 
The degradation results in a reduction of performance, 
solvent loss, equipment corrosion and the generation of 
volatile degradation compounds that are emitted into the 
treated flue gas, including nitrosamines, which are known 
carcinogens. Such degradation phenomena are absent 
for CAP, as the process uses an ammonia-based solvent, 
which is inorganic. CAP has the added advantage of being 
able to regenerate CO2 at elevated pressure, resulting in 
reduced energy costs to liquefy or further compress the 
CO2 downstream. 
CAP has been validated at several test facilities with a 
design capacity of up to 100 ktpa CO2, treating flue gases 
generated by oil boilers, coal boilers and industrial off-
gases. A CAP plant designed to capture up to 80 ktpa 
CO2 has been operated at Test Centre Mongstad (TCM) 
in Norway for 2 years, where it demonstrated low specific 
thermal energy consumption of 2.6 GJ/ton CO2 on refinery 
cracker offgas (12.5 -16.0% CO2). The testing at TCM also 
demonstrated CAP’s ability for quick start-up, low ammonia 
emissions, high CO2 product purity and meeting targeted 
CO2 capture rates.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Flue Gas In
DCC
Flue Gas 
Condensate
Flue Gas
Blower
CO2
Absorber
CO2
Regenerator
Reboiler
Steam In
Return
Condensate
REF
REF
DCH
Treated
Flue Gas
Water
Wash
NH3 Stripper
Cooling
Steam
REF
CW
Product CO2
to Compression
Chiller System
REF
CO2 Wash
Flue Gas
Water
Rich Solution
Lean Solution
CO2
NH3/CO2
REF   
   Refrigerant


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DESCRIPTION
The Chilled Ammonia Process (CAP) uses an ammoniated 
aqueous carbonate solution to absorb CO2 from the flue 
gases at ambient pressure and low temperature. Unlike 
other technologies, the functionality of the ammonium 
solution is not affected by oxygen and easily purged of 
heat stable salts formed by trace acidic components, 
which may pass dedicated flue gas preconditioning steps. 
Moreover, since its gaseous emissions and liquid waste 
streams are non-toxic, no additional treatment facilities are 
required.
A simplified process flow diagram of the CAP technology is 
shown in the accompanying figure and the process can be 
described as follows.
Inlet flue gas first undergoes cooling via a direct contact 
cooler (DCC) that enables the contact of gas with cooling 
and chilled water to lower the flue gas temperature to a 
suitable level (typically below 15 °C), which is needed for 
the CO2 absorption process and water balance. Most of the 
water vapour contained in the flue gas is removed in this 
step, which reduces the volumetric gas flow and increases 
the CO2 concentration. For conventional amine-based 
solvents, a flue gas pre-treatment step is required, which 
is typically integrated with the DCC to reduce NOx, SOx 
and other contaminants in the flue gas to very low levels 
to decrease degradation and formation of heat-stable salts 
when the flue gas interacts with the solvent. However, for 
CAP, this pre-treatment step is typically not required as 
the ammonia-based solvent is able to tolerate these flue 
gas contaminants. Strong acids such as SOx react with 
ammonia and form heat-stable salts, which are withdrawn 
from the system as an aqueous by-product.    
Cooled flue gas from the DCC enters the bottom of the 
absorber column, where it is washed counter-currently 
with lean ammonia-based solvent (orange line). CO2 
is selectively removed from the flue gas in a chemical 
absorption process using the alkaline lean solvent. The 
lean solvent is a solution comprising ammonia, water 
and CO2 where different species (ammonium carbamate, 
ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium carbonate and a 
limited amount of free ammonia in an aqueous solution) 
are in equilibrium. The dissolved ammonia species react 
with CO2 from the flue gas in the absorber by shifting the 
species’ equilibria towards bicarbonate. The CO2-rich 
solvent (green line) leaves at the bottom of the absorber 
and is sent to the regenerator section, where it is heated 
to a temperature high enough for CO2 to be released 
from the solvent. A reboiler located at the bottom of the 
regenerator column provides the heat to the solvent. The 
heating source is typically steam, although hot oil or heat 
from a direct-fired or electric heater can also be used due 
to the absence of thermal degradation. 
Heat is imparted to the solvent to shift the equilibria to 
ammonia-rich species releasing the absorbed CO2, which 
leaves at the top of the regenerator column. Compared 
to the amine-based post-combustion technologies that 
regenerate CO2 at near atmospheric pressure, CAP 
regenerates CO2 at an elevated pressure (14 bar - 25 
bar[a)), which reduces the downstream compression power 
requirements.
Regenerated lean solvent (orange line) is returned to the 
absorber after undergoing cooling through heat exchange 
with the cold rich solvent in the lean-rich heat exchanger, 
which simultaneously heats the rich solvent. This is an 
important heat integration step that significantly reduces 
the reboiler heat requirement.
Treated flue gas exiting the top of the absorber column 
contains residual CO2 and ammonia, which is recovered 
with a water wash step to prevent unacceptable emissions 
of ammonia into the atmosphere. After the water wash 
step, the flue gas is routed to a flue gas heater. A guard 
system is integrated with the flue gas heater, which relies 
on the injection of sulfuric acid to neutralize any residual 
ammonia, converting it into ammonium sulphate. The flue 
gas is reheated with warm water condensed from the DCC, 
which serves to raise the temperature of the final treated 
flue gas to a temperature high enough to be released into 
the stack and to optimize the water balance of the system.


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DESCRIPTION
MSP is a post-combustion technology that is applicable to 
a wide range of flue gases. It uses a blend of ammonium 
and potassium-based salts to absorb CO2 from flue gases 
at ambient pressure and temperature. The stability of the 
inorganic solvent used by MSP’s ammonium solution 
is not affected by oxygen and shows high tolerance to 
acidic trace components present in the incoming flue gas. 
The process is characterized by very low emissions and 
produces little-to-no toxic waste.
A simplified process flow diagram of the MSP technology is 
depicted in the accompanying figure and the process can 
be described as follows.
Inlet flue gas first undergoes cooling to 20 - 30 °C in a direct 
contact cooler (DCC) and subsequently enters Absorber 
1, where it contacts the mixed salt solvent counter-
currently. The mixed salt solvent in Absorber 1, which has 
a higher concentration of ammonium-based species than 
potassium-based species (high ammonia/potassium ratio), 
performs the bulk removal of CO2, absorbing 60-80% of 
the CO2 in the flue gas. The remaining CO2 is absorbed in 
Absorber 2, which operates with the mixed-salt solvent with 
a lower ratio of ammonium-based species to potassium-
based species than that of the solvent feed of Absorber 1. 
Absorber 2 performs the trim removal of CO2 to achieve 
an overall CO2 capture rate of more than 90% and reduces 
the ammonia slip from Absorber 1. A water wash located at 
the top of Absorber 2 further reduces the ammonia content 
in the treated flue gas to ensure that it meets the ammonia 
emission limits. 
Both absorbers operate with liquid recycle using heat 
exchangers to remove the heat of reaction and keep 
the solution at the optimum temperature for efficient 
absorption and minimum ammonia slip. The CO2-rich 
solvent collected from the absorbers is sent to the 
regenerator for regeneration via an integrated rich-lean 
heat exchanger network that is designed to recover 
sensible heat.
Heat is supplied to the regenerator via a reboiler located 
at the bottom of the column. The increase in temperature 
releases CO2 as a gas and regenerates the mixed-salt 
solvent to be returned to Absorber 1 and Absorber 2. 
CO2 is released at an elevated pressure of 10 - 20 bar(a) 
from the regenerator column, which serves to reduce the 
downstream CO2 compression power requirements.
The CO2-lean mixed salt solvent is drawn from the lower-
middle stage of the column and sent back to Absorber 1 
to perform bulk CO2 removal. Near the bottom of the 
regenerator where the temperature is higher, ammonia is 
vaporized, resulting in a lean solvent with low ammonia/
potassium ratio, which is returned to Absorber 2 where it 
performs the trim removal of CO2 and reduces ammonia 
losses.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Reduced reboiler energy consumption of 2.0 – 2.3 GJ/ton CO2 
•	
Uses inexpensive, industrially available chemicals (potassium and ammonium salts)
•	
Stable reagent. Unlike amine-based solvent systems, it does not suffer from thermal and oxidative degradation
•	
Tolerant towards oxygen in flue gas and to contaminants such as SOx and NOx
•	
Regenerates CO2 at elevated pressure, thus requiring less compression energy for the downstream CO2 product
•	
Reduced auxiliary electricity loads
MIXED-SALT PROCESS
Baker Hughes uses the Mixed-Salt Process (MSP) for 
CO2 capture under license from SRI International. SRI 
International received support from the US Department 
of Energy’s Office of Fossil Energy and National Energy 
Technology Laboratory (NETL) for the development of this 
technology.
MSP is a post-combustion carbon-capture process that 
uses a novel solvent formulation, which is based on 
potassium carbonate and ammonium salts. Both chemicals 
are low-cost, inorganic commodity chemicals, and readily 
available on the global market from multiple sources. 
The inorganic solvent used by MSP is tolerant to flue gas 
contaminants (such as SOx, NOx, and O2), unaffected 
by thermal and oxidative degradation, results in lower 
emissions, lower toxicity, and higher CO2 regeneration 
pressure 
compared 
to 
conventional 
amine-based 
solutions. MSP has been demonstrated at the capacity of 
0.25 tpd at the SRI campus in Menlo Park, USA. A 10 tpd 
pilot-scale plant to demonstrate the MSP technology at the 
University of Illinois is currently in the design phase.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Flue Gas In
DCC
Flue Gas
Condensate
Flue Gas
Blower
Absorber
1
CO2
Regenerator
Reboiler
Steam In
Return
Condensate
CW
CW
CW
CO2 Ovhd 
Reflux
Product CO2
to Compression
Absorber
2
CW
Water Wash
Treated
Flue Gas


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DESCRIPTION
Compact Carbon Capture has transformed the process 
equipment used in post-combustion carbon capture by 
introducing rotation and high G-forces to capture CO2. The 
G-forces are created in several cross-flow rotating packed 
beds. CO2-lean solvent is distributed from the inner axis 
and horizontally flung outwards in the direction of the wall 
of the column, while the flue gas moves vertically from the 
bottom to the top. Mass transfer takes place between the 
flue gas and the solvent in a cross-flow type arrangement. 
Due to the rotation of the packed bed within the column 
that induces high centrifugal forces (60-100 G-force), the 
solvent is accelerated when it hits the packing structure, 
forming small droplets. This generates a large vapor-liquid 
contact area compared to traditional static mass transfer 
technology that rely on gravity. The larger contact area 
between gas and liquid results in a faster mass transfer of 
CO2 from the flue gas into the solvent droplets, resulting 
in a much shorter absorber column height compared to 
conventional, static absorber columns.
The high G-forces allow for the application of highly viscous 
solvents that improve the process efficiency. Higher 
solvent concentration results in higher absorption rates. 
When this is combined with the compactness introduced 
by the process intensification, a considerably lower solvent 
volume is needed, and the pump capacity needed for 
solvent transfer is reduced. 
The compact stripper is a combined reboiler and desorber 
unit that can operate at higher pressures and handle highly 
viscous solvents. High-speed rotation of the stripper unit 
introduces turbulence and high G-force to the solvent 
regeneration, which are advantageous for mass and heat 
transfer, resulting in very compact equipment. The rotating 
bed desorber/stripper can be described as a lightweight 
pressurized shell-and-tube heat exchanger where the 
“hot-side” tube bundle rotates to generate the centrifugal 
force required to produce small solvent droplets.  Instead 
of a static regenerator column with attached reboiler in 
a conventional solvent-based system, CCC™ will have a 
single compact rotating bed/flash drum that both heats the 
rich solvent and flashes off CO2 to generate a high purity 
(>99%) CO2 product stream. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Up to 75% reduction in the overall size of the capture plant compared to conventional technologies
•	
Up to 50% reduction in capital expenditure compared to conventional technologies
•	
The possibility to reduce operating expenses significantly by using new, viscous, and efficient solvents
•	
Reduced lead time through standardized and containerized production, design thinking for simplified logistics, and 
decreased demand for civil works
•	
Modular scalability to increase the deployment speed of CO2 capture equipment. For example, it is possible to invest 
in partial capture right away and increase the capture capacity at a later stage.
COMPACT CARBON CAPTURE (CCC)
Baker Hughes acquired Compact Carbon Capture (CCC), 
a pioneering technology development company based 
in Bergen, Norway, that specializes in compact carbon 
capture solutions. CCC employs the rotating packed bed 
technology, a novel process intensification that utilizes 
centrifugal acceleration to intensify mass transfer, thereby 
reducing the equipment size and cost. CCC’s technology 
is solvent-agnostic and in principle, can be applied to any 
solvent developed for post-combustion carbon capture. 
Using its rotating packed bed technology, CCC drastically 
increases the vapor-liquid contact area, overcoming the 
traditional hydraulics limitations. Compared to traditional 
solvent-based systems using static equipment, CCC’s 
enhanced mass transfer results in reduced residence time 
in both the absorber and the regenerator, thereby requiring 
much smaller equipment.
CCC is currently validated at the pilot scale at Equinor’s 
test facilities (PLAB) in Porsgrunn, Norway. Steps for further 
advancement are ongoing, with a demonstration plant at 
the 15 tpd scale currently in the engineering stage.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Reduced compression train parasitic power consumption
•	
Optimized high compression ratio across a wide range of flow rates
•	
Optimum rotor balance for low vibration level
•	
Easily accessible components for maintenance	
•	
Automatic capacity control and safety system to reliably match any operating condition
•	
Reduced lead time through standardized and containerized production, design thinking for simplified logistics, and 
decreased demand for civil works
TRANSPORTATION
Leveraging its extensive domain expertise in compression 
and pumping technologies from decades of experience in 
related areas such as urea and liquefied natural gas, Baker 
Hughes has the comprehensive capabilities to make the 
compression of CO2 safer, easier and more cost-effective 
for CCUS applications. Baker Hughes has focused its 
attention on customizing complete compression trains 
suited for the unique characteristics of CO2 so that these 
can operate more efficiently and minimize the overall 
parasitic power consumption of CCUS processes. 
Baker Hughes offers a range of products, including 
reciprocating, centrifugal and integrally geared CO2 
compressors, as well as centrifugal CO2 pumps. These 
technologies have undergone years of proven in-field 
performance. Baker Hughes has also continued to develop 
and optimize these technologies at our global research 
centres, performing extensive testing in both laboratory 
and in-field environments before launching these products 
for our customers’ use.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
The operating envelope for CO2 delivery to sequestration 
sites is very broad in terms of volumetric flow and delivery 
pressure. It ranges from several thousand m3/h at relatively 
low pressures, up to a few hundred m3/h at extremely high 
pressures (700-800 bar). Baker Hughes offers a range of 
customizable CO2 compression systems, depending on site 
conditions such as delivery pressure, temperature, cooling 
sources and gas composition. General configuration 
options for CO2 compression are shown in the table below.
PRESSURE
CONFIGURATION OPTIONS
< 200 bar
In-line compressor
Integrally geared compressor  
+ pump
> 200 bar
In-line compressor + HP pump
Integrally geared compressor  
with MP pump + HP pump
MP = medium pressure; HP = high pressure
Baker Hughes has optimized the configuration of the 
overall CO2 compressor-pump train for CCUS applications. 
This includes the selection of the intermediate pressure 
between the last compression stage and the pump suction 
with the goal of decreasing the total power consumption 
and cost.
Integrally geared compressors
The main advantage of integrally geared centrifugal 
compressors are that coolers can be installed after each 
stand-alone stage. Baker Hughes’ design features a 
bull gear and from one to four high-speed pinions, with 
one or two impellers mounted on each pinion shaft. 
Stand-alone stages optimize impeller speed and allow 
impellers to operate at higher peripheral speed and level 
of compression. Each stage can be fitted with inlet guide 
vanes to eliminate the need for recirculation for partial 
loads. The net result is a high efficiency operation that 
requires less work than an in-line compressor.
In-line centrifugal compressors
Baker Hughes has supplied more than 200 in-line 
compressor units with discharge pressure within the 
range of 200 bar. The typical train arrangement includes 
a steam turbine or electric motor that drives a low-speed, 
horizontally split compressor, and a high-speed barrel 
compressor through an increasing gearbox, typically 
followed by a pump for CO2 injection. For applications 
where the CO2 stream contains H2S and water, Baker 
Hughes uses primarily stainless steel for improved 
corrosion resistance.
Pumps
Baker Hughes’ development of its high-pressure CO2 
injection pumps rely on the experience of over 1,000 multi-
stage centrifugal pumps for liquefied gas applications. Our 
multistage barrel pump is a good fit for CO2 applications, 
providing better overall efficiency compared with the in-
line rotor configurations, thanks to its opposing back-to-
back impeller configuration.


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Collect multiple measurements with a single cable including distributed fibre optic sensing, pressure/temperature 
gauges for well integrity, compaction monitoring, and seismic data. 
•	
Utilizes CoreBright™ hydrogen resistant fibres to limit the effects of hydrogen darkening
•	
Cable is cladded with robust Inc 825 corrosion-resistant nickel alloy for maximum protection against chemicals, 
abrasion, crimping and crush.
•	
Continuous cable with no orbital welds
•	
Fibre In Metal Tube (FIMT) utilizes continuous (splice-free) fibres throughout
•	
Equipped with excess fibre to ensure that no strain is transferred to the optical fibre core during deployment or 
operation. Excess fibre compensates for thermal expansion, as well as tubing stretch.
SUREVIEW™ WITH COREBRIGHT™ OPTICAL FIBRE
Reliable downhole measurement of well and reservoir 
parameters is imperative to the success of geological 
sequestration 
projects. 
Baker 
Hughes 
is 
uniquely 
positioned 
to 
holistically 
address 
the 
monitoring 
challenges. Baker Hughes leverages a broad portfolio of 
technology and experience across permanent downhole 
gauges, microseismic monitoring, wireline monitoring, and 
fibre optic solutions. Specifically, fibre optic monitoring 
is an effective solution to gather a range of real-time 
data downhole. These systems can provide distributed 
temperature, acoustic & strain measurements, transmit 
point gauge data, and capture seismic measurements for 
use in vertical seismic profiling. The majority of traditional 
downhole fibre optic installations are intended for 10-
20 years of hydrocarbon production life. However, the 
geological sequestration projects can require much longer 
service life. SureVIEW™ with CoreBright™ technology is a 
proprietary fibre optic cable design with industry-leading 
40+ years of reliability and unique resistance to common 
hydrogen darkening failure. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
SureVIEW™ downhole cable by Baker Hughes uses 
CoreBright™ optical fibre, which leads the industry in 
hydrogen darkening resistance, a leading cause of failure 
for fibre optic systems over time. CoreBright™ fibre is 
constructed from pure silica that minimizes hydrogen 
darkening. The cable also includes a layer of hydrogen- 
absorbing gel. This combination provides the industry’s 
best protection against hydrogen darkening.
Fabricating a downhole optical cable with the performance 
and reliability demanded by our industry requires a 
sophisticated understanding of fibre design, fibre coatings, 
cable manufacturing processes, and cable construction. 
Fibres are typically coated, often with carbon, to prevent 
this hydrogen darkening. However, over time, this coating 
can break down or suffer from uneven application during 
manufacturing. A well applied coating will likely break 
down in about 20 years, particularly at higher temperatures 
(above 150 °C). CoreBright™ fibre offers its extended 
lifetime through a simple principle: instead of attempting 
to avoid hydrogen damage by trying to block hydrogen, 
CoreBright™ optical fibre avoids the hydrogen damage by 
preventing the reaction between the SiO2 structure of the 
optical fibre and the hydrogen. In addition, Baker Hughes’ 
fibre optic cables are fitted with hydrogen scavenging gels 
to further reduce darkening risk. 
In this way, Baker Hughes’ solution is unique: the fibre will 
not darken, and reliable readings over the full life of the 
installation are assured. Independent testing has concluded 
that CoreBright™ optical fibre is the only fibre in the industry 
that is suitable for harsh downhole environments over a 
long duration. It is the only known fibre that was designed 
for, and has demonstrated, long-term immunity to first and 
second-order hydrogen darkening effects.
1
SureVIEW™ fibre optic cables, powered by CoreBright™ 
fibre, have been installed in over 300 wells worldwide.  As 
of today, there are no instances of hydrogen darkening 
ever experienced. In addition, during high-temperature 
monitoring work performed by Baker Hughes for electrical 
submersible pumps where it is common practice to test the 
fibre as the pumps are pulled, the CoreBright™ fibre has 
maintained its mechanical and optical reliability in every 
instance. Proof-testing of the fibre showed levels that are 
typical of ‘as-built’ condition and demonstrated negligible 
changes in optical loss profiles.
High reliability and longevity enable the use of fibre optic 
measurement in more applications particularly behind the 
casing where workover is likely impossible. Baker Hughes’ 
SureVIEW™ downhole cable is expected to improve data 
quality and facilitate better decision-making in geological 
sequestration today. 
1  
tedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Provides superior reliability in long-life and/or demanding (high-pressure and high-temperature) applications
•	
Derives finest pressure/temperature measurement resolution attainable
•	
Deploys multiple gauge combinations on a single standardized carrier
•	
Eliminates the need for additional splices, increases reliability, and reduces installation time through unique 
construction configurations with fewer connections
•	
Deploys multiple gauges, flowmeters, and valve positions to provide redundant readings
•	
Serves as platform for future developments
SURESENS™ QPT ELITE PDHG
Well-known pressure and temperature are key to proper 
functioning throughout a CO2 storage system. For most 
applications, the best way to monitor these parameters is 
with permanent downhole gauges (PDHGs). These gauges 
can be used as a standalone means of measurement or 
as calibration for a fibre optic-based or other extensive 
measurement system. Baker Hughes leverages the 
quality and performance of the SureSENS™ line to execute 
integrated monitoring solutions that combine point gauges, 
fibre optics, along with periodic means of measurement 
such as wireline logging data. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
1  
tedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)
The SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge for permanent 
downhole installations measures static and dynamic 
pressures and temperatures while introducing a step 
change in reliability and accuracy. The gauge is qualified 
for operation at pressures less than 35,000 psi (2,414 
bar) and temperatures up to 225 °C (437 °F). The static 
and dynamic pressure information obtained can be used 
to determine the effects of injection and plume growth 
on monitoring wells, monitor injection characteristics, 
and provide input or validation to reservoir models. The 
SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge includes the new ELITE 
electronics package, built upon Baker Hughes’ industry-
leading STAR hybrid electronic package design. The 
ELITE electronics package incorporates an application-
specific integrated circuit (ASIC), providing a new level 
of reliability to the industry. Baker Hughes provides three 
configuration options—single, dual, and triple gauge. The 
single-gauge configuration is an economical option that 
will also permit the smallest possible running diameter 
for a streamlined, slim-hole gauge carrier. A dual-gauge 
configuration provides isolated operational redundancy 
of electronics and transducer at any given installation 
point. Each gauge in a dual package operates individually, 
providing independent measurements for data redundancy 
and integrity verification. The triple gauge option can offer 
redundancy or be ported to record three independent 
pressure measurements. The shorter carrier for a side-by-
side triple-gauge assembly also retains a slim hole running 
outside diameter. 
For applications requiring long active life and high 
data accuracy, even in demanding high-pressure/high-
temperature type environments, the SureSENS™ QPT ELITE 
gauge system provides a flexible and reliable solution. 
Being highly robust, the SureSENS™ QPT ELITE gauge 
maintains mechanical integrity by deep-penetration and 
high vacuum, electron-beam fusion welds, without the 
need for filler material. Only two fittings, the pressure port 
and the tubing encapsulated conductor (TEC), are required 
to interface the gauge with the carrier. The gauge pressure 
interface connection to the carrier can be externally 
tested in the direction in which it will experience pressure, 
eliminating the need for an internal pressure test tool. 
The TEC’s primary seal is a dual metal-to-metal pressure-
testable interface. The mechanical package is completely 
integrated into the gauge assembly, which eliminates the 
requirement for external Y-block components.
Gauge Carrier configured with QPT ELITE permanent downhole gauge


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Maximize storage capacity within safety limits
•	
Compliance with regulations
•	
Monitor structure integrity (cap-rock & faults)
•	
Distinguish induced versus natural seismicity
•	
Avoid water breakthrough
MICROSEISMIC MONITORING SERVICES
Monitoring seismicity is essential to guarantee the integrity 
of geological sequestration reservoirs and caverns. In 
terms of physical integrity, seismicity in the cap rock is an 
indicator of the risk of catastrophic failure. At the reservoir 
scale, seismicity at faults can identify the reactivation 
by fluid injection or that they provide a pathway to the 
surface for the stored fluids. With more public attention 
towards induced seismicity and environmental impact 
of human activity, reputational integrity is becoming as 
important as physical integrity. It is therefore becoming 
essential to detect growing activity trends before critical 
situation happens to support operators’ injection program. 
Baker Hughes provides the whole range of customized 
microseismic services and instrumentation to provide 
lifetime monitoring of CCS assets.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
1  
tedTemperatures Under Hydrogen Conditions”, SEAFOM Industry Meeting (Dec. 2012)
The range of the monitoring solution can be described in 
3 distinct stages that can be performed as a whole or as 
independent services.
Network design
In this phase, consideration is given to the project’s 
constrains (regulatory, geological, operational and logistical) 
and advanced modelling is used to determine the most 
cost-effective network that will meet the project’s objectives. 
This network can consist of a specific technology (surface or 
downhole solutions with analogic geophone or fibre optics) 
to be deployed, but can also have a combination of them to 
benefit from their different capabilities. 
Installation and maintenance
Baker Hughes ensures supply of all the required 
instrumentation: surface sensors, shallow buried sensors 
(100 m), borehole sensors, surface electronics, fibre optics, 
digitizers, and fully equipped seismic cabinets. Where not 
internally developed, Baker Hughes works with trusted 
suppliers with long-term relationships to develop reliable 
hardware (Mean Time Between Failures of more than five 
years) with advanced capabilities. 
Baker Hughes installs and maintains all the instrumentation, 
including borehole sensors. The requirement for preventive 
maintenance is extremely low (one visit a year at most). This 
allows us to operate sites all over the world. Most of the sites 
are totally autonomous, relying on solar panels for power 
and 4G networks for communications.
Monitoring - Processing
A dedicated team of experts processes the data and 
reports on the seismicity through a dedicated web portal. 
The portal allows the operator to visualize the seismicity in 
two-dimensions (2D) or 3D along with the well trajectories 
and formation interfaces and offers statistical analysis 
capabilities. It also plays the monitoring network’s state of 
health and expected sensitivity in real time. Pressure and/or 
flow rate curves can be displayed along with seismic rates to 
easily relate any seismic activity to its probable cause.
Automation of the process can be utilised to enhance 
the processing solution by adding 24/7 services such as 
traffic light systems that will alert the operator when critical 
seismicity is reached, and the prediction of the level of 
seismic risk for the upcoming hours using machine learning.


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Core longer even in fractured or other jam-prone formations by neutralizing up to two jamming events
•	
Full-closure catcher completely seas inner tube to prevent loss even when the core is unconsolidated
•	
The HT30™ Max core barrel system delivers larger, longer samples than other systems
•	
Unobstructed ‘slick’ entry eliminates risk of jam at core’s centre
CORTIVA™ CORING SYSTEM
Seal integrity is key to the success of any geological 
sequestration project. Along with the logging and 
measurement technology, taking physical cores is one 
of the best ways to characterize these structures. Core 
samples retrieved with traditional coring systems can often 
break and become jammed or lost in a hole. Jams and 
poor core quality can lead to re-runs that incur significant 
additional cost. The CORTIVA™ coring system improves 
efficiency and de-risks core recovery through the use of a 
fully-closed and jam-mitigating core barrel. By combining 
these key features, CORTIVA™ shortens the time and costs 
required to cut and retrieve a core sample by ensuring the 
whole core section is retrieved safely in a single trip. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Core jamming during coring operations and/or loss of friable 
core material during trip-outs leads to additional coring runs, 
resulting in increased rig time and cost. Jams that occur 
inside the inner tube of a core barrel can often be mitigated 
by certain jam-mitigation techniques, allowing coring to 
continue. However, jams that occur in the core catcher, 
provoked by the mechanical interaction of the core with the 
catcher mechanism, would not be mitigated by such anti-
jamming technologies. These typically occur in formations 
that are a mixture of fractured (jamming-prone) and friable 
rock. This type of complex, coring application demands 
technologies beyond what is currently available in the 
market. Competitors have either standalone jam mitigation 
systems for jam-prone formations, or full-closure catcher 
systems for unconsolidated/friable rock.
Baker 
Hughes 
combines 
the 
benefits 
of 
various 
technologies to improve the efficiency of coring operations 
in complex formations. With its CORTIVA™ full-closure system 
with jam mitigation technology, Baker Hughes combines 
the JamBuster™ jam mitigation coring system and the 
HydroLift™ full-closure catcher system−industry standards 
for jam mitigation and recovery of friable rock to improve 
the efficiency and recovery of high-quality core in complex 
fractured and friable formations.
The Baker Hughes patented JamBuster™ system neutralizes 
jams inside the inner tube through concentric inner core 
barrel sleeves that automatically telescope if a core 
becomes jammed in the core barrel, allowing coring to 
continue without interruption. The HydroLift™ system 
efficiently recovers high-quality, intact core samples 
collected in soft, or unconsolidated formations. The system’s 
slick, unobstructed entry eliminates the risk of jamming at 
the core catcher for the incoming core, while the full closure 
mechanism secures the core, thus preventing loss of friable/
loose formation during trip-out. 
The CORTIVA™ full-closure system with jam mitigation 
technology is also integrated with HT30™ Max core barrel 
system to deliver an unmatched core size. It also reduces 
core acquisition costs by acquiring longer, high-quality core 
samples per run, even in harsh environments.


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Delivers high performance across a wide temperature range 
•	
Compatible in a range of environments including corrosion-inhibited fluids and reservoir fluids 
•	
Resistant to sour conditions
•	
Single compound simplifies material recommendations and testing for well planning across all seals including packing 
elements, O-rings, and bonded seals
•	
Extends life of seal, further improving reliability
•	
Meets ISO 23936-2 and API 11D1 standard
APTUM™ DOWNHOLE SEALS
In geological sequestration, completion integrity for any 
well penetrating the target storage interval is key to 
maintaining storage integrity over the life of the project. 
Chemical corrosion inhibitors and reservoir’s environmental 
factors can be damaging to elastomer seals over time. 
The most common sealing elastomers in the industry 
today often force a choice between effectiveness at low 
temperatures or chemical compatibility with corrosion 
inhibitors. Aptum™ seal systems, along with industry-
leading packers such as the Premier™ NXT removable 
production packer, perform at lower, more appropriate 
temperatures for CCUS and yet maintain excellent 
chemical compatibility and mechanical properties. With 
Aptum™ seals in the completion, operators can better 
protect their metal tubulars and equipment without fear of 
elastomer degradation.
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
In typical well completions, the injection or monitoring 
tubing string is isolated from the well casing by a production 
packer. This packer creates a mechanical anchor and 
a seal between the tubing and casing. The four main 
elastomers currently used in these packer element systems 
to seal between the tubing and the casing are Nitrile (NBR), 
hydrogenated Nitrile (HNBR), Aflas (FEPM), and Viton (FKM). 
These elastomers provide an excellent range of capabilities 
for most applications. However, in each case, there are trade-
offs, which can introduce risks and costs to an operation. 
For instance, NBR has balanced mechanical properties 
and performs well even at lower temperatures. However, 
its chemical resistance, particularly to corrosion inhibitors, 
is quite low. Aflas, on the other hand, is excellent for use in 
many inhibited brines, but has significant limitations in lower 
temperatures. Baker Hughes set out to develop a balanced 
element system that could be used confidently in a broader 
range of applications – carbon storage being a prime 
example. 
Aptum™ seals are compatible with a range of industry 
standard corrosion inhibitors while still maintaining sealing 
capabilities in low downhole temperatures.
Carbon 
storage 
applications 
can 
create 
corrosive 
environments when CO2 becomes mixed with water and 
other fluids in the wellbore. Completion equipment can 
often be exposed to hydrocarbons, formation water, CO2 
and a host of other corrosive fluids. A common and effective 
way of combating this corrosion is to treat the completion 
fluids with corrosion inhibitors. These corrosion inhibitors 
protect the metallic components of the completion including 
the casing, tubing, and packer body. However, they can also 
degrade the elastomer. As mentioned earlier, elastomers 
with excellent compatibility with inhibited fluids often have 
temperature limitations. 
Many target formations for sequestration are shallow and 
have lower temperatures, making them difficult applications 
for elastomers such as Aflas. Add the potential for significant 
cooling during various phases of CO2-injection operations, 
and a new solution is needed. Aptum™ provides excellent 
performance at 4 °C (40 °F) yet maintains long-term 
compatibility with bromide- and chloride-inhibited brines. 
When used as a part of the Premier™ removable production 
packer, Aptum™ seals enable a secure seal between the 
tubing and the casing, create a reliable mechanical anchor 
for the tubing string throughout extreme temperature and 
pressure changes, and is easily removed from the well for 
workover or plug and abandonment activities.
MATERIALS
TEMPERATURE 
40 °F (4 °C)
TEMPERATURE 
350 °F (177 °C)
INHIBITED 
BRINE >200 °F 
(93.3 °C)
BROMIDE 
RESISTANCE
OIL-BASED 
MUD 
RESISTANCE
H2S 
RESISTANCE 
>10%
BALANCED 
MECHANICAL 
PROPERTIES
PRODUCED 
RESERVOIR 
FLUIDS
Aptum Seal
Nitrile (NBR)
Hydrogenated Nitrile (HNBR)
Viton (FKM)
Aflas (FEPM)
Due to excessive swelling, limit exposure to oil-based mud (OBM) during run-in
Due to excessive swelling, O-rings and packing elements require back-up mechanisms to reduce extrusion


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DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Provides a robust rock-to-rock barrier
•	
Reduces cost and time associated with section milling
•	
Decreased health, safety & environment (HSE) risk for personnel on site
•	
Reduces requirements for rig capability, swarf handling, and other specialized equipment
•	
Eliminates the need for swarf cleaning, transport, and disposal
HEAVY METAL™ SWARF-FREE SECTION MILLING
Many of the world’s most promising geological targets for 
large scale CO2 storage exist in and above late-life and 
depleted hydrocarbon plays. Late-life fields often have 
many existing wells that penetrate the target storage 
geology and can pose seal integrity risks. Baker Hughes 
offers advanced plug and abandonment solutions to 
ensure that the integrity of aging infrastructure is not 
compromised for the life of the sequestration project. 
During plug and abandonment operations, it is sometimes 
required to remove a section of the casing and adjacent 
cement sheath to expose the formation. This process is 
called section milling. Section milling operations provide 
an effective downhole seal during plug and abandonment 
by setting a cement plug directly across the geologic seal 
- removing metal tubulars and potentially failed cement. 
However, section milling operations can be challenging, 
which makes its large scale use less appealing. 
Additionally, 
conventional 
section 
milling 
requires 
specialized equipment to handle the cuttings or ‘swarf’ that 
are brought to surface during milling operations. HEAVY 
METAL™ swarf-free section milling system increases the 
efficiency while decreasing the cost and carbon footprint of 
section milling operations. By improving the performance 
and economics of section milling operations, wells can be 
plugged more effectively and with less long-term risk of 
seal integrity issues. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 gianluca.difederico@bakerhughes.com
Web: 	
www.bakerhughes.com 
BAKER HUGHES
Section milling is a conventional method for casing removal 
during plug and abandonment (P&A) operations where 
annular well integrity is compromised or questioned. The 
removal of casing by milling a window provides full access 
to the virgin formation, enabling placement of a rock-to-
rock barrier. Swarf is an unavoidable by-product of section 
milling, generating thousands of pounds of these sharp 
metal cuttings that have to be removed from the well. 
Retrieving and handling the swarf is a time-consuming and 
costly process that poses additional health, safety, and 
environmental (HSE) risks, and oftentimes operators will 
opt for less reliable options, such as perf-and-wash, just to 
avoid swarf. 
Baker Hughes offers the HEAVY METAL™ swarf-free section 
milling service to provide a reliable solution without the 
negative side effects of swarf. It eliminates swarf to surface 
through a unique upwards milling process, depositing 
swarf deep in the rathole, while still enabling a secure 
rock-to-rock barrier. This unique service reduces time 
and costs in half, eliminating the need for swarf removal 
and the risks that swarf presents to people, equipment, 
and the environment. The bottomhole assembly (BHA) 
consists of multiple tools providing different functions to 
enable upwards section milling using normal right hand 
drill pipe connections without any rotation at surface. A 
torque isolator allows uninterrupted axial movement and 
continuously isolates reactive torque of the left-hand mud 
motor, while milling upwards. The mud motor requires 
circulation from surface and provides downhole left-hand-
rotation and torque to the section mill and auger. 
The 
system’s 
section 
mill 
features 
upward-facing 
knives that utilize METAL MUNCHER™ advanced milling 
technology (AMT) carbide cutting structures and allow 
upward milling and reaming in one run—even in long 
laterals. The section mill cuts through the casing at the 
bottom of the window, mills upwards to the desired 
distance, and then reliably retracts its knives at the top of 
the window. 
The auger continuously transports any swarf created from 
the window to the bottom of the rathole, leaving it all in the 
well, while providing a window free of swarf. Because the 
swarf does not have to be circulated to surface, there is no 
need to change over to a high viscosity milling fluid, saving 
additional cost and logistics.
A Baker Hughes dedicated project management team 
can oversee the entire P&A project—from planning phase 
through final abandonment— all with a strong focus 
on safety and efficiency. With a single point of contact, 
customers achieve a simplified, streamlined process that 
helps reduce time and minimize risk.


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Unique combination of products and services across the full CCUS value chain including the expanding applications 
for Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC™). 
•	
Over 15 years’ experience and participation in 8 large-scale CCUS projects and 2 current 30 Tonnes Per Day (tpd) 
CCC™ projects. 
•	
Full product range includes fans, heaters, compressors, CO2 capture and processing hardware, storage tanks, 
transportation tanks and remote monitoring systems for both gas and liquid. 
•	
Chart’s CCC™ Systems are providing results without the use of chemicals or contaminants, providing significant cost 
and energy savings.
•	
Significant knowledge of the processes and challenges of energy intensive hard to abate industries such as Power, Oil 
& Gas, Petrochemical, Steel and Cement.
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION AND STORAGE
CHART INDUSTRIES, INC.
Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is a 
necessity, not an option, and could contribute up to 20% of 
global emissions reductions required (International Energy 
Agency). One hundred times the current levels of carbon 
capture will be needed by 2050 to keep global warming 
below 1.5°C.
Chart Industries, Inc. is a global leader in the design, 
engineering and manufacturing of process technology 
and equipment. With more than 80 years’ experience 
in industrial gases and diverse knowledge in cryogenic 
processes, Chart delivers the effective solutions to tackle 
carbon emission challenges.
In March 2023, Chart completed the acquisition of 
Howden, a leading global provider of mission critical air 
and gas handling products and services for over 165 
years. The combination of Chart and Howden expands 
the offering of products and services to provide a unique 
range of efficient, sustainable and innovative technologies 
to support customers in all stages of the CCUS value chain. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 Mark.Courtney@howden.com
Web: 	
www.chartindustries.com 
	
www.howden.com/en-gb
DESCRIPTION
EFFICIENT AND INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS ACROSS THE 
FULL CCUS VALUE CHAIN
CO2 Capture and Separation
CO2 is captured either at source (Post Combustion/Post 
Process Capture) or from the air (Direct Air Capture). 
Post Combustion Capture
Post Combustion Capture is the process of capturing 
CO2 emissions at source before they are released into 
the atmosphere, which is particularly relevant for large-
scale industrial facilities which rely on fossil fuels. This 
includes facilities such as power plants, cement production 
facilities and chemical plants where limited alternative 
clean fuel sources are available. Capture at source 
allows these industries to continue to operate without 
releasing significant levels of CO2. Howden supports post-
combustion capture with booster fans, gas-gas heaters 
and oxidation blowers. 
Many other industrial processes, like fermentation or 
chemical reactions, also generate large quantities of CO2 
that is also best captured at relatively high concentration at 
source.  
Howden is a world leader in Mechanical Vapour 
Recompression (MVR) technologies, which is a key 
element for reduced energy in the separation of CO2 from 
the solvent that captured the CO2. Roots Blowers and 
Howden Turbo Compressors or blowers form the basis of 
the MVR systems. 
Direct Air Capture (DAC)
Direct Air Capture is the process of capturing CO2 directly 
from the ambient air using fans to draw in the air and then 
trap the CO2. Both Chart and Howden provide the low-
pressure axial fans that would be mounted on top of a DAC 
tower to draw air through a recirculating fluid or through 
a solid sorbent which traps the CO2 from the ambient air. 
DAC is an emerging technology and as the technology 
develops further, will benefit from higher pressure 
centrifugal fans, a core capability of Howden.
Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC)
In addition to traditional carbon capture methods, Chart 
offers Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ systems, which as the 
names implies, uses the thermodynamics of pressure 
and low temperatures to separate the CO2 from plant or 
process exhaust. The CO2 is captured, separated, purified 
and pressurized in a single process, and delivered as a 
high-purity liquid ready for transport, storage or re-use. 
More information about the full CCC process can be found 
later in this article. 
CO2 purification and dehydration
After it is captured, the CO2 is then purified, treated and 
prepared for permanent storage (sequestration) or direct 
usage. Depending on the required capacity, flexibility, 
reliability and efficiency, the most suitable Howden 
compression technologies can be selected from screw, 
centrifugal, piston or diaphragm compressors to compress 
and condense the CO2 ready for transport, storage or use. 
In some cases there is an opportunity for substantial 
operational and energy cost savings by using multi 
machine systems where Howden can select individual 
compressors based on optimization of full and part-load 
performance, CAPEX and OPEX.
Transport, Storage and Use 
After the CO2 has been separated and processed, it is then 
transported from where it was captured either to a storage 
site for permanent storage or for direct use.  
Transport 
There are multiple ways the CO2 can be transported 
including transporting it in a pressurized tank by car, railway 
or ships, or through a pipeline. Depending on the specific 
requirements, Howden can supply a screw, reciprocating 
or centrifugal compressor to transport the gas, and boost it 
for injection & Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) purposes.
Storage of CO2 in Gas or Liquid 
CO2 can be stored as a liquid or a gas depending on the 
downstream use. For decades Chart has provided leading 
cryogenic CO2 storage solutions for the industrial gas 
market from transportable liquid cylinders such as the 
Dura-Cyl® and Carbo-Max® equipment for pilot and small-
scale systems to industrial bulk tanks, CO2 ISO units or 
CO2 tank trucks. Chart’s solutions have been in service for 
decades and are available globally to support customers in 
CO2. 
Howden Turbo fans to produce bioethanol from CO2 at Arcelor 
Mittal


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Sequestration of CO2 Gases
CO2 sequestration is the process of permanently storing 
the captured CO2. Often permanent sequestration 
is referenced to mean storage deep underground in 
geological formations such as saline formations, oil and 
natural gas reservoirs, coal seams, basalt formations and 
organic-rich shales. Howden compressors can boost 
pressure to over 200 bar for injection of the CO2 into these 
porous rock formations to permanently trap it away from 
the atmosphere. As this is a growing field of study, there are 
methods of permanent sequestration of CO2 (or converted 
derivatives) to extend to agriculture soil amendments and 
water and matter entrainment, binding the CO2 molecule in 
a way that prevents future release. 
Direct Use or Re-use of CO2 (Utilization)
The captured CO2 gas can be used in a wide range of 
industries such as production of materials, urea/fertiliser 
production, food and beverage, healthcare, water 
treatment, refrigeration, indoor agriculture and biofuel 
production. Chart provides the CO2 tank and mobile 
storage solutions to enable CO2 reuse or distribution. 
Howden has been optimizing its compressors to handle 
CO2 for many decades. In the many diverse industries that 
can utilise captured CO2, such as the Food and Beverage 
industry, Howden already supplies tailor made screw, 
diaphragm, piston and centrifugal compressors to plants 
around the world. 
Chart - Carbon Capture System Solutions 
Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC) 
Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ is a post-combustion 
technology that reduces carbon emissions from fossil 
fueled power stations, cement, steel, and other industrial 
facilities using cryogenics to separate the CO2 in a highly 
efficient process delivering high-purity, liquid CO2 (LCO2) 
ready for transportation, storage and use. 
Chart acquired Sustainable Energy Solutions (SES) in 2020 
to scale and commercialize the CCC process with the 
potential to reduce carbon emissions from all types of post-
combustion emissions sources by 95% to 99% and remove 
other pollutants, such as sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, 
and mercury, at half the cost and energy of alternative 
carbon capture technologies. Current projects are proving 
the large-scale reliability, efficiency, and scalability of the 
CCC process to achieve cost-effective carbon capture for 
power and industrial markets.
The CCC technology uses phase change to separate 
CO2 and other pollutants from exhaust gases. Cooling the 
exhaust gas results in the CO2 gas transforming into a solid 
without passing through the liquid phase (desublimation); 
the CO2 is then separated from the remaining gas, 
pressurized, and melted resulting in liquid CO2 ready for 
transportation and use. 
The CCC process is minimally invasive and highly efficient, 
effectively utilizing heat integration to achieve up to a 
50% reduction in parasitic energy demand depending 
on project-specific conditions compared to an amine 
absorption process. 
While traditional carbon capture methods seek to lower 
the Carbon Intensity (CI) scores of many applications, the 
unique liquefaction process of CCC cleans the carbon 
meaning it can be resold or reused as Liquid CO2. An 
example of this is the oil and gas industry, where the 
CO2 can be used for enhanced oil recovery. SES has 
also demonstrated use of the CO2 for a variety of cases 
including curing concrete and converting the CO2 to useful 
products.
Chart’s CCC process results in high purity LCO2, which 
can be used in a range of applications including chemical 
manufacturing, synthetic fuel production, concrete curing, 
food and beverage and enhancing plant growth at 
commercial nurseries. Chart engineers and manufactures 
the low-pressure cryogenic storage tanks, transportation 
equipment, loading and unloading skids, and end user 
re-use equipment for multiple applications of CO2.   From 
storage tanks of 1000m3 size to ISO units, to MicroBulk 
solutions, Chart can deliver the effective solutions for re-
use on site or re-use in a range of applications.
Small-scale 
Carbon 
Capture 
with 
Earthly 
Labs 
Technology
Earthly Labs technology is uniquely designed to capture 
carbon dioxide waste from lower volume, higher 
concentration sources such as breweries, wineries and 
biogas and purifying CO2 for beverage quality reuse. 
Earthly Labs offers a full solution including CO2 capture 
hardware, software, installation, and remote monitoring 
services. The CO2 is captured, purified, monitored and 
reused. The technology is proven, compact and cost 
effective, capturing millions of carbon dioxide molecules 
annually helping customers save thousands in CO2 and 
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
An example of where the Earthly Labs technology is making 
a significant impact is craft breweries. The CO2 is captured 
from fermentation tanks and pushed through a foam trap 
into the compact CO2 capture unit, where all purification, 
compression and liquefaction is carried out. The resulting 
Liquid CO2 from the process is then transferred into a 
Chart storage tank and the brewer uses the liquid CO2 
to carbonate their beer and purge tanks. In addition to 
reducing their carbon emissions every week, the breweries 
are reducing supply chain risk in an increasing volatile CO2 
market, reducing their use of industrial CO2, reducing costs 
and advancing their sustainability goals.
Small-scale Carbon Capture with Earthy Labs Technology
Chart Industries product offerings for Cryogenic Carbon Capture™ (CCC™)


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SUMMARY
CO2
H2
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE
CHEVRON NEW ENERGIES
In a growing world faced with complex energy challenges, 
innovative solutions are required to deliver a lower carbon 
future.  At Chevron New Energies, we understand the 
importance of addressing climate change and accelerating 
lower carbon solutions.  Chevron’s strength has always 
been solving big, complex energy challenges. 
Our 
Company’s 
energy 
transition 
approach 
is 
straightforward: we are lowering the carbon intensity of 
our operations and growing lower carbon businesses 
by leveraging our capabilities, assets, and customer 
relationships.  We are scaling and commercializing new 
businesses to meet customers’ lower carbon ambitions 
through a portfolio of energy solutions that include carbon 
capture, utilization, and storage; hydrogen; carbon offsets; 
emerging technologies; and renewable fuels and products. 
We aim to help reduce emissions of the essential industries, 
such as refining, petrochemicals, steel, and cement that 
enable modern society for a better tomorrow.
CONTACT
Email: 	 newenergies@chevron.com
Web: 	
www.chevron.com/operations/new-energies
BENEFITS
•	
Chevron New Energies is well-placed to be a CCUS leader building upon our capabilities, assets, and customer 
relationships.
•	
We bring decades of operational experience and a proven track record of carbon capture projects.
•	
We are one of few companies with the ability to execute across the CCUS value chain and scale this critical technology.
•	
Our direct experience in understanding and driving portfolio-wide emissions reductions enables us to collaborate with 
customers to help solve their lower carbon needs.
•	
We are a full-service provider with a balanced approach to develop decarbonization solutions with customers in our 
key geographies of North America and Asia Pacific.
•	
Chevron has committed $10B total capital toward lower carbon energy by 2028 to progress our ambitions.
DESCRIPTION
SCALING CCUS
Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is a critical 
enabler for achieving global net zero goals.  Chevron 
New Energies is advancing CCUS and next generation 
technologies by scaling viable lower carbon solutions 
across the value chain to help our company and industrial 
customers reach their lower carbon ambitions.  We are 
targeting 25 million tonnes of CO2 per year in equity 
storage by the end of this decade, with a focus on 
developing regional hubs that leverage our existing and 
new partnerships with customers, governments, and 
industry.
Chevron is actively evaluating multiple locations globally 
to implement CCUS solutions. We see a future in the 
development of CO₂ hubs where emissions from multiple 
sources are combined for permanent sequestration in 
underground storage reservoirs. As hub concepts and 
projects are developed, neighboring industrial plants and 
third-party emitters can be enrolled as potential partners 
and customers.  
We are investing in and piloting emerging technologies 
across the CCUS value chain to reduce costs, develop new 
ways to capture, use, and sequester CO2, with the goal of 
scaling these solutions.
We’re also taking action to reduce the carbon intensity 
of our own operations. Using the marginal abatement 
cost curve (MACC) process, we have direct experience 
in understanding and driving portfolio-wide emissions 
reductions. We can leverage this experience to collaborate 
with customers to help address their lower carbon needs.
Chevron has committed $10B in total capital towards 
lower carbon energy by 2028 to help progress our energy 
transition ambitions.    
PROJECT AND PARTNERSHIP HIGHLIGHTS
Chevron brings decades of operational experience through 
our large-scale deployment of CO2 injection in the United 
States over the last 40 years. We have safely operated a 
CO₂ pipeline in Colorado for 35 years. This experience is 
coupled with our capabilities in drilling, geology, injection, 
pipeline operations, monitoring and managing pressure in 
wells, and our ability to successfully bring together diverse 
stakeholders across the value chain.
In Australia, the Chevron-operated Gorgon liquefied 
natural gas (LNG) facility incorporates one of the world’s 
largest integrated carbon capture and storage (CCS) 
systems. Naturally occurring CO₂ found in the offshore gas 
reservoirs that supply the Gorgon LNG facility is injected 
into a large sandstone formation two kilometers beneath 
Barrow Island. More than 7.8MM tonnes of GHG emissions 
have been captured and stored since the system started 
up in mid-2019; we expect to mitigate more than 100MM 
tonnes of CO₂ over the life of the project.  
Carbon Capture demonstration with Svante and National Energy Technology Laboratory (project #DE-FE0031944)


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Chevron recently became the operator of Bayou Bend 
CCS, a carbon capture and storage project located along 
the Texas Gulf Coast. We announced an expansion of its 
CO2 storage footprint through the acquisition of nearly 
100,000 acres onshore in Chambers and Jefferson 
Counties, Texas. With a gross storage capacity of more 
than one billion metric tons, Bayou Bend CCS is positioned 
to be one of the largest carbon storage projects in the 
United States, and a leading transportation and storage 
solution for industrial emitters located in the Houston Ship 
Channel and Beaumont / Port Arthur region, one of the 
largest industrial corridors in the country.
Chevron aims to reduce the carbon intensity in San 
Joaquin Valley, CA. The proposed carbon capture and 
storage project at our Eastridge facility entails installing 
CO2 post-combustion capture equipment, compressing 
the CO2, and then injecting the CO2 into the subsurface for 
permanent storage.
Chevron New Energies is a part of three joint ventures 
that have been granted an interest in three offshore 
greenhouse gas storage assessment permits in Australia. 
Additionally, Chevron announced a memorandum of 
understanding with Air Liquide, Keppel Infrastructure and 
PetroChina to advance the development of large-scale 
CCUS solutions in Singapore.
We are investing in CCUS technologies (e.g., Carbon 
Clean Solutions, Svante, Blue Planet, Ocean GeoLoop) 
to bring early insights through pilot programs – often 
utilizing Chevron’s existing assets -- and to accelerate 
commercialization of promising technologies.
We are advancing a project awarded from the U.S. 
Department of Energy (#DE-FE0031944) to pilot technology 
that captures CO2 from post-combustion gas at our Kern 
River Carbon Capture site in San Joaquin Valley, California. 
In collaboration with Svante and the National Energy 
Technology Laboratory, we launched a 6-month pilot of 
Svante technology at scale in November 2022 with the 
goal to reduce CO2 capture costs and help commercialize 
this technology. 
ACCELERATING LOWER CARBON SOLUTIONS
Our capabilities, assets, and customer relationships will 
serve as a platform for rapid growth in the years to come. 
We bring a unique set of capabilities to each of these areas. 
Our existing assets span the value chain and are in areas 
where we can facilitate demand based on cost-competitive 
supply combined with appropriate policy support. We have 
strong relationships with key customers and partners, 
which will be critical in developing economic projects that 
can scale quickly across a complex value chain.
Innovation, partnerships, and policy will be key drivers 
of change. We begin with a portfolio of existing assets 
and decades of experience as a strong foundation for 
future growth. We’ve successfully managed complex 
joint ventures all over the world. We have deep technical 
expertise and a long history of advancing and adopting 
external 
innovation. 
We 
have 
strong 
commercial 
capabilities and experience managing rapidly changing 
businesses. 
Managing 
diverse 
stakeholder 
and 
government interests is something we do every day. 
Chevron’s credibility and reputation make us the partner 
of choice, bringing access to new opportunities.  Chevron 
New Energies is taking action to help build the lower 
carbon energy system of tomorrow.
Employees at Chevron’s Gorgon Project in Australia


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DESCRIPTION
CCUS PROJECT PIPELINE IN ENI
Eni has decades of experience in the storage of natural 
gas in depleted fields and is applying its experience 
and expertise to repurpose existing infrastructure into 
permanent carbon dioxide storage hubs to decarbonize 
both its own industrial activities and those of 3rd parties. 
In Norway, Eni is partner of Sleipner, the first CCUS project 
in Europe, successfully in operation since 1996. In the 
United Kingdom, Eni is the T&S Operator of the Hynet 
North West consortium, which has been selected by the 
government as one of the two priority CCS projects that will 
contribute to the Country decarbonization strategy. Hynet 
is on track to be ready to start operation in 2025 with the 
capability to inject 4.5 Mtpa (potential up to 10 Mtpa after 
2030) in depleted gas fields offshore Liverpool Bay.
In Italy, Eni is developing the CCS Ravenna Hub project in a 
joint venture with Snam. Located off the coast of Ravenna 
and based on the large capacity of depleted gas fields in 
the Adriatic Sea, this will be the first CO2 storage project in 
Italy and potentially the largest one in the Mediterranean 
Area. Phase 1 of the project, already authorized by Italian 
authorities, will start operations in 2024 with 25 ktpa 
capacity. The industrial phase, with an injection capacity 
of 4Mtpa and a potential expansion to over 10Mtpa after 
2030 is scheduled to start in 2026.
Outside Europe, Eni is evaluating other CCS opportunities 
in Libya, Egypt, Algeria, and Australia. Globally all these 
projects will store a gross volume of carbon dioxide of 
around 30 Mtpa in 2030.  
CAPTURE
Carbon Capture is the most significant element in terms of 
costs along the CCUS chain: 60-70% of the total cost.
Hence, while there are several well proven technologies 
that have been applied for decades, improved processes 
as well as innovative solutions are being developed at 
global level with the purpose of cost optimization.
To be able to address the widest possible range of industrial 
emissions, Eni is developing proprietary separation 
technology as well as monitoring and incorporating in its 
technology portfolio the different capture technologies that 
are commercially available or under development around 
the world.
Several activities have been carried out to de-risk the 
application of novel technologies, both through ad hoc 
experimentation in our labs and through collaborations and 
experimental campaigns in specialized R&D centers.
R&D areas of interest in capture technology are, among 
others:
•	
Absorption (e.g., amine, carbonate-based solvents)
•	
Adsorption (solid materials)
•	
Membranes separation
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Full in-house competence along the CCUS value chain
•	
Strategic distribution of depleted reservoirs in the North Sea and Mediterranean areas near industrial emitters
•	
Cost-effective storage solutions through repurposing of existing infrastructures
•	
Demonstrated competency to manage complex projects from our long successful track record in the O&G industry
•	
Strong R&D capabilities to unlock value from capture & utilization technology portfolios
•	
Proprietary technology and tools for modeling and monitoring
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS
Eni is building a leadership position as a provider of 
decarbonization services, based on a portfolio of cross-
business technology solutions and a balanced mix of low 
carbon products in order to effectively address scope 
1+2+3 emissions. Eni’s strategy aims to deliver a secure and 
sustainable energy system, while keeping a sharp focus on 
a just energy transition and value creation for stakeholders. 
Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is one 
of the main pillars of this strategy. Specifically, we are 
addressing industry needs, in particular for the Hard-to-
Abate sectors. As a global energy company with decades 
of experience and leader in technological development, 
Eni already has an extensive heritage in operations, 
subsurface characterization, modeling, and monitoring. 
This know-how has been transferred to CCUS leveraging 
on existing upstream assets, including depleted reservoirs 
and offshore infrastructures strategically distributed in 
the North Sea and Mediterranean regions. This allows for 
the delivery of projects both in a timely and cost effective 
manner.
An additional element of this strategy is the strong R&D and 
technical capabilities to support emitters in the selection of 
the most effective capture solutions. They are identified 
among a wide technology portfolio that relies on strategic 
collaborations with leading technology providers as well as 
on our own proprietary technologies.
CONTACT
Email: 	 roberto.ferrario@eni.com
Web: 	
www.eni.com
ENI
PROJECT PIPELINE
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
NEW INITIATIVES
IN OPERATION
UK 
- Hynet
Norway- Sleipner
Italy
Ravenna
Libya 
- BES
Egypt
Australia
Algeria


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STORAGE
Eni’s remarkable experience in exploration and field 
development has been transferred, in recent years, to CO2 
storage projects. 
Eni’s centralized G&G (Geological and Geophysical) 
technical services can provide advanced technologies 
and methodologies, which are strictly linked to high-level 
competencies and commitment towards innovation. The 
very same approach is applied to CO2 storage projects. 
The re-purposing of competences from O&G exploration 
to CCS is based on a solid knowledge of how integrated 
specialistic studies should be carried out. 
This starts from seismic processing, imaging and inversion, 
activities where Eni can take advantage of one of the most 
powerful HPC machines in the industry. Eni G&G workflow 
includes rock physics modeling, sedimentological studies, 
structural and fault seal analysis, basin-scale migration, 
using commercial and proprietary software as e-SimbaTM. 
All the specialistic studies are carried out internally, 
maximizing the communication between the different 
technical teams and project management. The adopted 
multidisciplinary approach to characterize the storage 
complex through the subsurface modeling benefits from 
continuously updating the technologies.  
Eni’s consolidated experience in reservoir modeling has 
also been transferred to storage projects. To support this 
kind of analysis, Eni is increasingly using Echelon, the 
proprietary simulator developed to exploit all internal HPC 
capabilities. In the framework of CO2 injection modeling, 
further functions are under implementation in order to 
accurately consider all the processes that take place when 
CO2 is injected in the porous medium. 
The modeling of CO2 storage in depleted fields requires 
additional input data for the geochemical-mineralogical 
characterization of rocks and fluids. Eni has developed 
a multidisciplinary workflow that integrates laboratory 
tests (i.e., ageing experiments at reservoir conditions) and 
numerical procedures (i.e., thermodynamic parameter 
estimation) to identify, model, and quantify the main 
reactive processes induced by exogenous CO2. The 
approach can also be used for investigating the sealing 
efficiency of cap rock by integrating geochemical analyses 
with fluid breakthrough pressure tests and geomechanical 
tests.
Eni has developed subsurface characterization and 
modeling workflows that integrate laboratory analysis with 
static, dynamic and geomechanical modeling. 
Starting from a 3D fluid-dynamic model, validated through 
historical data, specialistic studies are implemented to 
guide the definition of the optimal injection profile. The 
complete interdisciplinary simulation workflow includes:
•	
geomechanical studies to assess thermal effect due to 
the injection of a cold fluid within a warm formation
•	
geomechanical studies for fault stability caprock 
integrity evaluations
•	
geochemical studies to assess the effect on 
petrophysical properties and injectivity during the 
injection period
•	
flow assurance analysis to assess the bottom hole 
temperature and the well head conditions, to properly 
design the full CO2 supply equipment (well-heads, 
flowlines, compressors).
UTILIZATION
Eni is developing a proprietary technology for CO2 
utilization through mineralization. The basic principle is a 
spontaneous process in nature. Silicate minerals containing 
magnesium, calcium, and/or iron react with CO2 to form 
very stable, inert, and non-toxic carbonate phases, in which 
CO2 is permanently fixed. 
Eni has optimized the reaction conditions, reaching 
the complete conversion of the mineral in a short 
time. Therefore, the process could be suitable for an 
industrial application and the product could be used as 
a Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) in the 
formulation of cement.
Moreover, Eni is looking into e-fuels production as a 
complementary way of CO2 utilization: green H2 and CO2 
are combined to produce different kind synthetic carbon 
neutral fuels. In particular, Eni is currently developing a 
proprietary technology for SNG (synthetic natural gas) 
production: a pilot unit is about to be built and operated in 
an Italian industrial site in the frame of NextGenEU funding 
program.
MONITORING
In all CO2 storage projects, whether they are in depleted 
fields or in saline formations, monitoring activities play a 
fundamental role, both to guarantee the effectiveness of 
CO2 containment in the selected site and to comply with 
National and International directives. Regarding monitoring 
activities, Eni has twenty years of expertise in the sector, 
related both to the use of proprietary technologies and 
or testing innovative technologies through the direct 
cooperation with innovative service suppliers.
In this direction, the Eni’s Monitoring strategy is based also 
in the development of proprietary instruments, as follow:
•	
MMV multidisciplinary workflow;
•	
E-VPMS™: Vibroacoustic Pipeline Monitoring System 
(patented technology, developed in house R&D 
project);
•	
Clean Sea: patented offshore hybrid AUV/ROV system, 
for simultaneous environmental and asset integrity 
inspections;
•	
Well Monitoring: several internal R&D projects are in 
place, aimed to monitor well integrity, well performance 
and plume migration.
The monitoring plan is a fundamental document, which 
reports the actions to be followed throughout all project 
phases, including the preliminary phase, the injection 
period and the post-injection period.
The MMV refer to the Risk Assessment and also contain 
references regarding the closure and post-closure plans.
Typically, Eni’s monitoring approach has been developed 
with the aim to ensure:
1.	
The ability to compare on field measurements with 
data provided by static and dynamic models;
2.	 Identify any significant on field evidence;
3.	 Detect any CO2 migrations and/or losses;
4.	 Detect any significant negative effects on the 
surrounding environment, and in particular on drinking 
water, human population and users of the surrounding 
biosphere;
5.	 Evaluate the effectiveness of any corrective measures 
taken.
The monitoring plan is designed according to the following 
principles:
•	
Compliance with existing legislation: the monitoring 
plan must comply with regulatory requirements.
•	
Risk-based: 
Monitoring 
activities 
are 
identified 
through a systematic risk assessment. The scope 
and frequency of monitoring activities depend on the 
outcome of the risk analysis.
•	
Site-specific: Monitoring technologies are selected 
for each monitoring task based on the result of site-
specific feasibility assessments and then custom-
designed to ensure optimal monitoring performance 
under specific storage site conditions.
•	
Adaptive: Storage site performance and monitoring 
systems are continuously evaluated and updated.


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DESCRIPTION
1. OVERVIEW OF THE TOMAKOMAI PROJECT
The Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project is an offshore 
CCS project in Japan. The CO2 source is offgas from an 
HPU (Hydrogen Production Unit) of an oil refinery located 
in the coastal area of the Tomakomai Port. CO2 captured by 
an activated amine process is compressed and injected by 
two highly deviated injection wells drilled from an onshore 
site targeting two offshore reservoirs (Fig. 1).
2. KEY RESULTS OF TOMAKOMAI PROJECT
2.1 CO2 CAPTURE
The CO2 capture process used in the Tomakomai project 
is a commercially proven amine scrubbing process (OASE® 
by BASF), and the capture facility is comprised of a two-
stage CO2 absorption tower, a CO2 stripping tower and a 
Low-Pressure Flash Tower (LPFT), as shown in Fig.2. The 
maximum CO2 capture rate is 25.3 tonnes per hour.
The two-stage absorption system shown in Fig. 3 results 
in a significant reduction of the amine reboiler heat 
consumption in the CO2 stripping tower as only a small 
amount of semi-lean amine needs to be sent to the CO2 
stripping tower. The reboiler heat consumption was 
measured as approximately 0.9 GJ/t CO2 or less, which 
is a significantly lower energy consumption than that of a 
conventional one-stage absorption system. The purity of 
the captured CO2 was greater than 99% (dry basis) at the 
top of the LPFT.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
JCCS can share the following knowledge and experience acquired from the Tomakomai Project.
•	
Capture and compression technologies (excluding inherent knowhow belonging to the process licensor)
•	
Injection and monitoring technologies
•	
Public outreach experiences
STORAGE
Japan CCS Co., Ltd. (JCCS) was founded in May 2008 when 
a group of major companies with expertise in CCS-related 
fields, including electric power, petroleum, oil development, 
and plant engineering, joined forces to answer the Japanese 
government’s call for development of CCS technology.
JCCS has been conducting the Tomakomai CCS 
Demonstration 
Project, 
Japan’s 
first 
full-chain 
CCS 
demonstration project in Tomakomai City, Hokkaido 
Prefecture, Japan since JFY2012 (JFY: Japanese fiscal 
year from April to March). The project was commissioned 
to JCCS by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry 
(METI) between JFY2012 and 2017, and from JFY2018 
by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development 
Organization (NEDO) with subsidies from METI.
The main objectives and tasks of the project are as follows:
•	
Demonstrate a full-chain CCS system from capture to 
storage
•	
Demonstrate that the CCS system is safe and reliable
•	
Remove concerns about earthquakes by the data 
collected by establishing:
•	
No influence by natural earthquakes on CO2 stored
•	
No perceptible earth tremors induced by CO2 
injection
•	
Disclose project information and data and enhance 
understanding of CCS by local residents
•	
Acquire operational technology as well as strive 
towards practical implementation.
The target of 300,000 tonnes of CO2 injection was 
achieved in November 2019. Post-injection monitoring is 
currently being conducted. No micro-seismicity or natural 
earthquakes attributable to CO2 injection were detected 
in the vicinity of the injection area. The time-lapse monitor 
seismic surveys indicated clear anomalies reflecting the 
evolution of the CO2 plume. The project is being conducted 
with the understanding and support of the local community. 
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@japanccs.com
Web: 	
www.japanccs.com
JAPAN CCS CO., LTD.
Fig. 3 Geological cross section
Fig. 1 Bird’s-eye View of capture and injection facilities of the Tomakomai Project
Fig. 2 Two stage absorption process


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2.2 CO2 INJECTION AND MONITORING
A geological cross section is shown in Fig.4 with profiles 
of the deviated injection wells. The Tomakomai project 
targets two independent reservoirs of different depths 
and different lithofacies; the Lower Quaternary Moebetsu 
formation at about 1,000 to 1,200 m in depth and 3 km off 
the coastline, and the volcanic and volcaniclastic layers of 
the Miocene Takinoue formation at about 2,400 to 3,000 
m in depth and 4 km offshore.
Onshore monitoring facilities were comprised of a seismic 
station and three observation wells with pressure and 
temperature sensors and seismic sensors. Offshore 
facilities were comprised of an OBC (ocean bottom cable) 
with 72 seismic sensors and four OBSs (ocean bottom 
seismometers).
The facilities were deployed as shown in Fig.5 and started 
operation on February 1, 2015, thirteen months before the 
start of CO2 injection. CO2 injection into the Moebetsu 
formation began on April 6, 2016 and was terminated with 
the cumulative amount at 300,012 tonnes on November 
22, 2019. CO2 injections into the Takinoue Formation were 
conducted from February 6 to February 23, 2018, and from 
July 31 to September 1, 2018. The injectivity of the Takinoue 
formation was much lower than expected, and therefore 
the cumulative injection of CO2 was 98 tonnes. 
To date, no seismicity attributable to CO2 injection has 
been detected in the vicinity of the reservoirs (Fig.6). 
Seismic surveys at cumulative CO2 injection of approx. 
65,000, 207,000 and 300,000 tonnes into the Moebetsu 
Formation detected anomalies, indicating evolution of the 
CO2 plume (Fig.7). Seasonal marine environmental surveys 
have detected no indications of seepage of the injected 
CO2.
As a result of an optimization study of the monitoring 
system and the marine environmental survey, some 
monitoring facilities and works have been discontinued 
after JFY 2021.
3. PUBLIC OUTREACH ACTIVITIES
As the project is being conducted close to the center of 
Tomakomai, a large industrial city including active fishing 
with a population of approximately 170,000, securing 
the trust of the local community through sustained 
communication, in particular with the local government 
and fishery cooperatives has been an important step in 
achieving the smooth delivery of the project. A key factor 
was the strong support of the city mayor and the local 
government, which formed the Tomakomai CCS Promotion 
Association in April 2010 (re-organized in October 2021 to 
Tomakomai CCUS/Zero Carbon Promotion Association), 
chaired by the mayor of Tomakomai and comprised 
of all the major local industries including the fishery 
cooperatives.
JCCS also places emphasis on removing concerns 
regarding earthquakes and securing trust in the safety of 
Japan’s CCS technology through various public outreach 
activities such as forums for local residents, panel 
exhibitions, exhibits at environmental conferences, site 
tours, lectures, and experiment classes for schoolchildren. 
We have also maintained an information disclosure system 
in the city hall of Tomakomai.
Fig. 5 Results of micro-seismicity of monitoring
Fig. 6 Results of 3D seismic survey
Fig. 4 Layout of monitoring system of the project


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including adsorbent-based capture, new solvents, and 
novel configurations for solvent-based technologies.
In addition to our carbon capture technology, we design 
and supply gas dehydration and conditioning systems. 
Our diverse gas dehydration portfolio includes triethylene 
glycol (TEG) units, BASF Sorbead® adsorbents and 
molecular sieves adsorbents. We are uniquely positioned 
to select the most optimum CO2 dehydration technology 
considering the dry CO2 specification, and overall 
CAPEX and OPEX of these systems. This expertise has 
allowed us to successfully execute more than 100 gas 
dehydration projects globally which has enabled us to 
achieve high-energy recovery and low-glycol loss in our 
glycol-based dehydration packages and modules, which 
are compact, lightweight, and small in footprint. We are 
developing the next generation of digitalized desiccant-
based dehydration systems, enabling remote monitoring 
of operations which will enhance the desiccant lifetime, 
reduce energy requirements and OPEX of the system. 
Our CO2 dehydration systems reduce the water dewpoint, 
preventing hydrate formation, condensation, and corrosion 
in the downstream processes. Other CO2 conditioning 
packages include removing contaminants like oxygen, 
H2S and Mercury and then compression for end use. We 
are also currently developing off-the-shelf engineered 
standardized modular dehydration packages.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
NOV is a one-stop-shop, offering capabilities to support throughout the entire value chain. These benefits include:
•	
Established execution and global supply chain models, featuring local, low-cost fabrication and decreased delivery 
times
•	
Experience in standardized system and equipment packages to drive efficiency
•	
Precision with large-scale projects, resulting in lower engineering design and project management 
•	
Research and development activity to keep customers involved with the latest CCUS technology advancements
•	
Vast well construction capabilities for geological storage to streamline vendor operations
CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION, AND STORAGE SOLUTIONS
The transition to cleaner, carbon-neutral energy, coupled 
with the growth in decarbonization methods, is one of the 
most significant technological shifts to happen in modern 
history. Throughout our 150 years of experience at NOV, 
we have pioneered innovations that have enabled our 
customers to safely produce abundant energy while 
minimizing the environmental impact of their operations. 
The energy industry depends on our deep expertise and 
technology to assist in advancing the energy transition 
toward a more sustainable future.
We have joined the movement and our goal is simple: 
rejuvenate to improve upon what we already offer, 
repurpose technology and equipment traditionally used 
in oil and gas operations, and reposition the skills and 
knowledge from oil and gas toward the energy transition.
Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is one 
initiative where our gas processing technologists and 
process system experts have been able to utilize their 
core competencies to design a carbon capture system 
for post-combustion flue gas. Within upstream oil and gas, 
our Wellstream Processing group is recognized as the 
global leader in delivering gas processing technologies 
and process systems. This expertise is cultivated from 
our 35-year history of executing more than 350 complex 
gas treatment and conditioning projects in close to 50 
countries worldwide. 
 Our post-combustion carbon capture technology is 
fully commercial, scalable, and adaptable to any flue gas 
application. This solvent-based post-combustion capture 
design utilizes a proprietary solvent that removes more 
than 90% of carbon dioxide. The scalability of our solution 
supports a wide range of applications and industries. 
We are actively engaged in performing and supporting 
carbon capture pre-FEED/FEED studies in a variety of 
flue gas applications including hydrogen, steel, power 
generation, oil & gas, paper and pulp, ethanol, waste-to-
energy, and ammonia. We are reducing the cost of capture 
by deploying NOV’s expertise in standardizing equipment 
packages and developing CO2 point source specific 
product lines.  
We are also involved in strategic partnerships to develop 
new carbon capture technologies that are focused on 
reducing the cost and improving the overall economics of 
implementing carbon capture. To address the challenges 
of implementing capture on smaller emitters below 
100,000 tons per year, we are exploring new technologies 
CONTACT
Email: 	 PF-CCUSMarketing@nov.com
Web: 	
www.nov.com
NOV
DESCRIPTION
Industry-leading solutions for CO2 projects of any size are 
also available for transport, offshore offloading, injection, 
and storage. Our growing suite of automation, control, 
and monitoring solutions also support safe and reliable 
operations. A sampling of our solutions across CCUS 
includes:
TRANSPORTATION
•	
For more than 80 years, Tuboscope has provided 
products and services that improve asset performance 
and maximize useful life. Our TK™-Corrosion control 
products and pipeline connection systems have 
successfully been used in CO2 and carbon capture 
applications, efficiently transporting waste, preventing 
severe deterioration of line pipe and downhole tubing 
due to the corrosive nature of carbon containing 
wastewater. 
•	
The 
proprietary 
suite 
of 
Tube-Kote™ 
coatings 
addresses all operating environments, providing 
superior corrosion protection, deposit mitigation and 
improved hydraulics. When used with our pipeline 
connection systems, the result is a continuous coated 
surface throughout the connection area and improved 
pipeline integrity and efficiency. 
•	
Our TK-Liner, GRE lined carbon steel pipe, delivers 
excellent corrosion protection in highly corrosive 
environments, as well as thermal insulation for 
downhole tubulars and flowlines.
•	
For more than 50 years, composite pipe has been used 
in CO2 injection lines, high- and low-pressure pipelines, 
ductwork, WAG systems, and other challenging 
carbon capture and transportation applications. Our 
products are ideal for these critical applications due 
to their ability to handle concentrations of up to 100% 
CO2. Composite solutions bring excellent corrosion 
resistance without the additional cost of cathodic 
protections or coatings traditional metallic materials 
require. 
•	
Our energy efficient horizontal pumping systems 
are an ideal option to boost CO2 pressure for 
pipeline entry. Tying into our variable frequency 
drive (VFD), users control the speed of the pump to 
adjust discharge pressure and flow rate, as needed. 
Additionally, automation, control, and monitoring 
solutions drive productivity and improve safety and 
reliability. 


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OFFSHORE OFFLOADING, INJECTION, AND STORAGE
•	
We assist customers with offshore CO2 transfer, from 
terminal or storage vessel to shuttle vessel, shuttle 
vessel to storage facilities/well, or from shuttle vessel 
to storage and injection vessel. Transfer and mooring 
systems are important to secure vessels and ensure 
safe and reliable CO2 injection offshore. 
•	
Our Single Anchor Loading (SAL) and Submerged 
Swivel and Yoke (SSY) systems are used in shallow 
waters, while our Submerged Turret Loading (STL) 
system is used in deep water locations. The SAL 
system is designed for shuttling operations where 
continuous injections are not required, also known as 
batch wise injection. Alternately, the STL is suited for 
both shuttling and permanent mooring/continuous 
operation in deeper waters (50 m – 2500 m). The 
SSY is the preferable solution for permanent moored/
continuous operation systems in shallow waters (15 
m – 60 m). Technology choice and individual system 
complexity levels are also subject to specific seabed, 
soil, and weather conditions for the given terminal or 
storage aquifer/reservoir location.
•	
Our portfolio of dynamic high-pressure unbonded 
flexible pipes is compatible with CO2. Already used 
in deep waters for CO2 enhanced oil recovery 
injection (EOR), our offshore flexible pipes are equally 
applicable for injection into permanent storage.
•	
We also develop solutions for safe and efficient 
vessel integration of our technologies for CO2 transfer 
interfaces, which include the Bow Loading System 
(BLS) and the Stern Discharge System (SDS). These 
high performing, field proven technologies have been 
used in the oil and gas industry for decades and are 
easily converted to CO2 transfer in all three pressure 
and temperature levels considered for CO2 handling. 
•	
Our full suite of drilling technologies offers many 
solutions for drilling into saline aquifers or depleted 
oil and gas reservoirs for permanent CO2 storage. We 
offer a complete suite of tubulars and bottom hole 
assembly (BHA) tools, as well as drilling optimization 
services.
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
We are home to multiple research and technology 
centers. Two of our facilities are specifically linked to 
NOV’s low carbon initiatives, the Springett Technology 
Center located just outside of Houston in Navasota, Texas, 
and the Flotta facility in Orkney, Scotland located in the 
heart of the Orkney Net Zero Ecosystem. We can rapidly 
produce prototypes and test technology for customers 
with expanding capabilities to support more low carbon 
initiatives. Additionally, our lab services for low carbon 
supports 
environmental 
impact 
research, 
surveys, 
atmospheric monitoring, and permits. 
As solutions to support decarbonization continue to evolve, 
NOV will remain at the forefront solving challenges and 
partnering with customers across the entire CCUS value 
chain. Please let us know if we can assist with your next 
project by emailing corporatemarketing@nov.com.
CCUS VALUE CHAIN INFOGRAPHIC
NOV technology supports the entire CCUS value chain. 
1 Emission source 
2 Carbon capture system
3 Onshore CO2 injection well
4 Terminal for offshore CO2 transportation
5 Transportation vessel
6 Vessel for offshore offloading and CO2 injection
7 Re-purposed offshore platform for CO2 injection 
8 Offshore injection well for CO2
CARBON CAPTURE SYSTEM
Our built-for-purpose carbon capture system is a solvent 
based, post-combustion capture design that removes more 
than 90% of carbon dioxide.
SUBMERGED TURRET LOADING
An optimal solution for deep water locations, our 
Submerged Turret Loading (STL) system is designed for 
shuttling and permanent mooring or continuous operation. 
Our STL ensures safe and secure injection offshore.
Submerged Turret Loading
Carbon Capture System
CCUS Value Chain Infographic


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DESCRIPTION
Reservoir simulation is a key technology used in different 
phases of a CO2 storage project. Early in the screening 
phase, models are built to estimate capacity, test critical 
operational parameters and eventually select a potential 
site over another. New simulation campaigns are typically 
run during appraisal and to create a project development 
plan. Finally, reservoir simulators are also used to estimate 
contingency and uncertainty for project costs and in 
determining plume migration conformance for storage site 
closure. 
The OpenGoSim (OGS) software package provides 
simulation capabilities to predict the long-term effects of 
storing CO2 in saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon 
fields. Engineers and researchers can run large-scale 
simulations to model the CO2 migration and temperature 
change in detail. The simulator offers a number of accurate 
and easy-to-use built-in options to characterise CO2 and 
its mixture with residual hydrocarbons, while modelling 
CO2 dissolution in brine and temperature effects. It utilises 
mathematical models designed specifically for CCS 
applications, to improve efficiency and usability when 
compared to traditional reservoir simulators developed 
for hydrocarbon recovery and often readapted to model 
CO2 storage. The software is highly scalable and can use 
a large number of computer processors to reduce the 
time needed to simulate large areas of the order of 100 
x 100 km, for hundreds or thousands of years, as is often 
required by CCS studies.
The OGS project started in 2015 building on PFLOTRAN, 
an open-source software developed by the cooperation of 
several US national labs (Los Alamos, Sandia, Oak Ridge, 
Berkley, Pacific Northwest). PFLOTRAN was developed to 
enhance the understanding of a number of environmental 
problems, 
especially 
those 
that 
require 
long-term 
simulations and significant computational resources, such 
as nuclear waste management.
Thanks to support from Equinor, the UK government, 
and private investors, OGS has developed a reservoir 
engineering capability tailored to CO2 storage, which 
now fits into the industry workflow, and has been used in 
several CCS projects across Europe with ongoing uptake 
in other regions. The core simulator remains open-source, 
facilitating cooperations with academia to accelerate 
R&D, while OGS has developed a front-end and an 
application to leverage cloud computing resources and 
to increase the simulator portability and usability. Beyond 
industry adoption, the software is being used by several 
universities worldwide and government institutes (e.g. 
British Geological Survey) in support of research activities, 
and lately has been selected by Imperial College and 
Cambridge University to commercialise some CCS-specific 
upscale techniques and reduced-physics models within 
the StrataTrapper project.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Advanced modelling of CO2 including thermal effects
•	
Well-established parallel-computing technology to speed up simulations
•	
Cloud technology to run models from your laptop
•	
No upfront license fees
•	
Affordable support packages
OPENGOSIM CO2 STORAGE SOFTWARE SUITE
OpenGoSim (OGS) has developed PFLOTRAN-OGS, a 
reservoir simulation package centred on CO2 geological 
storage. The simulator can model CO2 storage in both 
saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon fields. 
The documentation of the software capabilities and the 
user manual is available through the OpenGoSim website.
PFLOTRAN-OGS is open-source software that can be 
downloaded for free, and users can install and use it on 
their own without any support. 
As the company that is developing and maintaining 
PFLOTRAN-OGS, OpenGoSim offers: (1) commercial 
support for an annual subscription fee, (2) a windows 
installer with pre- and post-processing capabilities and (3) a 
solution for cloud deployment.
CONTACT
Email: 	 Rita@opengosim.com
Web: 	
www.opengosim.com
OPENGOSIM
PFLOTRAN-OGS
A reservoir simulator dedicated 
to CO2 storage.
Hamilton (UK): CO2 injection into a depleted gas field
Smeaheia (Norway): CO2 injection into a saline aquifer


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DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL SOLVENTS
We are developing novel amine solvents with energy 
utilization from low-grade waste heat. We succeeded in the 
development of amine solvents that could reduce the CO2 
capture energy by 40% compared with conventional amine 
solvents. Some novel amine solvents are in industrial use 
and have been adopted in two domestic commercial 
plants. 
Membrane 
MEMBRANE 
We are developing organic membranes, such as 
molecular-gate membranes, and inorganic membranes, 
such as zeolite, silica, and palladium membranes. For 
organic membranes, we are working on a molecular-gate 
membrane module, which can separate and capture CO2 
from a mixed gas, including H2 and CO2, generated from 
the production process obtaining H2 from hydrocarbons. 
For inorganic membranes, we are working on separation 
between water and alcohol, CO2 and CH4, and MCH 
(Methylcyclohexane) and H2.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Useful CO2 capture data using various amine compounds that have been accumulated over 20 years
•	
Liquid and solid absorption materials to effectively capture CO2 using low-temperature steam
•	
Organic and inorganic membrane technology that can separate CO2, alcohol, H2O, H2 
•	
Materials for direct air capture (DAC) technology
•	
Membrane reactor technology for CO2 utilization
INNOVATIVE CO2 CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES WITH CHEMICAL ABSORPTION, 
ADSORPTION, AND MEMBRANES
The Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the 
Earth (RITE) is dedicated to developing innovative CO2 
capture technologies and to providing world-leading R&D 
and innovation results with a special focus on chemical 
absorption, adsorption, and the membrane separation 
process. Our research topics cover the development of 
new materials and innovative manufacturing processes 
and high-efficiency CO2 capture systems. As for chemical 
absorption, the solvent developed in our project has been 
put to practical use in a commercial CO2 capture process 
owned by a private Japanese company. For adsorption, 
pilot-scale tests of solid sorbents with good CO2 desorption 
performance at low temperatures with adsorption 
systems are being conducted in collaboration with private 
companies using flue gas from coal-fired power plants. 
Recently, we started to develop new absorbents for low-
concentration CO2 capture at natural gas-fired power 
plants with private companies. Furthermore, the direct 
air capture (DAC) process which captures CO2 from the 
atmosphere is proceeded as a national project by RITE 
in collaboration with a private company to develop an 
innovative solid sorbent and effective capture system. With 
the target of separating CO2 from a highly pressurized gas 
stream using a low-cost, energy-saving process, we have 
been developing membranes and membrane elements. 
They are potentially applied in the integrated coal 
gasification combined cycle (IGCC) and blue-hydrogen 
production.
Efforts are also being made toward the standardization 
of CO2 capture. As the only organization in Japan that 
is a member of the International Test Center Network 
(abbreviated as ITCN, a global association of facilities 
around the world that promotes the research and 
development of CO2 capture technology), RITE regularly 
exchanges information with overseas ITCN members. 
In addition, we are conducting the project “Establish 
a common base for evaluating the standards of CO2 
separation materials,” which started in 2022, and we have 
initiated the establishment of Japan’s first real-gas test 
center at RITE.
These studies are based on results obtained from projects, 
JPNP13012, JPNP16002, JPNP18016 and JPNP21014 
commissioned by the New Energy and Industrial 
Technology Development Organization (NEDO).
CONTACT
Email: 	 kagaku@rite.or.jp
Web: 	
www.rite.or.jp
RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF INNOVATIVE 
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE EARTH
Industrial use second plant


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SOLID SORBENT
We are developing novel solid sorbents (porous sorbents 
modified with amines that are used in chemical solvents). 
Optimum amines and porous supports are chosen 
depending on the CO2 concentration. We are working on 
effective CO2 separation from coal-fired power plants (CO2 
concentration: around 13%), natural gas power plants (CO2 
concentration: around 4%), and the air (CO2 concentration: 
around 0.04%).
ESTABLISHMENT OF A COMMON EVALUATION 
STANDARD FOR CO2 CAPTURE MATERIALS
We promote efforts to establish common evaluation 
standards for CO2 capture technologies. We are 
developing standard evaluation methods for various CO2 
separation materials, while keeping pace with international 
trends in this field. In addition, we will found a real gas 
test center at RITE and support the development of CO2 
separation materials by domestic companies, research 
institutes, and others.
SCOPE
We will further actively participate in the development of 
technology for CO2 separation and recovery, including 
chemical absorption, solid sorbents, and membrane 
separation. 
The 
chemical 
absorption 
process 
will 
be enhanced by the development of practical high-
performance chemical solvents. For solid-sorbent-based 
technology, a pilot-scale test capturing 40t-CO2 per 
day from flue gas at a coal-fired power plant has been 
scheduled for second half of FY 2023–2024, while a new 
project aims to develop innovative solid sorbents for CO2 
capture from natural gas power plants will be started. 
Regarding the DAC technology, we will accelerate its 
development toward a small-scale on-site demonstration at 
Expo 2025 Osaka, Kansai. As for membrane separation, in 
FY 2023, we will complete the fabrication of a prototype 
for a commercial-size membrane module and develop 
a plan for a field test, aiming to move forward into the 
development phase. About the Real Gas Test Center, its 
detailed design will be conducted in FY 2023. We will 
survey potential users to determine the key configurations 
desired and to make the center user-friendly for domestic 
researchers working on CO2 separation materials. It will be 
open by the end of FY 2024. 
In the future, RITE will be fully committed to the above-
mentioned 
research 
topics. 
For 
carbon 
capture 
technologies in a stage very close to practical applications, 
we will conduct scale-up studies and tests under real-gas 
conditions with the aim of establishing the technology at 
an early stage. In sustainable development scenarios for 
decarbonization, negative emissions technologies, such 
as DACCS (direct air capture with carbon storage), are 
expected to make significant contributions. Therefore, 
it is necessary to handle these low-concentration CO2 
emission sources. As the CO2 concentration decreases, 
the amount of gas to be treated increases, and the 
oxygen concentration also increases. The development 
of materials at low cost with superior stability and a 
corresponding system is highly important. We will 
accelerate the development of these technologies so that 
we can implement low-cost, energy-saving CO2 capture 
technologies into our societies as soon as possible. 
Efforts will also be devoted to effectively use the captured 
CO2. We will develop the technology of CO2 fixation 
into carbonates using steel slag and waste concrete 
and explore technology for recycling CO2 into fuel and 
chemical feedstocks.


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DESCRIPTION
ADVANCED TRAFFIC LIGHT SYSTEM (ATLS)
There are concerns about earthquakes induced by the 
formation pressure increase from CO2 injections. This has 
led CO2 injection sites to undertake various monitoring 
activities such as seismic monitoring. To leverage the data 
acquired from these monitoring systems, the CO2 storage 
research group has been developing a management 
system for CO2 injections called the advanced traffic light 
system (ATLS). For hot dry rock geothermal power or 
enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), a traffic light system 
(TLS) has been developed to label a level of safety using 
traffic light colors, i.e., green, yellow, and red, judging by the 
observed data of microseismicity. The proposed ATLS is a 
system equipped with advanced functions to utilize data 
from all monitoring systems such as seismic observations 
at a CO2 injection site and the injection status there.
The ATLS is designed to identify any irregularities as early 
as possible and send the feedback to the CO2 injection 
operation. The system would enable the operator to 
control the CO2 injection rates in accordance with the 
information provided by the ATLS and to undertake the 
necessary countermeasures.
The figure below illustrates a schematic view of the 
workflow of the ATLS. After obtaining the ground 
motion data, the extraction of the seismic events and 
the identification of their locations are automatically 
carried out. In parallel, the latest hypocenter catalog is 
obtained from the Japan Methodological Agency (JMA) 
which is used to exclude the natural earthquakes from 
the catalog generated in the ATLS. Using the continuous 
observation data for two years or more in Tomakomai, 
it was demonstrated that the ATLS has the capability to 
automatically analyze the ground motion data and to locate 
each of the detected microseismic events at the injection 
point.
The frequency and locations of the micro- and natural 
earthquakes in the monitoring area and the colors of traffic 
light determined by the ATLS are displayed.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Procedures and detection technology to monitor offshore CO2 leakage in case of emergency
•	
Operational control system to detect abnormal signs during CO2 injection and prevent induced seismicity
•	
Optical fiber sensing technology to monitor CO2 and reservoir conditions to ensure safe CO2 geological storage
•	
CO2 microbubble injection technology that drastically creates efficient CO2 injection
PRACTICAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR CARBON DIOXIDE GEOLOGICAL STORAGE 
Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth 
(RITE) has been engaged in the research and development 
of carbon dioxide (CO2) geological storage for a quarter 
of a century. We have conducted Japan’s first CO2 
geological storage project in the 2000s and set the stage 
for the feasibility of CCS through fundamental research 
on monitoring technology, analysis, and prediction of CO2 
behavior in geological formations based on observational 
data and analysis of rock properties. In the first half of 
the 2010s, the fundamental technologies for CCS were 
developed, and in the latter half of the 2010s, technological 
development was promoted with the aim of establishing 
technologies that can be utilized in commercial-scale 
projects.
For the implementation of CCS in society, it is important to 
establish not only technology but also social acceptance 
and improvement of the economy. Social acceptance 
of CCS is related to the possibility of induced seismicity 
and the environmental concerns. RITE provides various 
safety management technologies to reduce the risk of 
CO2 geological storage, increase social acceptability, and 
improve the economy.
CONTACT
Email: 	 co2srg@rite.or.jp
Web: 	
www.rite.or.jp
RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF INNOVATIVE 
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE EARTH
An example of the output from ATLS
Flow diagram of ATLS


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MICROBUBBLE CO2 INJECTION TECHNOLOGY
Microbubble CO2 injection is a technology to generate 
microbubble CO2 by supplying CO2 into a special filter 
and to inject the bubbles into a pore space in formation. 
Using the microbubble technology, we have collaborated 
to improve CO2 storage efficiency with Tokyo Gas.
The features of this technology have the potential to 
maximize the pore space utilization in geological CO2 
storage, use low-permeability formations that have not 
been considered storage formations, and enhance the oil 
recovery rates.
We, in collaboration with JAPEX, conducted a field test to 
examine the level of storage efficiency at their Sarukawa 
oil field in Akita. The selected formation was a 900 m deep 
sand formation, which bears oil. The oil is trapped in the 
formation with little natural flow. We did a Haff and Puff test, 
injecting CO2 and water at a ratio of 9:1 and then pumping 
the formation fluid out.
The results are summarized in the table below. This shows 
that the microbubble CO2 injection technique has the 
potential to improve the efficiency of the CO2 injection, 
CO2 storage, and oil recovery in comparison with the 
conventional methods.
storage complexes, to the sea. Reservoirs are generally 
at the depth of around 1 kilometer or deeper under the 
seabed. According to a simulation conducted previously, 
the amount of time that CO2 migrates from a reservoir to 
the seabed right above would be more than 5 years. As 
the pathway of the CO2 migration would depend on the 
characteristics of the formations between the reservoir 
and the seabed, the CO2 would not necessarily leak into 
the sea in the area right above the reservoir. Taking this 
into consideration, we propose the following strategy for 
monitoring. Initially, we should direct the focus on the deep 
formations including the reservoir to detect signs of CO2 
migration from the reservoir. Then, if detected, we move 
to the in-depth investigation, targeting the overburden, to 
narrow the potential area for CO2 to leak out. Finally, we 
prove a narrowed area to detect the signals of the leaked 
CO2 in the water column.
The leaked CO2 must be in the gaseous phase under the 
temperature and pressure conditions at the seabed of 
the shallow sea to ensure that CO2 should not go out as 
bubbles from the seabed if it gets leaked. Monitoring to 
confirm that there are no bubbles from the seabed can be, 
therefore, an option for leakage monitoring.
Sonar is used extensively to detect bubbles in the sea and 
bubbles of gases such as methane. We have developed a 
methodology to use the side-scan sonar (SSS) technology, 
which is applicable in wide-area scanning to detect CO2 
bubbles. SSS is a tool to produce images of objects in the 
water column and topographic features of the seabed by 
emitting sonic pulses from both sides of the SSS to the 
vertical section perpendicular to the direction of its travel 
and receiving its reflection.  We conducted an experiment 
to test whether the SSS can detect CO2 bubbles released 
on the seabed under various conditions. Our findings 
demonstrate that the SSS is capable of detecting the 
bubbles released at a rate of higher than 2–4 tons per 
annum and that the distance between the neighboring 
observation lines in the monitoring should be shorter than 
the altitude of the SSS, i.e., the distance between SSS and 
the seabed beneath it.
INTO THE SEA
As CO2 storage sites are deliberately selected to store 
CO2 stably and safely, it is considered that CO2 leakage 
from geological reservoirs is remotely possible. However, 
monitoring CO2 behavior is essential as there are public 
concerns regarding CO2 leakage. In addition, when storing 
CO2 in the sub-seabed geological formations in Japan, it 
is mandated to assess the marine environmental impacts 
based on the supposition of the CO2 leakage and to 
monitor and verify that there are no signs of CO2 leakage 
or migration from the reservoir. To identify the signs of 
CO2 leakage, the scope of monitoring should cover an 
extensive range from deep geological formations, including 
System concept of DFOS
An example of formation strain measurement 
Results of the field test
Side-scan sonar used in the experiment 
CO2
CONVENTIONAL
MICROBUBBLE
Injection
5.6t
(0.6t/day x 10 days)
20.0t
(2.0t/day x 10 days)
Collected
2.1t
3.9t
Stored
3.5t
16.1t
Rate of Stored
62%
80%
OPTICAL FIBER SENSING TECHNOLOGY
In geological CO2 storage, it is essential to monitor not only 
the location of CO2 plume but also the area of the pressure 
propagation. There are number of technologies suitable 
for such monitoring, for example, distributed fiber optical 
sensing (DFOS).
The DFOS system is capable of acquiring spatially 
continuous data and has been applied in various 
fields. The DFOS can act as a multi-sensor system to 
capture temperatures, pressures, strains, and vibrations 
simultaneously by installing multiple fibers together. The 
system is potentially considerably cheaper than a case 
where several sensors are installed.
•	
Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS)
•	
Monitoring the CO2 plume in the reservoir by 
using an optic fiber cable as a seismic sensor
•	
Distributed strain sensing (DSS)
•	
Monitoring 
the 
geological 
stability 
of 
the 
reservoirs and cap-rocks by measuring the strain 
in the formations due to the pressure changes 
associated with the CO2 injection
•	
Distributed temperature sensing (DTS)
•	
Capturing the signs of a CO2 leakage by 
monitoring the temperature changes around the 
injection wells and CO2 pipelines 
We have developed the DFOS system over several years 
and now demonstrate it in the fields in Japan and overseas, 
as shown in the figure below.
We have designed a noble optical fiber cable that contains 
multiple fibers filled with a resin substance in a stainless 
steel tube to overcome the installation challenges in the 
deep wells. The sensitivity of the hard steel cable was 
validated with the water injection test at the domestic site.
At the CCS site in North Dakota, USA, we demonstrated 
an integrated monitoring system using DAS, DSS, and DTS 
with the developed optical fiber cable. We monitor the 
integrity of the CO2 pipeline and the injection/observation 
wells continuously to detect any potential damage to the 
apparatus. Furthermore, we monitor the injected CO2 
continuously using the DAS-vertical seismic profiling (VSP) 
system with permanent seismic sources. 
At the pilot test sites in Australia, we are promoting 
demonstration tests of the DFOS system for fault 
monitoring. We monitor the CO2 migration along/across the 
shallow faults and examine the fault stability at the deep 
faults.


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DESCRIPTION
MOSS ECO-X™
Moss Maritime | ECO Drilling Floaters (mossww.com)
The Moss CS-series of semisubmersible catamaran 
platforms is one of the world’s most field-proven and 
successful platform designs for harsh environments, and 
the state-of-the-art ECO-X™ platform represents a quantum 
leap in the direction of more sustainable drilling operations.
The ECO-X™ is built with a focus on energy efficiency, 
reduced emissions, and improved safety, making it an ideal 
platform for drilling carbon storage wells in environmentally 
sensitive areas. The design features a state-of-the-art 
hybrid power system, which combines diesel-electric 
and battery power to reduce fuel consumption and CO2 
emissions. Additionally, the platform is equipped with a 
high-performance drilling system and advanced safety and 
automation systems to ensure efficient and safe drilling 
operations.
The Moss CS has already been successfully utilized for 
well-drilling operations around the globe, demonstrating 
its effectiveness and reliability. Its advanced design and 
capabilities make it an ideal platform for carbon storage 
projects worldwide, helping to mitigate climate change by 
safely and efficiently storing CO2 in geological formations.
DRILLING FLEET
Saipem owns and operates a world-class offshore drilling 
fleet capable of conducting drilling operations in the most 
challenging conditions. The fleet includes several high-
tech and advanced drilling units, including the Moss CS 
semisubmersible catamaran platforms.  
Saipem’s offshore drilling fleet has the latest drilling 
technology, ensuring clients receive safe, efficient 
and reliable drilling services. The fleet is operated by 
experienced and highly skilled crews trained to handle the 
most complex drilling operations.
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Field-proven drilling capability in the harshest and deepest environments
•	
Environmentally sustainable drilling operations with the Moss CS ECO-X™ semi-sub catamaran platform
•	
End-to-end capabilities in CO2 storage projects
•	
Successful track record in both onshore and offshore
MOSS ECO-X™
Saipem is a global leader in the engineering, drilling 
and construction of large projects for the energy and 
infrastructure sectors and provides a full range of net 
zero-oriented services for its clients operating in both the 
energy transition and the offshore and onshore oil & gas 
sectors. Saipem is highly specialized in carbon capture, 
transport, storage and utilization and has a proven track 
record in successful CO2 projects. Saipem’s subsidiary 
Moss Maritime has developed high-tech drilling units such 
as the Moss CS semisubmersible catamaran platforms 
perfectly designed for drilling operations of CO2 injection 
wells. The company’s experience includes successful 
onshore and offshore projects worldwide.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info.offshore.drilling@saipem.com
Web: 	
www.saipem.com
SAIPEM
Saipem Scarabeo 8, a last generation semisubmersible drilling rig
Moss ECO-X™


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DESCRIPTION
CO2 SOLUTIONS BY SAIPEM TECHNOLOGY
CO2 Solutions by Saipem is a cutting-edge technology that 
uses enzymatic carbon capture to capture carbon dioxide 
emissions from industrial processes. The post-combustion 
capture process involves three columns, each with a 
specific role in capturing and separating CO2.
•	
Quench Tower: cools the flue gas, condenses much 
of the water vapour and manages particulates and 
contaminants.
•	
Absorber: captures the CO2 in the solvent at near 
atmospheric pressure.
•	
Desorber: releases the CO2 at high purity and 
regenerates the solvent at low temperature.
Enzymes play a vital role as a catalyst in the CO2 capture 
process. The enzyme used in the process is known as 
carbonic anhydrase, which accelerates the reaction 
between CO2 and water to produce bicarbonate ions. The 
carbonate solvent used in the process is simply water, 
potassium carbonate, and the enzyme. This solvent has 
unique properties that make it ideal for post-combustion 
CO2 capture. One of its most important characteristics is 
its stability under oxidative conditions and in the presence 
of flue gas contaminants, eliminating the production of 
degradation byproducts. Additionally, the non-volatile 
solvent is non-toxic, making it safer to handle and dispose 
of than traditional amine-based solvents.
The St-Félicien first-of-a-kind carbon capture plant in 
Quebec, Canada, tested the CO2 Solutions by Saipem 
technology. It captured over 90% of CO2 emissions 
and confirmed the solvent’s remarkable stability and 
low-temperature 
performance. 
The 
plant 
operated 
effectively under varying process conditions and flue gas 
compositions, thus proving the potential of the technology 
to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
Saipem’s CO2 Solutions technology has potential 
applications in various industries, including power 
generation, cement production, steelmaking and other 
hard-to-abate industries. By integrating with existing 
industrial processes, the technology can capture CO2 
emissions and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Heat 
integration with the host site can eliminate thermal energy 
costs and provide additional economic benefits. While 
further development and improvements are possible, such 
as increasing the scale of the process, the non-toxic and 
non-reactive nature of the enzyme and carbonate system 
used in the process makes significant technological 
improvements challenging. The robustness and resilience 
of the enzyme ensure the process’s stability and efficiency 
over long periods.
BLUENZYME PRODUCTS
Bluenzyme is a revolutionary product line developed by 
Saipem that leverages the enzymatic carbon capture 
technology of CO2 Solutions by Saipem. 
Saipem’s modular design and fabrication expertise makes 
Bluenzyme products a cost-effective and ready-made 
solution for industrial clients. 
The benefits of modular design and fabrication include:
•	
Reduced construction time and costs: modules 
are built off-site in a controlled environment, with 
standardized fabrication processes and stringent 
quality controls, reducing in-situ construction time and 
costs.
•	
Reduced environmental impact: modular construction 
generates less waste and is more energy-efficient than 
traditional stick-built methods.
•	
Flexibility: modular units can be easily integrated within 
existing facilities with a Plug & Play concept.
•	
Improved safety: modular construction reduces the 
need for on-site work and improves safety conditions 
for workers.
Combining the benefits of CO2 Solutions by Saipem 
technology 
with 
modular 
design 
and 
fabrication, 
Bluenzyme modular products offer a sustainable, cost-
effective, and ready-made solution for reducing carbon 
emissions and improving operational efficiency. The 
technology’s unique features, including enzymatic carbon 
capture and a stable, non-toxic and non-volatile carbonate 
solvent, make it a powerful and environmentally friendly 
alternative to traditional carbon capture methods. 
SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
Non-toxic, non-volatile and stable carbonate solvent reducing environmental impact
•	
Solvent regeneration with low-grade residual heat at 80°C significantly reducing or eliminating thermal heat costs and 
providing higher efficiency
•	
Low-complexity process with fewer pieces of equipment, leading to lower CAPEX and OPEX costs and easy operation
•	
Elimination of operational and environmental risks associated with traditional amine-based solvents
•	
More tolerant to SOx and NOx than traditional technologies.
CO2 SOLUTIONS BY SAIPEM
Are you seeking how to reduce your carbon footprint 
with low environmental impact and financial cost? CO2 
Solutions by Saipem technology into Bluenzyme modular 
products is the answer. These solutions use advanced 
enzymatic carbon capture technologies that catch CO2 
emissions from industrial processes, making them more 
efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly than 
traditional methods. With a stable, non-toxic carbonate 
solvent and enzymes as a catalyst, CO2 Solutions by 
Saipem technology eliminates many risks associated 
with traditional carbon capture. Moreover, with Saipem’s 
modular design and fabrication expertise, Bluenzyme 
ready-made products are cost-effective and sustainable. 
Enable your energy transition today with CO2 Solutions by 
Saipem technology and Bluenzyme modular products.
CONTACT
Email: 	 info@CO2solutions.com
Web: 	
www.saipem.com/en/solutions/renewables/carbon-capture
SAIPEM
BLUENZYME PRODUCTS:
•	
Modular design for various industrial applications, including oil and gas, petrochemicals, power production and hard-
to-abate sectors
•	
Utilization of CO2 Solutions by Saipemw technology for efficient and sustainable carbon capture
•	
Reduced construction time and costs through modular fabrication
•	
Improved quality control and safety with standardized processes


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Figure 2 – Bluenzyme products: Modular approach for quick execution
Figure 4 – Seamless Installation: The Bluenzyme modular unit – swift to deploy, exceptionally efficient, and environmentally 
sustainable.
Figure 3 – Streamlined Efficiency: Bluenzyme 200, fully operational 18 months after order, features a 35m X 40m footprint inclusive of 
storage and E&I modules
Figure 1 – Industrially-proven CO2 Solutions by SAIPEM technology


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SUMMARY
BENEFITS
•	
CO2 reporting and accounting. Flow metering will become necessary for fiscal purposes, custody transfer and 
compliance with future regulatory measurements. SICK provides solid experience from thousands of custody transfer 
applications with natural gas. This experience can be transferred for each step of the CCUS value chain to ensure 
accurate flow measurement and precise reporting. 
•	
Process efficiency. Carbon capture processes require a high degree of efficiency to improve their economic and 
environmental attractiveness. The measurement of CO2 content and the remaining components after the capture 
process is essential for control and optimization purposes. SICK has more than 10 years of experience with pilot 
installations.
•	
Quality control. Regardless of the destination of the captured CO2 (storage or utilization), it is important to control the 
quality of the gas and possible impurities that can have a negative influence on the later steps of the CCUS network 
and ensure protection of the environment.
•	
SICK LifeTime Services. SICK LifeTime Services is a comprehensive set of high-quality services provided to support 
the entire life cycle of products and applications from plant walk-through to upgrades. LifeTime Services range from 
product-independent consulting to traditional product services.
GAS ANALYSIS AND FLOW METERING FOR CCUS
CONTACT
Email: 	 Aurelie.Moll@sick.de
Web: 	
www.sick.com
SICK
From factory automation to logistics automation and 
process automation – SICK drives industries with sensors. 
As a technology and market leader, SICK provides sensors 
and application solutions that create the perfect basis for 
controlling processes securely and efficiently, protecting 
individuals from accidents, and preventing damage to the 
environment.
Founded in 1946 by Dr.-Ing. h. c. Erwin Sick, the company 
with headquarters in Waldkirch, Germany ranks among 
the technological market leaders. With more than 50 
subsidiaries and equity investments as well as numerous 
agencies, SICK maintains a presence all around the 
globe. In the 2022 fiscal year, SICK had more than 11,900 
employees worldwide and a group revenue of around EUR 
2.2 billion.
Sensor Intelligence. For all requirements.
When movement becomes collaboration, when industrial 
systems have to be flexible, and when clean solutions are 
the key, then customer can certainly benefit from SICK’s 
many years of experience. As an innovation leader and 
pioneer in the development of groundbreaking sensor 
technology, we offer solutions that are already up to the 
challenges of the future today. With intelligent sensor 
technology that collects data and evaluates it in real 
time, adapts to its environment and communicates in the 
network.
Process Automation
SICK’s Process Automation division offers sensors 
and tailored system solutions as well as services for 
analysis and process measurement technology. When 
measuring emissions, they monitor the legally prescribed 
gas components, accurately record dust and particle 
emissions and measure volume throughput. The ultrasonic 
technology by SICK is one of the leaders in the precise 
flow measurement of natural gas in the pipeline distribution 
network as well as for process gases and steam. SICK’s 
measurement technology solutions make a valuable 
contribution to resource-saving plant control in the primary 
industries.
Sensor solutions for CCUS
SICK already has solutions to support the complete CCUS 
value chain, when it comes to continuous gas analysis or 
CO2 flow metering. 
SICK creates innovations for a sustainable future!
We create completely new solutions in co-creation with our partners. Taking years of experiences from emission 
monitoring and gas flow measurement to overcome the challenges of precise and continuous monitoring and 
control of CO2 value streams.


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Reliable turnkey solution for CO2 metering
The FLOWSKID flow metering system is a full gas flow 
metering system. It is provided by SICK as a turnkey 
solution for transfer applications. The system is flexible 
in design and provides highly accurate measurement 
data. With FLOWSIC600 or FLOWSIC600-XT gas flow 
meters as the heart of the metering skid, system reliability 
can be assured. The metering skid can be customized 
with 
instrumentation 
including 
gas 
analysers, 
gas 
chromatographs, and supervisory computers – system 
solutions made by SICK! It is manufactured according to 
ISO standards and is of the highest quality in line with the 
latest DIN, ANSI, and ASME standards. This means the 
system will fulfil local regulations and requirements. 
Space and protection for measurement and analysis 
technology
Container solutions are primarily used to protect the 
installed 
analyser 
systems 
from 
extreme 
ambient 
conditions such as heat, cold, dust, wind, earthquakes 
and corrosive or explosive atmospheres. They also offer 
advantages for transport as well as on-site installation and 
maintenance. At the factory, everything is coordinated 
and pre-installed in the container in a clear manner. Each 
container can be equipped to fit individual customer 
requirements. The installation of transformers and UPS, 
extinguishing, climate and gas warning systems is possible, 
as is the implementation of sample point switching or 
complex redundancy and signal concepts.
DESCRIPTION
Continuous gas analysers for quality measurement and 
reporting
Carbon capture processes produce a highly concentrated 
gas with more than 90% CO2 by volume. On the other hand, 
there are the low carbon emissions to the environment, 
which have to be reported for taxation purposes. The gas 
mixtures contain other components that can be considered 
impurities, and which can be corrosive, and either have an 
influence on downstream process steps or are harmful to 
the environment.
To control and optimize the efficiency of processes and 
emissions along the CCUS value chain, SICK continuous 
gas analysers accurately measure the concentrations in 
CO2 and other components in the gas mixture. Together 
with SICK’s precise gas flow measurement, a true mass 
flow output is also available. Such measurements are 
essential prior to transportation, storage or utilization of 
CO2. 
Depending on the application, SICK can offer different 
measuring technologies, including: 
•	
In-situ gas analysers accurately measuring CO2 
directly in the gas flow without gas sampling. The 
reliability, precision and short response time offer key 
advantages for efficient process control.
•	
Extractive analysers from SICK ensure continuous 
monitoring of multiple components simultaneously 
such as CO2, H2O, HCl, SO2, CO, NOx, NH3 and 
O2 with high accuracy to control and optimize the 
CCUS processes.  The most suitable analyser can be 
selected depending on the application, the measuring 
conditions, and the requested measuring parameters.
Gas flow measurement for transfer and process 
applications
Carbon dioxide can be captured from different emission 
sources and then collected and transported via pipelines 
or ships for further handling steps such as storage or 
utilization. Gas flow measurements are necessary at each 
transfer point to control the quantity of captured CO2 or the 
volume stored or transferred. 
Accurate gas metering allows for precise accounting to 
companies or calculation of CO2 taxes and credits based 
on regulations. With our experience in custody transfer 
applications for natural gas which can be easily transferred 
to CO2 and our highly reliable ultrasonic gas flow meters, 
SICK provides the precise data required to operate the 
CCUS value chain. The FLOWSIC600/-XT gas flow meters 
deliver optimal measurement performance and provide 
the highest rated gas metering accuracy. Thanks to 
PowerIn Technology™, the FLOWSIC600-XT also ensures 
that measurements continue to be taken and data is 
stored even in the event of a power failure. The rugged 
design provides both the fault-free and maintenance free 
systems. Due to the direct path layout, the signals are not 
reflected inside the device and are thus not affected by 
contamination. This results in long-term system stability 
and accuracy.


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SUMMARY
NAME OF TECHNOLOGY SERVICE PROVIDER
CONTACT
Email: 	 ccus@slb.com
Web: 	
www.ccus.slb.com
SLB
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a critical component 
of advancing decarbonization and achieving the Paris 
Agreement’s climate change goals. As a technology 
leader in CCS and in the development of decarbonization 
and alternative energy solutions, SLB is actively 
progressing CCS technologies and business models to 
enable widespread adoption of CCS. 
What SLB brings to achieve these goals is more than 
90 years of experience in characterizing and modelling 
underground rock formations and in designing and 
constructing wells. SLB’s acquisition of Cameron in 2016 
added a rich legacy in gas processing and pressure control 
equipment. For decades, we have been deploying digital 
tools and sophisticated sensors to improve operations, 
minimize risk, and monitor assets, including the use of 
automation, artificial intelligence, and comprehensive data 
management.
We applied this know-how to become an early technology 
leader in carbon capture for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 
applications. Thirty-five years ago, we helped build the 
world’s first commercial CO2 plant at the SACROC Field in 
West Texas. 
For over two decades, SLB has participated in more than 
120 CCS projects around the globe, in different geological 
contexts and for various industry sectors. This hands-on 
experience, combined with our technology leadership, 
gives us unique insights into the varied complexities 
posed by CO2 sequestration. In order to overcome these 
challenges, we have united the diverse disciplines of 
geoscience and engineering to develop innovative, 
integrated end-to-end processes that enable us to deliver 
sequestration projects anywhere in the world. 
SLB has explored creating strategic partnerships with 
emitters to assess, develop, and operate projects spanning 
the entire CCS value chain, from capture to storage. 
The scope of collaboration goes beyond subsurface 
requirements and includes project economics, technology 
selection, business models, and permitting for a CCS 
project. By partnering with leaders in a range of strategic 
sectors, we are demonstrating viable and scalable CCS 
solutions across a wide range of industries. For example, 
we are exploring with Lafarge Holcim the feasibility of 
capturing carbon emissions from cement plants. 
In addition to our deep expertise, technological leadership, 
and experience in creating viable CCS solutions, SLB is 
uniquely positioned to help scale up the manufacturing 
of CCS technologies. We are leveraging our more than 
80 technology centres and extensive manufacturing 
capabilities around the world to industrialize and deploy 
CCS technologies globally. 
SLB is developing, adapting, and applying innovative 
technologies in scalable business models to provide 
our customers and partners with economically viable 
solutions across the CCS value chain. In this “State of the 
Art: CCS Technologies 2023” report, we highlight some of 
the advanced technologies in our portfolio that significantly 
support the CCS industry today, organized into three 
sections:
•	
Capture, Gas Processing, and Transport
•	
Storage Selection, Design, and Construction
•	
Storage Monitoring, Verification, and Reporting.
CAPTURE, GAS PROCESSING, AND TRANSPORT
Highlighted Technologies and Services in our Portfolio
Capture and gas processing technologies
•	
Symmetry process software platform, available in our 
DELFI cognitive E&P environment
•	
CYNARA acid gas removal membrane system
•	
Amine gas treating systems
•	
SULFATREAT H2S removal adsorbent
•	
Process Live data-enriched performance service
Transport technologies
•	
OLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator, available in 
our DELFI environment 
•	
Horizontal pumping systems for pressure boosting 
during transport
•	
Low-emission valves
Our Symmetry process software platform enables the 
design and simulation of CO2 capture process workflows 
in one environment that integrates pipelines, capture and 
compression facilities, and safety models while ensuring 
consistent thermodynamics and fluid characterization 
across the full system. The use of the Symmetry platform 
in several CCS projects in Canada was key in rightsizing 
the process design and accurately modelling the phase 
envelope and control system integration. For each 
project, the Symmetry platform identified operational 
improvements 
and 
minimized 
health, 
safety, 
and 
environment (HSE) risks.
The choice of capture technology depends on the purity of 
the CO2 stream and whether capture is pre-, post-, or oxy-
combustion. Comprehensive evaluation of these options in 
the Symmetry platform can achieve the optimum system in 
terms of both technical and economic feasibility.
Once CO2 is captured, a variety of treatment technologies 
may be needed. SLB offers both membrane systems and 
amine gas treatment systems in a range of designs and 
sizes to meet specific project requirements. The CYNARA 
acid gas removal membrane system works to separate 
CO2 and H2S from natural gas via preferential permeation 
of the smaller acid gas molecules. The separated CO2 can 
be transported and sequestered at a selected storage site.
Monitoring valves and gas membrane systems with 
Process Live data-enriched performance service provides 
real-time status reports of performance and automates 
event detection. These insights mitigate the risk of 
downtime and reduce inventory costs. Using Process Live 
service, we currently are providing uptime assurance and 
treatment optimization of 4.92 Mtpa CO2.
The OLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator models 
and simulates the transportation of CO2 from capture to 
injection. This enables a comprehensive understanding of 
optimal operating conditions to ensure that CO2 remains in 
phase.
When transporting CO2 between facilities, horizontal 
pumping systems provide the necessary pressure boost 
to maintain it in a fluid state. SLB has more than 15 years 
of experience with a wide variety of CO2 transport 
operations. We understand how the selection of 
appropriate seals, valves, production chemicals, and 
maintenance schedules plays a critical role in equipment 
longevity and operational safety.
To date, SLB has installed thousands of industrial valves 
in various CO2 and gas processing applications. In 
addition to enabling remote operation, these low-emission 
valves incorporate custom seals that reinforce their 
operational integrity. Some of the valves in this portfolio are 
manufactured to minimize leaks across the life of the valve.
To reduce maintenance downtime, our production 
chemistry technologies address specific problems of 
corrosion and hydrate formation.
STORAGE SELECTION, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION
SLB has developed a wide range of risk assessment 
methods for screening geological formations and for 
identifying the most suitable site by conducting site 
characterization assessments. This in-depth assessment 
and evaluation of key criteria (such as storage capacity, 
injectivity, and containment) enables our customers to 
minimize cost while ensuring secure long-term CO2 
storage. 


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Integral to our involvement in CCS projects is our more 
than 35 years of petrotechnical software development 
experience paired with deep domain knowledge. End-
to-end digital technologies harness this experience and 
expertise to drive workflows that screen, rank, design, 
model, simulate, and analyse every phase of the CCS 
project’s life cycle.
By conducting the workflows within the DELFI cognitive 
exploration and production (E&P) environment, we leverage 
artificial intelligence and machine learning. For example, 
the interpretation workflows used to build a model of a 
storage site benefits from a 10× to 20× acceleration in 
workflow time by employing machine learning. Reservoir 
simulations benefit from high performance computing 
capabilities that reduce simulation time so that the 
engineers can focus on analysing results and exploring 
the full uncertainty space. The DELFI environment was 
recently selected by the Northern Lights joint venture 
between Equinor, Shell, and TotalEnergies to streamline 
subsurface workflows and longer-term modelling and 
surveillance of CO2 sequestration.
Once the storage site has been selected and the project 
commissioned, we leverage our decades of expertise 
in well construction to optimize construction operations, 
including the selection and installation of monitoring 
methods. 
Well integrity has been identified as the biggest risk 
contributing to leakage of CO2 from underground carbon 
storage sites. EverCRETE CO2-resistant cement system 
enables more efficient and secure underground storage 
compared with ordinary Portland cement. Whereas 
ordinary Portland cement is not resistant to CO2 fluids and 
can degrade in a few weeks or less, the reaction between 
CO2 fluids and the EverCRETE system results in a stable 
structure after two weeks, and mechanical and chemical 
properties are no longer affected.
SLB designs and manufactures specialized wellheads, 
seals, and gate valves for achieving permanent 
underground sequestration of CO2. Our corrosion-
resistant equipment is constructed with a customized 
coating to withstand aggressive environments under any 
temperature conditions. The metal and elastomer seals 
used in these wellhead systems are proved to endure 
demanding 
pressures, 
temperatures, 
and 
corrosive 
environments.
STORAGE MONITORING, VERIFICATION, AND 
REPORTING
Securing CO2 storage and containment over long periods 
of time requires properly monitoring the CO2 plume and 
integrity of the wells. A cost-effective combination of 
sensors and monitoring protocols can deliver optimum 
performance control and risk management in compliance 
with regulatory requirements.
Monitoring strategy design must address
•	
what is to be monitored 
•	
what are the property variations
•	
how will those variations occur
For a monitoring strategy to meet its objectives in terms 
of assurance, verification, and cost optimization, a holistic 
solution design and modelling workflow is required. 
Critical to the success of the monitoring strategy design 
is the incorporation of dynamic geomechanical modelling, 
such as using our ECLIPSE, INTERSECT, and VISAGE 
simulators, for predicting subsurface behaviour and 
identifying the key parameters and their uncertainties. 
This informs the design and planning of appropriate 
geophysical measurements. A successful monitoring 
strategy is able to history match the dynamic modelling 
against field observation to identify anomalies and 
update the subsurface model, monitoring strategy, and 
risk model accordingly in real time.
Updating models requires timely measurements, for which 
a primary objective is to minimize data acquisition time and 
effort without adversely affecting interpretation quality. 
Our versatile and highly sensitive distributed fibre-optic 
sensing technology plays a significant role in achieving 
this balance by providing continuous data in both time 
and space. Optiq fiber-optic solutions bring multidomain 
distributed sensing capabilities to CCS projects for 
significant 
efficiency 
improvements 
in 
time-lapse 
reservoir monitoring through permanent fibre installation 
or temporarily deployed fibre wireline cables.
In a 2016 project with the US Department of Energy and 
Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM), we installed 
modular intelligent completion equipment and Optiq 
solutions to enable real-time monitoring and control of the 
subsurface storage. Together, we captured from ADM’s 
ethanol facility more than 2.5 Mt CO2 over a period of three 
years.  
Highlighted Technologies and Services in our Portfolio
Site selection and design digital tools, available in our 
DELFI cognitive E&P environment 
•	
OLGA dynamic multiphase flow simulator 
•	
Petrel E&P software platform
•	
ECLIPSE industry reference reservoir simulator
•	
INTERSECT high-resolution reservoir simulator
•	
VISAGE finite-element geomechanics simulator
•	
Symmetry process software platform, available in our 
DELFI environment
Formation evaluation technologies 
•	
Litho Scanner high-definition spectroscopy and 
laboratory 
services 
for 
X-ray 
diffraction, 
X-ray 
fluorescence, 
and 
Fourier 
transform 
infrared 
spectroscopy
•	
MR Scanner expert magnetic resonance and CMR-
MagniPHI high-definition NMR service; triple-combo 
measurements for porosity, permeability, and capillary 
pressure; and laboratory services for routine and 
special core analysis, tight rock analysis, and mercury-
injection capillary pressure measurement
•	
FMI-HD high-definition formation microimager, Quanta 
Geo photorealistic reservoir geology service, and 
laboratory services for whole core description, core 
fracture description, and goniometry
•	
Sonic Scanner acoustic scanning platform, MDT 
modular formation dynamics tester minifrac, XL-
Rock large-volume rotary sidewall coring service, 
and laboratory services for unconfined compressive 
strength, triaxial stress testing, and pore volume 
compressibility
•	
MDT modular formation dynamics tester, Ora intelligent 
wireline formation testing platform, and laboratory 
services for water analysis
•	
PressureXpress 
reservoir 
pressure-while-logging 
service
•	
CoreFlow digital rock and fluid analytics services
•	
High-resolution well testing services
Well construction technologies
•	
DrillPlan coherent well construction planning solution
•	
EverCRETE CO2-resistant cement system
•	
Wellhead equipment: compact wellheads, monoblock 
Christmas trees, coated FLS extreme-service API 6A 
slab-style gate valves, elastomer seals, metal-to-metal 
seals, MRD recessed-bore metal-to-metal seals
Well integrity technologies
•	
Wellbarrier well integrity life cycle solution
•	
Isolation Scanner cement evaluation service
•	
PS Platform production services platform multifinger 
imaging tool (PMIT)
•	
Slim cement mapping tool (SCMT)
•	
UCI ultrasonic casing imager, USI ultrasonic imager, 
and PowerEcho and PowerFlex annular barrier 
evaluation services
•	
EM Pipe Scanner electromagnetic casing inspection 
tool
Monitoring, verification and reporting technologies
•	
Optiq SLB fiber-optic solutions
•	
Pulsar multifunction pulsed neutron service and CHFR 
cased hole formation resistivity tool
•	
Optiq StreamLINE polymer-locked fiber-optic wireline 
conveyance
•	
Permanent gauges and pressure falloff (PFO) testing
•	
Isolation Scanner cement evaluation service and UCI 
ultrasonic casing imager
SLB as a Partner
Your company does not have to embark on its CCUS 
journey alone. SLB is a global technology company with 
the reach and resources to support your company’s CCUS 
initiatives. Whether you require assistance evaluating 
the feasibility of your assets for carbon storage, services 
for CCUS well design, engineering and construction,or 
discrete CCUS technologies for your CCUS well 
construction, monitoring, measurement, or verification 
requirements,SLB has the technologies and services your 
CCUS project requires.
CHFR, CMR-MagniPHI, CoreFlow, CYNARA, DELFI, DrillPlan, 
ECLIPSE, EM Pipe Scanner, EverCRETE, FLS, FMI-HD, INTERSECT, 
Isolation Scanner, Litho Scanner, MDT, MRD, MR Scanner, OLGA, 
Optiq, Optiq Seismic, Optiq StreamLINE, Ora, Petrel, PowerEcho, 
PowerFlex, PressureXpress, Process Live, PS Platform, Pulsar, 
Quanta Geo, Sonic Scanner, Symmetry, SULFATREAT, UCI, USI, 
VISAGE, Wellbarrier, WellWatcher PS3, and XL-Rock are marks of 
SLB or a SLB company. 
Illustration of the Northern Lights CCS project (Courtesy of 
Equinor)
ADM Overhead View


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